FIRE  PREVENTION 


AND 


PROTECTION 


A  COMPILATION  OF   INSURANCE   REGULATIONS   COVER 

ING     MODERN    RESTRICTIONS    ON    HAZARDS    AND 

SUGGESTED     IMPROVEMENTS     IN     BUILDING 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  FIRE   PREVENTION 

AND     EXTINGUISHMENT 


THIRD  EDITION 

COMPLETELY  REVISED  BY 

A.  C.  HUTSON,  C.  E. 
FIRE  PROTECTION  ENGINEER 


1916 
THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  OFFICE:  135  WILLIAM  STREET 

INSURANCE  EXCHANGE.  NEW  YORK. 


HO   M 
Ml     «!M:«M5IVQ>i*n/J 


. 

Copyright,   1916,  by 

THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY, 
New  York. 


PREFACE 


In  the  preparation  of  this  book  it  has  been  the  aim  of 
its  publishers  to  place  before  merchants,  manufacturers 
and  underwriters,  as  succinctly  and  .conveniently  as  pos- 
sible, the  knowledge  necessary  to  the  most  thorough  pro- 
tection from  fire  and  its  consequent  danger,  trouble  and 
loss ;  in  addition  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  of  great  value 
to  fire  departments,  as  in  no  other  book  are  the  various 
protective  features  to  be  found  so  completely  set  forth. 
There  are  many  methods  by  which  the  physical  hazard  of 
mercantile  and  manufacturing  establishments  may  be  so 
improved  as  to  materially  lessen  the  liability  to  fire,  and 
also  to  command  considerable  reductions  in  premium  rates 
for  insurance.  The  latter  consideration  will  appeal  strongly 
to  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  exercising  the  utmost 
care  in  the  preservation  of  their  property  in  ordinary  ways, 
but  who  would  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense  necessary  to 
the  fullest  protection  without  the  practical  recognition  of 
their  effort  and  outlay  in  the  form  of  a  lessened  expense 
for  premiums. 

The  plan  of  this  work  includes  the  presentation  of  refer- 
ences to  the  various  materials  and  devices  which  have  been 
found  useful  in  preventing  or  extinguishing  fires,  accom- 
panied by  such  information  as  will  enable  a  property  owner 
to  be  guided  in  the  use  of  approved  appliances  and  mate- 
rials. It  covers  all  suggested  regulations  of  the  National 
Hoard  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  its  allied  organizations, 
concerning  the  matters  treated  in  this  book. 

Embodied  in  this  work  will  be  found  a  considerable 
amount  of  miscellaneous  information,  all  tending  to  give  a 
clearer  understanding  of  matters  connected  with  the  pre- 
vention and  extinguishment  of  fire. 

3G5555 


iv  PREFACE 

Little  of  the  text  of  this  book  can  be  claimed  as  being 
strictly  original,  as  the  subjects  treated  have  received  ex- 
acting study  by  the  various  organizations  from  whose 
reports  and  regulations  they  have  been  compiled.  In  par- 
ticular, credit  is  given  to  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  for  the  use  of  authoritative  cuts  and  per- 
mission to  reprint  various  articles  and  regulations,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  copyrighted  pamphlet  on  Fire 
Engine  Tests  and  Fire  Stream  Tables,  and  the  suggestions 
contained  in  the  Building  Code. 

In  the  hope  that  its  contents  will  assist  in  producing  a 
reduction  of  the  annual  fire  loss,  thereby  benefiting  both 
those  who  buy  and  those  who  sell  insurance,  this  book  is 
respectfully  submitted  to  the  public. 

THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY. 

New  York,  September  i,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION.    Work  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters,  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  and  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association,  with  index  of  regulations  issued  and 
appliances  listed,  1-12. 
Hints  to  the  Insured,  13-18. 

HAZARDS 

GENERAL  INFORMATION  RELATING  TO  EXPLOSIVES  AND  OTHER  DAN- 
GEROUS ARTICLES.     As  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  of 
'   the  American  Railway  Association. 
Explosives,  19-22. 

Dangerous  Articles  Other  than  Explosives,  23-47. 
MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS. 
Furnaces,  48-61. 
Drying  and  Driers,  62-74. 
Kettles,  74-78. 
Miscellaneous,  78-96. 
PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS.     As  compiled  by  the 

Chicago  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  97-109. 
ELECTRICITY,  110-111. 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PROTECTION  AGAINST  LIGHTNING.    As  issued  by  the 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  112. 
General  suggestions  applying  to  all  structures,  113. 
Tall  chimneys,  stacks,  steeples  and  similar  structures,  115. 
Structures  other  than  chimneys,  stacks,  etc.,  115. 
PYROXYLIN  PLASTIC  OR  NITRO-CELLULOSE. 
General,  117-120. 
Storage  of  films,  121-123. 
Handling  of  films,  123-124. 
Motion  picture  machines  and  theatres,  124-128. 
STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS. 
General,  129-136. 

Use,  handling  and  storage,  136-146. 
Garages,  146-148 
Dry  Cleaning,  149 
Installation  of  dip  tanks,  157. 

Installation  and  use  of  internal  combustion  engines  and  oil  burning 
equipment  other  than  for  household  use;  including  the  regula- 
tions of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  suggested 
changes  adopted  by  the  Railway  Fire  Protection  Associa- 
tion, 159-174. 

Oil  conveyors  or  carriers,  175. 

Fuel  oil  apparatus  for  cooking  and  heating,  for  household  use,  175. 
Safety  cans,  177. 
Oil  lighting  systems,  179. 


vi  CONTENTS 

GASES  AND  VAPORS. 

General,  181-184. 

Acetylene  apparatus,  185-190. 

Coal  gas  producer,  191. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION  OF  LAUNDRIES,  195-197. 
EXPLOSIBILITY  OF  GRAIN  DUST,  198-203. 
.BLOWER  SYSTEMS,  204-210. 
EXPLOSIVES. 

Handling  and  storage,  2 1 1-2 14. 
CHEMICAL  FIRE  AND  EXPLOSION  RISKS,  215-218 
SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION,  219-225. 


CONSTRUCTION 

PLANNING,  226.  i  -..,XiJLT/  : 

DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION,  228. 

EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  ALL  FORMS  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL,  239-257; 
COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  ALL  FORMS  OF  CONSTRUCTION,  258-269. 
GYPSUM  AS  A  FIREPROOFING  MATERIAL,  270-274. 
STUCCO  ON  METAL  LATH,  274-278 
ASBESTOS,  279-287. 
REINFORCED  CONCRETE,  288-292. 

NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE,  293-349. 

Definitions;  classification  of  buildings;  walls;  heights  and  areas; 
allowable  loads;  working  stresses;  ordinary  timber  construction; 
roofs  and  roof  structures;  protection  of  vertical  openings;  mis- 
cellaneous construction  requirements;  fireproof  construction  and 
fireproofing;  reinforced  concrete  construction;  reinforced  concrete 
for  fireproofing;  chimneys,  .flues  and  heating  apparatus;  frame 
buildings. 

MILL  CONSTRUCTION,  350-362. 

Including  semi-mill  construction  and  composite  construction — 
steel  and  plank. 

ROOF  COVERINGS.     As  defined  and  graded  by  the  Underwriters  Labo- 
ratories, 362.       p<vf 
PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS,  367. 

Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  on  tin  clad 

doors,  solid  steel  doors,  rolling  steel  doors,  hollow  metal  fire  door, 

protection   to   openings   in   enclosures,   vertical   communications, 

protection  to  openings  in  partitions,  367-403. 

Protection  to  openings  in  exterior  walls,  subject  to  severe  exposure 

and  to  moderate  exposure,  404-411. 

Regulations  for  the  construction  of  fire  windows,  412-421. 
Prism  glass  frames  used  as  a  fire  retardant,  422. 
Skylight  and  other  roof  structures,  423-433. 
THE   PROTECTION  OF   MAIN   BELT   DRIVES   WITH   FIRE   RETARDANT 

PARTITIONS,  433-441. 
WOODEN  BEAMS  AND  COLUMNS,  442-457. 
SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  VAULTS,  458-462. 


CONTENTS  vii 

PROTECTION 
PROTECTION  TO  PERSONS  IN  BUILDINGS,  463. 

Means  of  egress  as  defined  by  the  National  Board  Building  Code,  465- 

483 
SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS,  484-512. 

Including  regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
for  central  stations,  manual  fire  alarm  systems,  automatic  fire 
alarm  systems  and  thermostats,  automatic  journal  alarms,  watch- 
man's time  recording  apparatus,  automatic  sprinkler  alarm  and 
supervisory  systems,  fire  alarm  signal  systems  to  supplement 
factory  fire  drills. 

THE  DESIRABILITY  OF  HIGH  PRESSURE  FIRE  SYSTEMS,  513-517. 
MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS,  518-529. 

Fire  pails,  hand  pumps  and  chemical  extinguishers. 
STANDPIPES  IN  BUILDINGS,  530-534. 
AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS,  535-597. 

Including  the  Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers. 
FIRE  PUMPS,  598-617. 

Rotary,   duplex  and  centrifugal  fire  pumps,   tests  for  acceptance, 

electrical  driving  and  control  of  fire  pumps. 
GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS,  618-648. 
CONCRETE  RESERVOIRS,  649-658. 
VALVE  PITS,  659. 
CONCRETE  TANKS,  660. . 
HOSE  HOUSES  FOR  MILL  YARDS,  661-670. 
WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FIRE  PROTECTION,  671-676. 

Fire  flow  tests  as  made  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, 672. 
TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES,  677-727. 

Including  an  authorized  reproduction  of  the  copyrighted  pamphlet 
on   Fire   Engine   Test   and   Fire    Stream   Tables,    issued   by   the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 
INSPECTION  REPORTS,  728-739. 
TABLES,  739-745. 
APPENDIX,  747. 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION 

Chief  Fire  Causes.— Fire  insurance  companies  have  realized  for 
many  years  that  most  of  the  fires  are  caused  by  improperly  in- 
stalled appliances  or  wrongful  use  of  materials,  and  that  the 
seriousness  of  fires  is  often  due  to  faulty  construction,  which  per- 
mits an  early  collapse  of  a  building  or  the  rapid  spread  from  one 
floor  to  another  or  to  adjoining  buildings. 

Fire  Prevention  a  Duty. — Primarily  it  is  the  duty  of  the  indi- 
vidual or  the  State  to  provide  the  regulations  necessary  to  prevent 
such  occurrences  and  only  the  business  of  the  insurance  company 
to  indemnify  the  owner,  and  to  charge  a  sufficiently  high  premium 
for  each  class  of  business  to  cover  the  loss  and  pay  a  moderate 
return  on  the  company's  capital. 

Even  in  the  early  days  of  fire  insurance  the  companies  realized 
that  to  reduce  the  gamble,  by  reducing  the  probability  of  fires,  a 
greater  net  profit  would  be  obtained  during  a  long  period  of  time. 
The  companies  have  for  years,  in  line  with  this  policy,  maintained 
men  who  made  a  special  study  of  prevention  of  fires  and  who  would 
give  advice  to  prospective  customers. 

Confusing  Advice. — With  the  expanding  of  American  indus- 
tries, plants  became  too  large  for  one  or  two  companies  to  under- 
write the  entire  risk  involved,  and  other  companies  would  be  called 
upon  to  take  their  share.  This  resulted  in  each  company  advising 
the  owners  as  to  the  best  means  of  protection  and  prevention, 
with  great  confusion  when  attempts  were  made  to  carry  out  the 
various  requirements,  as  each  engineer  had  his  own  idea  as  to 
what  was  best. 

Organized  Effort. — To  offset  this,  various  committees  of  inter- 
ested insurance  officers  have  been  organized  from  time  to  time  to 
formulate  suggestions  and  regulations;  at  the  present  time,  as  a 
result  of  this,  two  organizations  are  in  existence  primarily  for 
this  purpose.  One  of  those  is  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers and  the  other  is  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. — The  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  is  an  organization  of  practically  all  of  the 
stock  fire  insurance  companies ;  it  operates  through  committees, 
on  which  are  executive  officers  of  the  company  members,  and  has 
an  office,  under  the  supervision  of  a  general  manager,  'at  76  William 
Street,  New  York.  Of  the  various  committees,  the  following  are 
the  more  important:  The  Committee  on  Fire  Prevention,  which, 


2  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

through  a  corps  of  trained  engineers,  investigates  and  reports  on 
the  general  features  of  fire  protection  and  conflagration  hazard  of 
cities ;  the  Committee  on  Laws,  which  keeps  the  companies  informed 
of  legislatipn  affecting  them,  and  through  publicity  strives  to  pre- 
vent unfair  requirements  being  enacted ;  the  Committee  on  Build- 
ing Construction,  under  whose  guidance  a  model  building  code 
has  been  drawn  up  and  efforts  made  to-  get  the  various  cities  to 
adopt  it;  the  Acturial  Committee,  which  has  recently  started  a 
compilation  of  all  fire  losses  in  the  United  States,  and  the  Com- 
mittee on  Lighting,  Heating  and  Patents,  which  supervises  the 
issuing  of  suggested  regulations  covering  various  appliances  and 
features  of  construction. 

Regulations  Issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters-. 

Acetylene  Gas  Machines  and.  Oxy-Acetylene  Heating  and  Welding. 

Blower  Systems. 

Cans— Waste  and  Ash.     (Out  of  print.) 

Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers.     (Out  of  print.) 

Coal  Gas  Producers.     (See  Internal  Combustion  Engines.) 

Code — Building. 

Code — Electrical. 

Code — Electrical  Fittings. 

Containers  for  Hazardous  Liquids. 

Dip  Tanks. 

Doors,  Fire.     (See  Protection  of  Openings.) 

Fire  Alarm  Systems — Municipal. 

Fire  Brigades — Private. 

Fire  Doors.     (See  Protection  of  .Openings.) 

Fire  Pails.     (Out  of  print.) 

Fuel  Oil — Storage  and  Handling. 

Gasolene  Stoves.     (Out  of  print.) 

Gasolene  Vapor  Gas  Lighting  Machines. 

Qas  Shut-off  Valves. 

Grain  Dryers.     (Out  of  print.) 

Hose  Couplings  and  Hydrant  Fittings. 

Hose  Houses  for  Mill  Yard  Use. 

Hose — Unlined  Linen.     Out  of  print. 

Hydrants — Mill  Yard.     (Being  revised.) 

Internal  Combustion  Engines  and  Coal  Gas;  Producers. 

Kerosene  Oil  Pressure  System.     (Out  of  print.) 

Lightning — Protection  Against. 

Mill  Construction.     (Out  of  print.) 

NOTE,— Regulations  dealing  with  the  construction  of  appliances  are  no 
longer  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  but  can  be 
obtained  by  interested  manufacturers  from  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories. 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION  3 

Motion  Picture  Films — Storage  and  Handling. 

Oil  Rooms.     (Out  of  print.) 

Oxy- Acetylene.     (See  Acetylene  Gas  Machines.) 

Protection  of   Openings  in  Walls  and  Partitions. 

Pumps — Centrifugal — Rotary — Electric. 

Pumps — Steam.  \ 

Pumps — Steam  Governors. 

Railway  Car  Storage. 

Signaling  Systems.     (Being  revised.) 

Skylights. 

Sprinkler  Equipments. 

Tanks — Gravity  and  Pressure. 

Valves  and  Indicator  Posts. 

Vaults. 

Walls  and  Partitions — Protection  of  Openings  in. 

Windows — Fire.     (See  Protection  of  Openings.) 

Wired  Glass.     (Out  of  print — See  Protection  of  Openings.) 

List  of  Suggested  State  Laws  and  City  Ordinances 
issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

For  use  by  State  and  City  Officials  in  framing 
regulations  on  matters  pertaining  to  Fire  Prevention 

State  Laws 

To  Regulate  the  Manufacture,  Storage,  Sale  and  Distribution  of 
Matches. 

To  Regulate  the  Transportation  and  Carriage  of  Explosives. 
To  Regulate  the  Manufacture,  Storage,  Sale  and  Use  of  Explo- 
sives. 

To  Establish  the  Office  of  State  Fire  Marshal. 

City  Ordinances 

To  Regulate  the  Installation,  Operation  and  Maintenance  of  Mo- 
tion Picture  Machines,  and  the  Construction  and  Arrangement  of 
Picture  Machine  Booths  and  Audience  Rooms. 

To  provide  for  the  Inspection  of  Premises  by  the  Fire  Department, 
accompanied  by  a  blank  form  for  use  by  the  inspector. 

To  Regulate  the  Manufacture,  Storage,  Sale  and  Distribution  of 
Matches. 

To  Regulate  the  Manufacture,  Keeping,  Storage,  Sale,  Use  and 
Transportation  of  Explosives,  in  Cities  whose  population  exceeds 
100,000  inhabitants. 

To  Regulate  the  Manufacture,  Keeping,  Storage,  Sale,  Use  and 
Transportation  of  Explosives,  in  Villages  or  in  Cities  whose  popu- 
lation does  not  exceed  100,000  inhabitants. 


4  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

To  Prohibit  the  Discharge  or  Firing  of  Fireworks. 

To  Regulate  the  Use,  Sale  and  Storage  of  Fireworks. 

To  Govern  the  Construction  and  Operation  of  Laundries. 

To  Regulate  the  Construction  and  Equipment  of  Theatres. 

To  Regulate  the  Use,  Handling,  Storage  and  Sale  of  Inflammable 
Liquids  and  the  Products  Thereof. 

A  Code  of  Abbreviated  Ordinances  for  use  of  Small  Municipali- 
ties, and  containing  under  one  cover,  ordinances  providing  for  Fire 
Limits,  and  the  Construction  and  Equipment  of  Buildings;  The 
Regulation  of  Automobile  Garages ;  The  Regulation  of  the  Equip- 
ment and  Operation  of  Picture  Machines  and  Premises  wherein  the 
same  are  operated ;  The  Inspection  of  Premises  by  the  Fire  Depart- 
ment; the  Cleanliness- of  Streets,  Alleys  and  Premises;  The  Burn- 
ing of  Refuse;  The  Storage  of  Explosives;  Fire  Escapes,  and  Pro- 
hibiting the  Discharge  or  Firing  of  Fireworks. 

A  Model  Building  Code,  covering  all  features  of  building  con- 
struction, including  Theatres  and  Tenement  Houses. 

National  Fire  Protection  Association. — Cooperating  with  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  is  the  National  Fire  Pro- 
tection Association.  This  association  originally  included  only  those 
organizations  and  societies  interested  in  underwriting,  but  in  latter 
years  its  membership  has  broadened  to  include  all  institutions, 
societies,  associations,  departments  and  bureaus  interested  in  the 
protection  of  life  and  property  against  loss  by  fire,  with  associate 
membership  for  any  individual  paying  dues.  This  association  has 
two  functions,  to  educate  the  people  as  to  the  economic  advantage 
in  preventing  fires  and  to  formulate  suggested  requirements  as 
to  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  this  and  of  the  proper  ex- 
tinguishing appliances  necessary. 

Personal   Responsibility  for  Fire   Loss. — In  a  pamphlet  dated 
March,    1914,    the    National   Fire   Protection   Association   issued    a- 
suggested- bill  for  adoption  by  State  legislatures,  reading  as  follows : 

SUGGESTED   BILL  TO   Fix   PERSONAL   LIABILITY   FOR   FIRES    DUE  TO 
CARELESSNESS  OR  NEGLECT 

SECTION  i.  Any  persen,  persons  or  corporation  for  any  fire  caused  by, 
resulting  from,  or  spreading  by  reason  of  the  negligence  of  such  person, 
persons  or  corporation  or  the  non-compliance  with  any  law  or  ordinance 
or  lawful  regulation  or  requirement  of  or  by  any  state  or  municipal  authority, 
shall  be  liable:  (i)  for  all  loss,  expense  or  damage  caused  by  or  resulting 
from  such  negligence  or  non-compliance;  and-  (2)  for  any  expense  incurred 
by  any  municipal  or  other  governmental  agency  in  extinguishing  or  attempting 
to  extinguish  any  fire  so  caused,  resulting  or  spreading. 

SECTION  2.  In  all  actions  against  any  person,,  company  or  corporation  for 
the  recovery  of  damages  on  account  of  any  loss  or  injury  to  any  property, 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION  5 

real  or  personal,  occasioned  by  fire  communicated  from  property  owned  by 
one  party  to  property  owned  by  another  party,  the  fact  that  such  fire  was 
so  communicated  shall  be  sufficient  evidence  to  charge  the  occupant  of  the 
property  in  which  the  fire  originated  with  negligence,  and  place  the  burden 
of  proof  upon  him. 

In  connection  with  the  above,  Charles  E.  Meek,  then  president  of 
the  National  Association  of  Credit  Men,  said: 

The  American  fire  loss  in  1914  amounted  to  nearly  $236,000,000,  the  largest 
in  the  history  of  the  country,  with  three  exceptions,  namely,  1908,  the 
year  of  the  Chelsea  fire,  1906,  when  San  Francisco  was  destroyed,  and 
1904,  when  Baltimore  suffered.  Compare  these  figures  with  those  showing 
the  loss  through  business  failures  and  you  will  begin  to  appreciate  the  fact 
that  the  fire  loss  was  nearly  as  much  as,  if  not  more*  than,  that  caused 
through  commercial  disasters,  this  for  the  reason  that  there  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  salvage  tp  be  secured  from  the  assets  of  those  who  fail,  while 
the  figures  setting  forth  the  fire  loss  show  the  amount  actually  destroyed. 
There  was  only  one  conflagration  during  1914,  representing  a  loss  of  about 
$13,000,000,  the  balance  of  the  loss  being  distributed  pretty  equally  through- 
out the  country,  which  bears  striking  testimony  to  the  carelessness  of  the 
American  people,  because  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  great  majority  of 
the  fires  could  be  prevented  were  proper  care  exercised  And  don't  forget 
that  a  great  many  lives  aie  sacrificed  annually  through  fire,  whereas  business 
fatalities  result  only  in  the  loss,  of  dollars  and  cents.  I  read  a  few  days  ago 
that  in  one  city  over  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  lives  were  lost  during  the 
year  through  fire. 

The  question  which  now  naturally  arises  is:  What  can  be  done  to  reduce 
the  annual  fire  and  bad  debt  losses?  Regarding  the  first,  until  some  severe 
penalty  is  laid  upon  those  whose  carelessness  is  the  cause  of  fire  damage 
toi  the  property  of  their  neighbors,  there  will  be  no  reduction  in  the  size 
of  our  annual  bonfire.  It  is  welcome  news  to  hear  that  the  National  Fire 
Protection  Association  has  drafted  a  bill  which  will  be  introduced  into  the 
legislature  in  every  state,  and  which,  if  enacted,  will  penalize  the  individual 
whose  carelessness  has  damaged  the  property  of  others.  The  members  of  the 
National  Association  of  Credit  Men  can,  as  individuals,  aid  materially  in 
reducing  the  fire  loss  and  at  the  same  time  set  a  good  example  to  their 
neighbors  through  personally  inspecting  their  places  of  business  and  their 
homes  at  regular  intervals,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the 
ordinary  precautions  against  fire  are  being  exercised.  You  may  not  know 
it,  but  a  very  large  percentage  of  all  the  fires  occurring  in  this  country 
originate  in  the  rubbish  heap. 

The  Elimination  of  Fire  Hazards. — To  lessen  this  preventable 
loss  the  first  mentioned  function  of  the  National  Fire  Prevention 
Association,  that  of  preparing  suggested  requirements,  is  of  vital 
importance ;  seldom  does  a  property  owner  realize  the  hazard  of 
the  conditions  existing  around  his  plant,  and  even  if  he  appreci- 
ates the  hazard,  he  may  not  know  of  the  best  way  to  abate  it. 
These  regulations,  the  majority  of  which  are  embodied  in  this 
book,  are  prepared  by  committees  composed  of  insurance  men, 
as  well  as  men  in  daily  contact  with  the  conditions  being  discussed, 
are  then  passed  upon  by  the  association  as  a  whole  and  by  the 


6  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

executive  committee,  and  are  adopted  and  printed  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  The  following  list  covers  the  sub- 
jects on  which  regulations  have  been  issued,  copies  of  which  can  be 
obtained  from  any  insurance  organization  or  direct  from  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  at  76  William  Street,  New 
York. 

Membership  in  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association,  which 
entails  an  annual  fee  of  $5.00,  insures  receiving  a  copy  of  all  later 
editions  of  any  regulations  already  issued  and  of  regulations  on 
new  subjects;  it  also  includes  a  quarterly  publication  which  gives 
interesting  articles  dealing  with  fire  prevention  and  protection, 
and  statistics  on'  fires  in  various  classes  of  manufacturing  risks. 
This  association  has  lately  included  in  the  work  of  some  of  its 
committees  the  question  of  safeguarding  life  as  well  as  property. 
For  plant  managers  and  others  interested,  it  is  advised  that  an 
application  for  membership  be  sent  to  the  Secretary  of  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association  at  87  Milk  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories. — Manager  W.  Ii.  Merrill  has 
prepared  a  description  of  the  purposes  and  work  of  the  Under- 
writers' Laboratories,  much  of  which  is  presented  herewith: 

Underwriters'  Laboratories,  a  corporation  chartered  November,  1901,  by 
the  State  of  Illinois,  is  authorized  to  establish  and  maintain  laboratories  for 
the  examination  and  testing  of  appliances  and  devices,  and  to  enter  into 
contracts  with  the  owners  and  manufacturers  of  such  appliances  and  devices 
respecting  the  recommendation  thereof  to  insurance  organizations. 

The  corporation  is  not  in  business  for  profit.  Its  chief  financial  support 
is  received  from  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  under  whose 
general  direction  the  work  is  carried  on.  The  '  members  of  the  Board  of 
Directors  of  the  corporation  are  chosen  from  the  officers  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  other  organizations  of  Underwriters  from 
which  donations  of  money  are  received. 

The  work  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  confined  to  investigations  hav- 
ing a  bearing  upon  the  fire  hazard,  and  is  undertaken  as  one  means  of  secur- 
ing correct  solutions  of  many  of  the  problems  presented  by  the  enormous 
and  disproportionate  destruction  by  fire  of  property  in  the  United  States. 

OPINIONS  OF  EXPERTS. — The  object  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  is  to 
bring  to  the  user  the  one  best  obtainable  opinion  on  the  merits  or  demerits 
of  appliances  in  respect  to  the  fire  hazard.  Such  appliances  include  those 
designed  to  aid  in  extinguishing  fires,  such  as  automatic  sprinklers,  pumps, 
hand  fire  appliances,  hose,  hydrants,  nozzles,  valves,  etc.;  materials  and 
devices  designed  to  retard  the  spread  of  fire,  such  as  structural  methods  and 
materials,  fire  doors  and  shutters,  fire  windows,  etc. ;  and  machines  and  fittings 
which  may  be  instrumental  in  causing  a  fire,  such  as  gas  and  oil  appliances, 
electrical  fittings,  chemicals  and  the  various  machines  and  appurtenances  used 
in  lighting  and  heating. 

THE  LABORATORIES'  PLANT. — The  principal  offices  and  testing  station  of 
Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  are  located  at  207  East  Ohio  St.,  Chicago. 
Branch  offices  are  located  in  thirty-two  other  cities  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  New  York  office  is  equipped  for  the  conduct  of  examinations 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION  7 

and  tests  of  all  electrical  devices  under  the  same  conditions  as  those  afforded 
at  the  principal  office  and  testing  station  in  Chicago.  The  Chicago  plant 
occupies  a  three-story  and  basement  building  of  fireproof  construction  con- 
taining something  over  45,000  square  feet  of  floor  space,  with  a  frontage  of 
two  hundred  and  sixty-six  feet.  Yard  space  is  provided  Tor  huts  and  large 
testing  furnaces.  The  main  building  in  Chicago  is,  perhaps,  the  best  example 
in  America  of  absolutely  fireproof  construction  furnished  with  fireproof  finish 
and  equipment.  Brick,  terra  cotta,  concrete,  stone,  steel  and  iron,  are  used 
exclusively  in  the  structural  features.  The  window  frames  and  sash  are  of 
metal  with  wired  glass,  the  doors  are  of  metal,  the  desks  and  filing  cases  in 
the  main  office  are  of  steel,  and  even  some  of  the  picture  frames  are  of 
the  same  material.  No  wood  or  other  combustible  material  is  used  in  any 
portion  of  the  finish.  In  addition,  the  plant  is  equipped  with  automatic  sprink- 
lers, and  the  lighting  and  heating  hazards  are  safeguarded  with  every  known 
precaution  applicable  to  their  installation  in  buildings  of  frame  construction. 
In  this  model  building  the  Underwriters  have  -gone  to  the  extreme  in  adopt- 
ing in  their  own  property  all  the  measures  they  are  known  to  recommend 
in  the  property  of  others.  Eighty-three  persons  are  employed  in  the  Chicago 
plant,  which,  with  its  equipment,  has  a  value  of  approximately  $175,000.00. 

TESTS. — The  specifications  under  which  the  experimental  work  is 'carried  on 
are  based  upon  the  Rules  and  Requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  as  recommended  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association. 
The  technical  work  at  the  Laboratories  and  the  promulgation  of  the  findings 
in  the  Laboratories'  reports  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  Council  of 
Underwriters'  Laboratories. 

REPORTS  UPON  TESTS.— Summaries  of  the  Laboratories'  reports  are  promul- 
gated on  printed  cards  filed  according  to  classifications,  and  cabinets  con- 
taining these  cards  are  maintained  at  the  offices  of  the  principal  Boards  of 
Underwriters  and  Inspection  Bureaus  in  the  United  States,  at  many  of  the 
general  offices  of  insurance  companies,  by  some  insurance  firms,  certain 
municipal  departments,  and  at  the  local  offices  of  the  Laboratories  in  larger 
cities.  Much  of  the  information  is  also  freely  distributed  by  means  of  lists 
of  manufacturers  of  inspected  appliances  promulgated  bv  the  Laboratories, 
and  the  results  of  the  work  in  many  classes  of  appliances  are  furnished 
directly  to  building  owners,  architects,  users  and  all  other  persons  interested, 
by  means  of  the  Laboratories'  Label  service,  under  which  goods  are  inspected 
at  factories  by  Laboratories'  engineers  and  stamps  or  labels  attached  to  such 
portion  of  the  output  as  is  found  constructed  in  accordance  with  standard 
requirements. 

The  aim  of  the  founders  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  to  secure  the  best 
and  fairest  opinion  regarding  the  merits  or  demerits  of  every  device,  system 
or  material  having  a  bearing  upon  the  fire  hazard,  and  to  have  the  work 
so  conducted  and  reviewed  as  to  secure  accuracy  and  uniformity  in  its 
findings,  has  been  accomplished  to  such  an  extent  that  the  majority  of  fire 
Underwriters  in  the  United  States,  many  municipal  authorities,  and  a  large 
number  of  architects,  building  owners  and  users  either  accept  or  require  a 
report  from  these  Laboratories  incident  to  their  recognition  of  devices, 
systems  and  materials  having  a  bearing  upon  the  fire  hazard. 

Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  however,  issues  no  guarantee  that  its 
findings  will  be  accepted  or  recognized  in  any  case.  Such  assurances  can 
only  be  obtained  from  the  authority  having  jurisdiction. 

PROPRIETARY  ARTICLES. — As  manifestly  the  regular  subscribers  to  the 
Laboratories  cannot  be  called  upon  to  cover  the  expenses  of  tests  made 
at  the  request  of  others,  a  system  has  been  established  whereby  a  manu- 
facturer or  owner  desirous  of  securing  an  examination  and  report  by  the 


8  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Laboratories  on  any  particular  device,  system  or  material,  is  enabled  to  do 
so  by  first  depositing  a  preliminary  fee  as  evidence  of  good  faith,  and  on 
completion  of  the  work  paying  the  balance  of  its  cost  as  shown  by  accurate 
records  thereof,  which  are  kept  in  detail.  As  a  warrant  that  an  applicant 
will  not  incur  costs  beyond  his  expectations,  a  limit  of  expense  is  fixed 
in  each  case  beyond  which  charges  are  not  made.  By  this  means  an  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  anyone  at  comparatively  low  cost  to''  secure  the  opinion 
of  the  recognized  authorities  covering  any  device,  system  or  material  in 
its  relation  to  the  fire  hazard. 

The  amounts  of  the  fees  are  in  proportion  to  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  work  required  in  examinations  and  tests. 

The  cost  of  experimental  work  is  practically  the  same  in  each  class  of 
device,  whether  samples  show  superior  or  inferior  qualities. 

The  applicant's  obligation  to  pay  the  charges  is  not,  therefore,  contingent 
upon  the  nature  of  the  opinion  rendered, — whether  favorable  or  otherwise. 

The  schedule  of  charges  found  necessary  in  the  different  branches  of  the 
work  is  arranged  by  groups  as  follows: 

Amount  of        Total  cost  to  Applicant 

Preliminary  Fee  not  to  exceed  : 

Group   A...'.! $100.00  $250.00 

B 50.00  100.00 

C.;... 25.00  75 .00 

D.'.. 10.00  50.00 

'E 5.00  25.00 

Group  F. — Under  this  group  is  classified  experimental  work  and  researches 
covering  subjects  or  appliances  for  which  standard  requirements  are  not 
adopted.  The  amount  of  the  preliminary  fee  is  $100  and  bills  are  rendered 
monthly  as  the  work  proceeds. 

Wherever  approvals  are  granted,  on  the  more  common  classes  of  devices, 
the  names  of  the  manufacturers  thereof  are  placed  in  printed  lists,  distributed 
freely  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  and  in  many  classes  the  devices  are 
labeled.  'Many  of  the  leading  organizations  and  authorities  are  at  the  present 
time  using  these  lists  or  recognizing  the  labels  as  the  basis  of  their  recommen- 
dations or  requirements. 

Whenever  approvals  of  appliances  or  materials  are  ready  to  issue,  the 
favorable  opinion,  promulgated  as  above  described,  is  followed  up  by  one 
of  three  forms  of  supervision  over  goods  marketed  under  the  approvals. 

RE-EXAMINATION  SERVICE. — The  oldest  of  these  three  forms  is  the 
Re-Examination  Service,  in  which  the  maker  is  under  contract  to  con- 
struct during  the  continuance  of  the  approval,  appliances  in  exact  duplicate 
of  the  sample  approved,  and  to  pay  certain  fees  annually  (ranging  usually 
from  five  to  thirty  dollars),  with  which  the  Laboratories  partially  defray 
the  costs  of  obtaining  samples  in  the  open  market  or  from  the  manufacturer 
and  of  making  examinations  and  tests  of  the  appliance  one  or  more  times 
yearly.  Unsatisfactory  features,  if  any  are  found  as  a  result  of  the  re- 
examination,  are  corrected  by  the  maker  on  subsequent  products. 

INSPECTION  SERVICE. —The  second  form  of  supervision  is  the  Inspection 
Service,  which  is  regarded  by  the  Laboratories'  management  as  superior  to 
the  Re-Examination  Service  and  is  applied  so  far  as  possible  wherever  the 
Label  Service,  later  described,  is  not  considered  practicable.  The  Inspection 
Service  includes  regular  and  frequent  examinations  and  tests  of  products  at 
factories  by  Laboratories'  engineer  and  the  correction  by  the  manufacturer 
of  features  found  not  in  compliance  with  the  standards  of  efficiency  shown 
by  the  samples  originally  approved,  together  with  supplementary  examina- 


ORGANIZED  FIRE  PREVENTION  9 

tions  at  the  Laboratories  of  samples  purchased  in  the  open  market  or  re- 
ceived from  inspectors  and  users,  thus  affording  counter-checks  on  the 
factory  inspection  work  and  determinations  of  the  service  value  of  the 
product. 

The  cost  of  the  inspection  service  is  billed  monthly  in  each  case  to 
manufacturers  co-operating. 

THE  LABEL  SERVICE. — The  third  form  of  supervision  by  the  Laboratories 
is  the  Label  Service.  This  is  regarded  by  the  Laboratories'  management 
as  the  most  efficient  and  satisfactory  of  the  three  methods  and  is  being 
utilized  to  a  greater  extent  each  year.  The  Label  Service  consists  of 
inspections  of  devices  and  materials  at  the  factories  by  Laboratories'  engi- 
neers and  the  labeling  of  standard  goods  by  stamps,  transfers  or  metal 
labels,  whereby  they  may  be  recognized  wherever  found;  and  in  addition 
of  systematic  supplementary  examinations  and  tests  at  the  Laboratories  of 
samples  of  labeled  goods  purchased  in  the  open  market  or  received  from 
inspectors  and  users,  and  serving  to  counter-check  the  efficiency  of  the 
factory  inspection  work  and  to  determine  the  service  value  of  the  product. 

For  a  number  of  industries  this  service  now  includes  inspection  of  the 
product  at  factories,  check  tests  on  materials  purchased  in  the  open  market, 
service  value  determinations  by  retests  of  samples  which  have  been  in 
practical  use,  and  schedule  estimates  showing  comparative  demerits  noted 
on  products.  These  elaborations  are  working  to  the  decided  advantage  of 
all  concerned,  and  are  all  possible  only  under  the  labelling  system. 

Experience  has  shown  that  this  method  is  in  every  way  superior  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  to  the  consumer  the  article  he  desires,  for  the  purpose 
of  placing  competition  between  manufacturers  beyond  the  point  where 
deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  output  is  made  necessary,  and  for  the 
proper  protection  of  the  Laboratories  and  the  organizations  co-operating) 
with  them  which  are  given  substantial  recognition  to  efficient  fire  protec- 
tion appliances. 

It  is  also  shown  that  an  inspection  and  checking  system  of  this  nature 
can  be  efficiently  operated  under  the  Laboratories'  direction  without  calling 
upon  the  mamifacturer  to  give  undue  publicity  to  his  manufacturing  process 
or  subjecting  him  to  any  embarrassment  or  annoyance. 

The  cost  of  this  service  is  defrayed  by  charges  made  for  the  labels.  These 
charges  vary  according  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  inspection  needed. 
For  goods  which  can  be  tested  by  machinery  or  which  are  machine  made  and 
run  through  factories  in  such  quantities  that  tests  of  a  number  of  samples 
of  each  day's  output  give  a  fair  criterion  of  the  whole  product,  the  charges 
run  from  fifty  cents  ($0.50)  to  one  dollar  and  a  half  ($1.50)  per  thousand 
(1,000)  labels.  For  goods  made  by  hand  and  goods  which  require  inspection 
or  test  of  each  individual  item,  the  charges  run  from  seven  and  one-half 
cents  ($0.07^)  to  fifty  cents  ($0.50)  per  label.  In  no  case  is  the  cost  of 
the  service  as  represented  by  the  charge  for  the  label  sufficient  to  become 
a  factor  of  importance  in  determining  the  selling  price  of  the  article  labeled. 


To  the  date  of  issue  of  this  book  the  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories had  listed  one  or  more  appliances  covered  by  the  follow  - 
ing  index: 

FIRE   APPLIANCES 
FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS: 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Equipment,  alarm  valves,  automatic  sprink- 
lers, dry  pipe  valves,  guards,  hangers,  unions. 
(For  Sprinkler  Supervisory  Devices,  see  Signaling  Apparatus.) 

Chemical  Extinguishers,  100,  33,  2|  and  1|  gallons,  1  quart,  and 
for  oil  storage. 

Fire  Pails. 

Gate  Valves. 

Hand  Extinguishers,  pail  type,  pails  in  tanks. 

Hose,  rubber  lined.  For  public  or  private  fire  department.  For 
chemical  extinguishers  on  wheels.  For  hand  chemicals.  Un- 
lined  linen. 

Hose  House  Padlocks,  Hose  Racks,  Hydrants. 

Play  Pipe,  Pumps,  Pump  Governor. 

Steamer  Connection  Cap. 

FIRE  RETARDANTS: 
Fire  Doors:  ..,,SiM|. 

Fire  doors  for  openings  in  fire  walls. 
Tin  clad. 

Sheet  metal — sliding  and  swinging  patterns. 
Composite — sliding  and  swinging  patterns. 
Hollow  metal — swinging  pattern. 
Steel — rolling  pattern. 
Fire  doors  for  openings  in  vertical  shaft. 
Hollow  metal — swinging  pattern. 
Metal  clad — swinging  pattern. 
Composite — swinging  pattern.  """.'" 

Steel — rolling,  counterbalanced  patterns. 
Tin  clad — counterbalanced,  swinging  and  sliding  patterns. 
Fire  doors  for  openings  in  corridor  and  room  partitions. 
Fire  doors  for  openings  to  exterior  fire  escapes. 
Fire  Shutters  for  openings  in  exterior  walls. 
Frames  for  fire  doors  and  shutters. 
Fire  Door  and  Shutter  Hardware. 
Door  checks. 
Sliding  type. 
Swinging  type. 

Three-point  locking  mechanisms. 
Fire  Window  Frames. 
Hollow  metal  type. 
Solid  section  type. 
Metal  clad  type. 
Wired  glass. 
Putty. 


FIRE  APPLIANCES  n 

Fire  Window  Hardware. 

Sash  locks. 

Sash  chains. 
Gypsum  Blocks. 
Paints,  Fire  Retardant. 

Dry  powder  and  liquid  types. 
Partitions. 
Roof  Coverings. 

Built  up  type. 

Prepared  type. 

Shingle  type. 
Shop  and  Office  Furnishings. 

Cabinets,  insulated. 

Driers. 

Safes — light  weight. 

Shelving,  bins,  boxes  and  box  trucks,  portable  racks. 

Waste  cans. 
Miscellaneous  Fire  Retardants. 

Automatic  closers. 

Fire  shields  for  belt  openings  in  floors  and  walls. 

Fusible  links. 

Heat  insulating  coverings. 

Lumber. 

Plaster  boards. 

Post  cap  and  girder  supports. 

Wall  hanger. 

SIGNALING  APPARATUS: 
Battery  Sets. 

Bells — see  list  of  electrical  fittings. 
Signaling  Systems,  fire  alarms,  thermostats. 
Local  Manual  Fire  Alarm  Boxes. 
Sprinkler  Supervisory  Devices. 

Watchmen's  Time  Recording  Apparatus,  boxes  for  central  stations, 
local  or  private  system  apparatus,  portable  recorders  and  key 
boxes,  stationary  recorders,  magnetos. 

GAS,  OIL,  MECHANICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  APPLIANCES 
ACETYLENE  APPLIANCES: 

Generators:    For  lighting;  for  welding  and  cutting. 

Blow  pipes. 

High  Pressure  Cylinders  for  lighting  and  welding. 
Lamps;  Torches:    Reducing  and  regulating  valves. 

ALCOHOL  APPLIANCES:    Flat  Iron;  Lamp. 
BALING  PRESSES. 

CANS: 
Safety. 
Waste. 

CAR-HEATING  SYSTEM. 
CELLULOSE  ACETATE  PLASTIC. 
CLEANING  LIQUIDS. 


12  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

CONTAINERS  FOR  HAZARDOUS  LIQUIDS,  STORAGE  AND  SUPPLY  SYSTEMS: 

Discharge  Devices,  hand  operated,  outside. 

Discharge  Devices,  hand  operated,  inside. 

Discharge  Devices,  power  operated,  inside. 

Safety  Cans. 

Tanks. 

Underground  storage. 

Stationary,  for  use  in  buildings. 

Portable. 

Shipping  containers. 

Miscellaneous  tanks,  cleaning  and  dip. 

Fittings  for  Hazardous  Liquids. 

Couplings,  gauges,  meters,  unions,  valves. 
DUST  CLOTHS. 
FERTILIZER. 
FILMS. 

FIRE  WORKS. 
FLOOR  BRUSH. 
FLOOR  OILS. 
FUEL  KINDLER. 
FUEL  FOR  GASOLINE  ENGINES. 
FUEL-OIL  APPLIANCES: 

Engines    Auxiliary   Tank    (for    Engines),    Oil-burning    Equipmant, 

Shut-off  and  Drain  Valves,  Vent  for  Oil  Tank. 
FUMIGATORS. 
GAS  APPLIANCES: 

Engines,  Heaters,  Mixers,  Producers,  Regulators,   Shut-off  Valves, 

Fittings  for  Shut-off  Valves— Pull  Boxes,  Roller  Elbows. 
GASOLINE  APPLIANCES: 

Engines,  Stationary  and  Portable. 

Gas  Machines,  Lighting  Systems,  Vapor  Lamps. 

Gauges  (see  Fittings  for  Hazardous  Liquids). 

Hose. 

Pumps  (see  Discharge  Devices). 

Stoves. 

Strainers. 

Valves  (see  Fittings  for  Hazardous  Liquids). 
INCUBATORS,  BROODERS  AND  DRINKING  FOUNTAINS: 

Incubators. 

Brooders. 

Drinking  Fountains. 
KEROSENE  APPLIANCES: 

Engines,  Kilns,  Oil  Pressure  Systems. 
LANTERNS — WATCHMEN'S — Electric,  Kerosene. 
LIQUIFIED  GAS  APPARATUS. 
MATCHES. 
METAL  POLISH. 
PITCHING  PLANT. 
SLAKED  LIME. 
SOLDERING  FLUX. 
SWEEPING  COMPOUNDS. 

TRICHLORETHYLENE  AND  TETRACHLORETHANE. 
TURPENTINE  SUBSTITUTES. 
WASTE  CANS. 

ELECTRICAL 

FITTINGS,  WIRE  AND  APPLIANCES  OF  ALL  KINDS. 


HINTS  TO  THE  INSURED 

Below  will  be  found  a  number  of  hints  which  may  prove  useful 
in  the  avoidance  of  fire  loss  or  in  securing  indemnification  there- 
for. 

If  you  hold  a  policy  of  a  company  which  is  not  regularly  licensed 
to  do  business  in  your  State,  read  it  carefully — it  may  differ  vitally 
from  the  ordinary  standard  policy. 

Certain  things  are  specifically  permitted  by  standard  policies; 
others  are  strictly  prohibited.  When  in  doubt  cousult  the  Policy. 

If  the  insured  cancels  his  policy,  the  company  retains  the  usual 
short  time  rate;  if  the  company  cancels,  it  only  retains  a  propor- 
tionate part  of  the  premium.  The  company  must  give  five  days' 
notice  of  cancellation. 

Under  certain  restrictions  kerosene  oil  may  be  used  and  kept 
for  sale.  See  policy  and  "  special  clauses." 

Certain  classes  of  property  are  especially  excluded  from  insur- 
ance unless  written  in  the  policy  or  form.  Among  these  are  cur- 
rency, deeds,  securities,  pictures,  etc. 

Encumbrances,  changes  in  ownership,  other  insurance  without 
permission,  and  various  other  circumstances  may  void  policy.  Be 
sure  you  have  complied  fully  with  its  requirements. 

Loss  of  rent  or  income  by  reason  of  fire  may  be  insured  against, 
but  is  not  covered  by  the  standard  policy. 

If  you  sustain  a  fire  loss  give  immediate  written  notice  to.  the 
companies  interested,  stating  in  round  figures  your  estimate  of  the 
damage. 

The  property  owner  must  use  all  reasonable  effort  to  save  and 
preserve  his  insured  property  in  event  of  fire. 

Keep  an  account  of  all  expenses  incurred  in  caring  for  saved 
property,  for  later  consideration. 

The  insurance  company  will  not  take  care  of,  nor  take  posses- 
sion of,  your  premises,  or  of  your  saved  property.  Any  loss 
caused  by  the  insured's  negligence  to  protect  and  care  for  his 
property  at  and  after  a  fire  is  not  covered  by  the  insurance  contract. 

All  the  value  of  the  property  saved  belongs  to  the  insured,  and 
all  of  the  loss  and  loss  expenses  thereon  up  to  the  face  of  the 
policy  belongs  to  the  insurance. 

After  a  fire  it  is  the  owner's  duty  to  separate  the  damaged  from 
the  undamaged  property,  and  to  make  an  inventory  showing  quan- 
tity and  cost  of  each  article,  with  the  amount  of  damage  claimed 
thereon. 

As  the  policy  of  an  insolvent  company  would  be  held  to  con- 
tribute proportionately  in  any  loss,  it  is  advisable  to  cancel  such 
policy  as  soon  as  the  insolvency  of  the  company  is  known. 

Care  should  be  used  to  have  all  policies  read  alike  when  covering 
the  same  property. 

13 


14  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Large  floor  areas  are  discriminated  against  unless  divided  by 
acceptable  fire  walls,  with  openings  properly  protected. 

Rate  reductions  are  made  for  approved  fire  doors  and  shutters. 

Engines  should,  if  possible,  be  located  in  separate  brick  or  stone 
building  at  some  distance  from  factory. 

The  installation  of  automatic  sprinkler  systems  is  encouraged  by 
liberal  concessions  in  premium  rates. 

Fair  allowances  are  made  by  underwriters  to' induce  the  use  of 
such  devices  as  watchmen's  clocks,  chemical  extinguishers,  fire  pails, 
hydrants  and  hose,  wired  glass  windows,  etc. 

Stairways  should  be  built  outside  of  main  building  in  brick  addi- 
tion, cut  off  at  each  floor  by  fire  door.  If  inside  of  building  they 
should  be  enclosed  and  cut  off  by  doors  at  each  floor ;  but  the  spaces 
under  stairways  should  be  left  entirely  open. 

Before  adopting  for  use  in  your  factory  or  store  any  new  device 
or  material,  inquire  of  your  local  insurance  agent  whether  its  use 
is  approved  by  insurance  companies;  otherwise  you  may  learn 
that  your  insurance  has  been  vitiated. 

Use  metal  ash  cans,  and  keep  rags  and  oily  waste  in  metal  cans. 
The  latter  should  be  kept  out  of  doors  at  night. 

Be  exceedingly  cautious  with  matches.  Keep  them  in  metal  or 
other  fireproof  boxes. 

Make  it  one  man's  duty  to  inspect  thoroughly  and  regularly  all 
apparatus  designed  to  prevent  or  extinguish  fire  or  to  send  in  an 
alarm ;  also  to  see  that  the  premises  are  kept  clean  and  free  from 
anything  which  might  feed  a  fire.  Water  casks  and  pails  should 
be  kept  filled,  sprinklers  and  valves  in  working  order,  gas  jets 
properly  protected,  stoves  and  stovepipes  in  safe  condition,  etc. 

By  having  your  boilers  insured  against  damage  by  explosion  you 
can  secure  their  regular  inspection. 

Be  especially  careful  in  filling  and  trimming  oil  stoves  and  lamps. 
Do  it  only  by  daylight. 

Steam  pipes  should  be  covered  with  a  suitable  non-conducting 
material.  They  have  been  known  to  cause  fires  when  in  contact 
with  or  too  near  woodwork. 

Every  large  establishment  should  have  a  well-organized  and  ef- 
fective private  fire  department,  fully  equipped  with  good  apparatus. 

The  division  of  buildings  into  fire  sections  by  brick  walls  run- 
ning up  through  and  above  the  roof  and  cutting  off  cornices,  with 
all  openings  protected  by  automatic  fire  doors  is  highly  approved 
by  underwriters.  This  arrangement  tends  to  localize  any  fire  which 
may  occur. 

All  openings  through  walls  and  floors,  such  as  doors,  hatchways 
and  belt-holes,  may  be  protected  by  automatically  closing  doors 
and  shutters,  which  are  of  great  assistance,  in  event  of  fire  occur- 
ring, in  preventing  its  spread  through  the  building. 

Every  factory  of  any  size  should  be  provided  with  a  fireproof 
oil  room,  for  the  storage  of  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils,  etc. 
This  can  be  constructed  within  the  main  building,  if  necessary,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  materially  lessen  the  fire  risk  inherent  in  such 
materials. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  when  a  plant  is  equipped  with  a  dry-pipe 
automatic  sprinkler  system,  and  is  located  in  a  district  subject  to 
severe  weather  in  winter,  to  protect  the  dry-pipe  valves  by  placing 
them  in  insulated  closets. 


HINTS  TO  JHE  INSURED  15 

Where  there  is  danger  of  an  oil  fire,  keep  pails  of  sand  at  hand. 
Water  would  help  spread  such  a  fire,  while  sand  would  quench  it. 

Skylights  should  be  made  of  wired  glass  or  protected  from 
breakage  by  wire  screens. 

Floor  beams  should  rest  on  ledges  or  in  box  anchors,  in  order 
that,  should  the  floors  fall  during  a  fire,  they  would  not  pull  down 
the  outside  walls. 

Asbestos  and  other  fireproof  materials  are  now  prepared  in  every 
conceivable  way;  so  that  an  almost  certain  protection  can  be  se- 
cured against  any  particular  hazard. 

Fireproof  roofing  materials  are  now  plentiful,  and  should  be 
used  wherever  feasible. 

Beware  of  concealed  spaces  in  interior  woodwork.  Wherever 
they  are  necessary,  they  should  contain  frequent  fire  stops;  other- 
wise fire  may  be  carried  through  them  with  great  rapidity. 

Walls  and  ceilings  should  be  built  of  non-inflammable  materials, 
the  use  of  wood  or  wooden  lath  and  plaster  being  discouraged  by 
insurance  men. 

All  windows  through  which  fire  could  be  communicated  from  an 
adjoining  building  or  from  another  wing  of  the  same  building 
should  be  protected  by  automatic  fire  shutters. 

All  fire  doors  and  shutters  should  be  closed  nights,  Sundays  and 
holidays,  or  whenever  the  building  is  not  occupied. 

It  is  advisable  to  protect  openings  between  important  divisions 
of  a  building  with  a  fire  door  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

Constant  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  all  protective  appliances 
and  apparatus  in  good  order.  Dependence  upon  deteriorated  pro- 
tective devices  is  more  dangerous  than  is  their  entire  absence. 

An  equipment  of  open  sprinklers  on  the  exterior  of  the  building 
is  very  desirable  in  the  case  of  a  wooden  building  which  is  exposed 
by  another  building.  These  should  be  arranged  under  the  cornice 
and  over  each  window.  In  some  cases  every  window  should  be 
protected  by  a  sprinkler. 

Do  not  let  your  sprinkler  equipment  freeze  up  in  winter.  It  may 
burst  and  inflict  water  damage,  or  it  may  be  frozen  up  and  inef- 
fective when  a  fire  occurs. 

Sprinkler  protection,  to  be  effective,  must  be  thorough.  Every 
nook  and  corner  must  be  protected  or  a  fire  may  have  time  to  grow 
beyond  control. 

Gas  jets  are  .dangerous  unless  surrounded  by  wire  guards. 

Every  sizable  factory  should  have,  in  connection  with  its  private 
fire  department,  one  or  more  hose  houses,  each  sheltering  a  hydrant, 
with  hose  already  attached  and  neatly  laid  out  ready  for  instant 
use,  together  with  axes  and  other  necessary  tools.  Permanent 
ladders  should  be  erected  at  points  where  they  might  be  needed  in 
fighting  a  fire. 

Be  certain  that  your  supply  of  water  for  sprinklers  and  hydrants 
is  always  sufficient  and  easily  obtainable. 

Fire  pumps  should  be  located  beyond  reach  of  fire,  and  should 
be  constantly  in  condition  for  immediate  and  protracted  use  at 
their  full  capacity.  The  "  Underwriter "  pattern  is  deemed  the 
best  style  of  fire  pump. 

A  tank  used  to  supply  water  to  a  sprinkler  system  should  not 
be  used  for  domestic  purposes,  as  sediment  is  apt  to  accumulate 
and  clog  sprinkler  pipes. 


16  FIRE  PREVENTION  -AND  PROTECTION 

A  steam  coil  or  an  open  live  steam  pipe  should  be  used  to  pre- 
vent water  in  tank  from  freezing.  There  should  be  a  permanent 
ladder  leading  to  gravity  tank. 

Heavy  pressure  of  water,  satisfactory  to  underwriters,  may  be 
obtained  from  public  water  works  systems,  private  reservoirs  or 
standpipes,  air  pressure  tanks  or  automatic  steam  pumps. 

No  large  mercantile  or  manufacturing  establishment  can  be  con- 
sidered properly  equipped  which  has  no  automatic  fire  alarm  system. 
There  are  a  variety  of  these,  and  they  can  be  arranged  to  suit 
every  requirement.  Some  of  them  are  combined  with  automatic 
sprinklers. 

Use  none  but  frost-proof  hydrants  where  the  winters  are  cold 
enough  to  freeze  up  ordinary  hydrants. 

The  underwriters  have  adopted  a  standard  for  fire  hose ;  see 
that  your  hose  is  up  to  standard  and  in  good  condition. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  treatment  of  hose.  Jt 
should  be  kept  in  a  well-ventilated  house,  and  should  be  emptied 
and  carefully  laid  out  on  shelves  after  using. 

It  will  be  found  economical  in  the  end  to  purchase  thoroughly 
good  hose,  even  though  the  price  is  somewhat  higher  than  other 
hose  said  to  be  "  just  as  good." 

Probably  more  fires  have  been  put  out  by  means  of  water  pails 
than  by  any  other  instrumentality.  A  liberal  supply  of  pails,  well 
scattered  throughout  the  premises  and  kept  constantly  filled,  pro- 
vides an  excellent  safeguard  against  fire. 

Watchmen  are  proverbially  sleepy;  hence  the  desirability,  if  not 
the  absolute  necessity,  for  the  use  of  watchmen's  clocks  and  watches, 
to  secure  regular  and  systematic  inspection  of  the  premises  during 
nights,  Sundays  and  holidays. 

A  good  system  for  conveying  an  alarm  of  fire  to  employees,  and 
especially  to  the  members  of  the  private  fire  department,  should  be 
devised  by  the  factory  owner.  Promptness  may  mean  the  safety 
of  your  property,  when  delay  would  cause  its  loss. 

A  generous  supply  of  hand  fire  extinguishers  will  contribute 
much  toward  the  safety  of  your  premises. 

Fire  prevention  is  better  than  fire  insurance  for  a  reputable  house. 
Insurance  companies  may  indemnify  you  fully  for  direct  loss,  but 
they  will  not  and  cannot  make  good  the  loss  occasioned  by  the 
stoppage  of  your  business,  such  as  loss  of  old  customers  and  old 
and  skilled  employees.  '.'"•,'' 

Hand  grenades  are  particularly  adapted  for  use  in  some  lines  of 
business,  and  in  special  locations — possibly  they  would  suit  your 
needs. 

A  supply  of  efficient  fire  escapes  may  be  the  means  of  saving 
many  lives.  A  life  saving  net  is  an  excellent  addition  to  the  factory 
apparatus. 

None  but  approved  safety  lanterns  should  be  used  by  watchmen 
and  others  in  a  factory,  especially  in  one  containing  inflammable 
goods. 

Concerns  still  clinging  to  the  use  of  sawdust  in  cuspidors  should 
substitute  sand. 

Be  careful  in  your  choice  of  executive  men  for  your  private  fire 
department.  Have  those  only  in  power  whose  authority  will  be 
recognized,  who  are  cool  and  ready  ip  emergencies,  and  who  live 
near  the  establishment. 


HINTS  TO  THE  INSURED  17 

If  you  use,  or  intend  using,  acetylene  gas,  make  certain  that  your 
generator  is  of  a  type  approved  by  underwriters,  that  it  is  properly 
situated,  and  that  you  are  violating  no  rule  concerning  storage  of 
calcium  carbide. 

Bear  in  mind  that,  while  acetylene  gas,  under  certain  conditions, 
is  as  safe  as  ordinary  illuminating  gas,  under  certain  other  condi- 
tions it  has  highly  explosive  qualities.  Be  sure  you  are  right — 
then  go  ahead. 

It  has  been  aptly  remarked  that  "  a  pail  of  water  at  the  beginning 
will  extinguish  any  fire,  provided  the  pail  of  water  is  there,  and 
some  one  to  use  it."  Also  that  a  sprinkler  "  is  itself  the  first  pail, 
but  it  requires  no  human  agency  to  operate  it.  It  is  on  duty  night 
and  day." 

Rubbish,  if  permitted  to  accumulate,  is  extremely  likely  to  some 
day  cause  a  fire.  This  is  especially  true  if  oily  rags,  cotton  on 
sawdust  form  a  part  of  the  accumulation,  for  then  spontaneous 
combustion  is  apt  to  occur,  and  another  mysterious  fire,  with  no 
imaginable  cause,  is  reported. 

Stoves  and  stove  pipes  have  caused  many  fires.  Pipes  should 
always  be  securely  fastened,  particularly  when  passing  through 
walls  or  partitions ;  and  the  sheet  of  tin  or  zinc  placed  under  the 
stove  should  project  for  a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  it,  to 
prevent  damage  by  live  coals. 

Do  not  permit  any  joists  to  run  into  the  mason  work  of  a  chim- 
ney as  the  chimney,  in  settling,  is  apt  to  crack  in  such  a  way  that 
the  wood  will  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  fire.  Watch  chimneys 
closely  and  remedy  defects  promptly. 

If  your  building  is  heated  by  a  hot-air  furnace,  see  that  ample 
space  (at  least  one  foot)  is  left  between  the  furnace,  smoke  pipe 
and  heat  pipes,  and  the  joists  above  them.  Better  further  protect 
the  joists  by  a  fireproof  covering. 

With  the  increasing  use  of  electricity  for  light  and  power,  the 
number  of  fires  attributable  to  stray  electricity  is  growing.  Elabo- 
rate rules  have  been  promulgated  by  organized  underwriters,  elec- 
tricians and  architects  to  ensure  the  safe  installation  of  electrical 
plants ;  but  the  actual  safety  depends  very  largely  upon  the  honesty 
and  conscientiousness  of  the  local  electrician  who  does  the  work. 
Most  of  his  work  is  covered  up  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
detect  existent  defects. 

Use  sand  for  the  absorption  of  oil  drippings,  not  sawdust. 

Never  deposit  ashes  in  a  wooden  receptacle. 

There  are  several  preparations  for  rendering  fabrics  practically 
fireproof.  If  you  have  gas  jets  in  proximity  to  curtains,  have,  the 
latter  fireproofed. 

Mansard  and  shingled  roofs,  wooden  awnings,  blind  attics,  etc., 
do  not  find  favor  with  underwriters. 

Use  only  a  good  quality  of  bricks  and  mortar  in  the  construction 
of  chimneys. 

The  use  of  Herosene  on  floors  when  sweeping,  or  of  sawdust 
on  floors,  adds  to  the  fire  hazard  and  the  insurance  premium. 

Holiday  decorations  in  stores  in  which  lights  and  flimsy  fabrics 
are  utilized,  constitute  a  positive  fire  risk. 

Keeping  merchandise  in  tin-covered  boxes,  or  on  skids  or  plat- 
forms raised  above  the  floor,  or  on  the  grade  floor  of  building,  all 
tend  to  reduce  the  liability  to  damage  by  fire  or  water. 


l8  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Co-insurance  may  be  briefly  defined  as  the  carrying  or  insuring 
of  a  portion  of  his  risk  by  the  owner  in  case  his  insurance  in 
companies  falls  below  a  certain  fixed  percentage  of  the  value  of 
his  insured  property.  A  concession  in  premium  rate  is  usually 
granted  for  a  High  percentage  of  co-insurance  clause. 

Keeping  goods  in  fireproof  safes  reduces  risk  and  premium. 

Remember  that  heat  has  a  great  expansive  effect  on  iron  pillars 
and  beams,  which  should  be  thoroughly  protected  by  some  non- 
conducting material. 

Put  in  cut-offs  or  fire-stops  at  every  floor  of  your  building  and 
wherever  feasible,  so  that  fire  will  not  have  free  play  through  the 
interior  of  partitions. 

Wrought  iron  is  much  more  affected  by  the  attack  of  rust  than 
is  cast  iron.  A  covering  of  lime  mortar  tends  to  prevent  deteriora- 
tion of  iron  by  rust. 

When  installing  a  sprinkler  system,  be  thorough;  protect  every 
portion  of  your  plant,  placing  sprinklers  under  large  shelves,  plat- 
forms, racks,  etc.,  where  the  water  distributed  by  the  ceiling  heads 
might  not  reach  and  quench  a  fire. 

Keep  the  valves  in  sprinkler  supply  pipes  always  open. 

Explosives  must  not  be  used  or  stored,  except  under  prescribed 
conditions  or  by  special  permission. 

If  your  property  is  mortgaged,  be  certain  that  you  have  complied 
with  policy  requirements  respecting  mortgaged  property. 

Permission  of  the  insurance  companies  is  necessary  before  mak- 
ing extensive  repairs  or  alterations.  Read  the  policy  in  this  con- 
nection. 

If  insurance  is  carried  in  more  than  one  company,  be  sure  that 
permission  for  other  insurance  is  given  in  each  policy. 

Losses  are  adjusted  according  to  the  present  value  of  the  goods 
damaged  or  destroyed. 

To  extinguish  a  chimney  fire,  close  the  doors  and  windows  of 
the  room  from  which  the  flue  leads,  in  order  to  prevent  draught, 
and  then  sprinkle  a  cup  or  two  of  salt  on  the  fire. 

If  a  building  is  to  ,be  vacant  or  unoccupied  longer  than  ten  days, 
obtain  permission  from  the  insurance  companies. 

A  factory  may  be  run  until  ip  P.  M.,  or  closed  for  not  exceeding 
ten  days,  without  special  permission. 


HAZARDS 

GENERAL  INFORMATION  RELATING  TO 

EXPLOSIVES    AND    OTHER 

DANGEROUS  ARTICLES* 

EXPLOSIVES 

An  explosive  consists  of  a  substance  capable  of  conversion  with  great 
rapidity  into  gaseous  form  with  evolution  of  heat.  The  volume  of  gas  given 
off  is  many  times  that  of  the  volume  of  the  explosive.  The  effective  work 
of  commercial  explosives  is  due  to  the  large  amount  of  gas  and  heat  given 
off  and  to  the  -rapidity  with  which  the  chemical  action  occurs. 

Practically  all  explosions  are  in  reality  a  burning  of  the  explosive  material. 
The  difference  between  the  burning  or  explosion  of  an  explosive  and  the 
burning  of  wood,  coal  or  other  inflammable  material  is  that  in  the  former 
case  the  oxygen  necessary  for  the  burning  is  furnished  from  one  of  the 
components  of  the  explosive,  while  in  the  latter  case  the  necessary  oxygen 
.is  furnished  by  the  air. 

In  the  firing  of  explosives  other  than  high  explosives  the  action  is  com- 
municated by  actual  contact  of  the  flame  passing  from  one  part  of  the 
charge  to  the  other.  These  explosives  are  ignited  by  a  powder  fuse  in 
mining  or  by  a  primer  in  rifle  and  shotgun  cartridges.  In  the  explosion  of 
a  high  explosive  the  action  through  the  material  is  transmitted '  as  a  wave 
motion,  much  in  the  same  manner  that  sound  vibrations  pass  through  the  air. 
Such  an  explosion  is  also  characterized  by  the  term  detonation,  and  is  many 
times  quicker  than  the  ordinary  explosion  of  such  materials  as  black  powder. 
High  explosives  can  be  exploded  by  heat,  shock,  friction,  or  by  use  of  a 
blasting  cap.  It  is  this  last  means  that  is  employed  whenever  high  explosives 
are  used  in  practical  work.  In  fact,  a  high  explosive  may  be  best  defined 
and  distinguished  as  one  that  may  be  detonated  by  means  of  a  blasting  cap. 

BLACK  POWDER  is  the  oldest  and  most  widely  known  explosive  material. 
Black  powder  is  not  a  high  explosive.  Black  blasting  powder  is  a  mixture 
of  sulphur,  charcoal  and  sodium  nitrate.  Black  rifle  powder  is  a  mixture  of 
sulphur,  charcoal  and  potassium  nitrate.  Sodium  nitrate  is  used  in  blasting 
powder  in  the  United  States  on  account  of  its  lower  cost,  and  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  has  the  property  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air.  Potassium 
nitrate  does  not  have  this  property,  and  hence  the  black  rifle  powder  has 
better  keeping  qualities  than  the  blasting  powder.  However,  any  deterioration 
of  a  black  powder  from  absorption  of  moisture  renders  it  less  easy  to  ignite, 
and  consequently  less  dangerous.  At  the  same  time,  its  value  as  an  explosive 
is  lessened  or  destroyed. 

In  the  manufacture  of  blasting  powder  the  sodium  nitrate  is  dried  and 
pulverized,  and  the  charcoal  and  sulphur  are  also  pulverized.  The  three 
ingredients  are  then  placed  in  their  proper  proportions  in  a  wheel  mill  in 
which  the  mixing  takes  place,  and  the  materials  are  at  the  same  time  reduced 
to  a  very  fine  powder. 

*  Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives  of  the  American  Railway  Association, 

19 


2o  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

After  the  mixing  is  completed  the  material  is  removed  to  a  press  mill, 
where  it  is  pressed  by  hydraulic  pressure  into  hard  cakes.  This  cake  is 
then  broken  up  and  formed  into  grains  in  the  corning  mill.  The  granular 
powder  is  then  glazed  by  placing  it  in  a  rotating  cylinder  with  powdered 
graphite.  The  glazing  renders  the  grains  less  angular  and  gives  them  a 
polished  surface.  The  glazing  process  is  omitted  entirely  with  some  grades 
of  blasting  powder.  The  powder,  after  glazing  and  drying,  is  packed  for 
shipment  and  the  usual  container  is  the  25-lb.  metal  can.  Black  rifle  powder 
is  made  in  much  the  same  manner  as  above,  with  the  exception  that  potassium 
nitrate  is  used  instead  of  sodium  nitrate. 

Black  powder  is  very  insensitive  to  shock  or  friction,  and  for  all  practical 
purposes  it  may  be  said  that  it  cannot  be  exploded  in  this  way.  If,  how- 
ever, a  spark  is  produced  in  any  manner  the  powder  is  readily  ignited.  The 
finer  the  grains  the  easier  the  powder  may  be  ignited.  It  is  the  peculiar 
susceptibility  to  sparks  which  renders  the  transportation  of  black  powder 
hazardous.  The  term  low  explosives  may  be  used  for  black  powder  or  other 
explosives  of  similar  composition. 

SMOKELESS  POWDERS  usually  consist  principally  of  nitrocellulose.  The  chief 
risk  attending  transportation  of  these  powders  is  one  of  fire  from  external 
causes. 

Smokeless  powder  for  cannon  would  increase  the  intensity  of  the  fire, 
but  it  must  be  strongly  confined,  as  in  a  cannon,  to  make  it  explode.  On 
account  of  the  finer  granulation,  smokeless  powder  for  small  arms  would 
burn  much  more  rapidly. 

Some  few  so-called  smokeless  powders  are  made  from  chlorate  mixtures 
and  are,  of  course,  subject  to  the  same  risks  as  high  explosives. 

DYNAMITE  may  be  defined  as  any  material  formed  by  the  mechanical  mixing, 
of  nitroglyeerin  with  an  absorbent.  Nitroglycerin  is  formed  by  the  treatment 
of  glycerin  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids.  After  formation 
of  the  nitroglyeerin  in  this  way  it  is  separated  from  the  mixed  acids  and 
thoroughly  washed  with  water  till  all  traces  of  acid  are  removed.  The  nitro- 
glyeerin is  a  heavy,  oily  liquid,  having  somewhat  the  consistency  of  glycerin, 
and  having  generally  a  yellowish  color.  Nitroglycerin  of  itself  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  shock,  friction  or  detonation,  and  is  too  dangerous  for  railway 
transportation.  About  the  only  use  for  it  in  a  liquid  state  is  in  blowing 
oil  wells.  For  this  purpose  it  is  customary  to  transport  it  by  wagon.  Many 
accidents  have  occurred  in  this  way. 

In  making  dynamite,  nitroglyeerin  is  mixed  with  an  absorbent  or  "  dope." 
In  this  country  the  usual  practice  is  to  use  a  mixture  of  sodium  nitrate 
and  wood  pulp  for  a  dope  for  a  straight  dynamite.  In  making  ammonia 
dynamite  the  dope  usually  consists  of  a  mixture  of  ammonium  nitrate,  sodium 
nitrate,  wood  pulp  and  sulphur.  It  is  also  required  that  an  antacid  of  some 
kind  be  used  in  all  dynamites  to  neutralize  any  traces  of  acidity  accidentally 
remaining  in  the  nitroglyeerin.  The  materials  most  often  used  as  antacid 
are  magnesium  carbonate  or  calcium  carbonate.  Chalk  or  limestone  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  calcium  carbonate. 

The  ingredients  of  the  "  dope  "  should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  mixing, 
and  the  dope  should  be  of  such  quality  that  it  will  absorb  and  hold  the 
nitroglyeerin  added.  As  wood  pulp  is  much  more  efficient  as  an  absorbent 
than  sodium  nitrate,  the  high  grade  dynamites  must  have  much  more  pulp 
than  the  low  grades.  After  the  nitroglyeerin  has  been  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  absorbent  either  mechanically  or  by  hand,  it  is  taken  to  the  packing- 
house, where  it  is  loaded  in  paper  cartridges.  These  cartridges  are  made 
of  stout  paper,  and  are  dipped  in  ,  melted  paraffin  before  loading.  It  is  the 


EXPLOSIVES  21 

usual  practice  after  filling  cartridges  with  ammonia  dynamite  to  dip  them 
again  into  melted  paraffin. 

In  making  gelatin  dynamite  the  nitroglycerin  is  first  mixed  with  soluble 
nitrated  cotton,  thus  forming  a  jelly-like  mass;  afterwards  a  dope  some- 
what similar  to  that  for  straight  dynamite  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
jelly-like  mass,  thus  forming  a  gelatin  dynamite.  Gelatin  dynamite,  when 
properly  made,  is  less  liable  to  leak  than  straight  dynamite. 

Gelatin,  or  blasting  gelatin,  differs  from  gelatin  dynamite  in  that  it  con- 
tains no  absorbent  dope. 

The  sodium  nitrate  and  wood  pulp  used  in  dynamite  have  the  power  of 
absorbing  moistxire  from  the  air,  and  are  therefore  said  to  be  hygroscopic. 
Ammonium  nitrate,  which  is  used  in  ammonia  dynamites,  is  much  more 
hygroscopic  than  the  sodium  nitrate  or  the  wood  pulp.  The  use  of  paraf- 
fined paper  for  the  cartridges  tends  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere  and  the  leakage  of  nitroglycerin  from  the  cartridges. 
The  double  coating  of  the  ammonia  dynamite  cartridges  is  done  on  account 
of  greater  hygroscopic  qualities. 

A  dynamite  made  up  with  a  proper  absorbent  in  sufficient  quantity  will 
r,'>t  leak  when  manufactured,  but  if  subjected  to  long  storage  it  has  a  tendency 
to  gradually  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  This  absorption  naturally 
takes  places  faster  if  the  dynamite  is  stored  in  a  damp  magazine.  As  a 
rebult  of  this  absorption  of  moisture,  the  power  of  the  dope  to  hold  the 
nitroglycerin  is  lessened,  and  the  cartridge  becomes  stained  with  nitroglycerin; 
these  stains  are  in  turn  transmitted  to  the  box  and  to  the  floor  of  the 
magazine.  Ammonia  dynamites,  having  a  greater  power  of  absorbing  moisture 
than  the  others,  deteriorate  sooner  in  this  way. 

Dynamite  is  exploded  by  shock,  friction  or  detonation.  When  burned  in 
large  masses  it  usually  explodes,  but  it  can  be  burned  with  comparative 
safety  in  small  quantities  when  entirely  unconfined.  Dynamite  when  cooled 
to  a  temperature  of  about  45°  F.  entirely  loses  its  ordinary  soft  and  plastic 
condition  and  becomes  entirely  solid  and  hard.  In  this  condition  it  is  said 
to  be  frozen  completely.  Frozen  dynamite  is  less  sensitive  to  shock  and 
friction  than  when  in  the  soft  condition,  but  partially  thawed  dynamite  is 
said  to  be  more  sensitive.  It  is  necessary  to  "  thaw  out  "  frozen  dynamite 
to  get  complete  detonation  in  practical  use.  The  thawing  should  always 
be  done  in  an  apparatus  well  adapted  to  the  purpose.  It  must,  however,  be 
remembered  that  even  frozen  dynamite  is  liable  to  explode  if  carelessly 
handled. 

Many  "  low  freezing "  dynamites  are  now  made  by  the  addition  of  nitro- 
toluol  or  other  suitable  ingredients  to  the  nitroglycerin.  With  the  exception 
of  the  ingredient  added  to  the  nitroglycerin  to  lower  the  freezing  point,  these 
dynamites  are  similar  in  composition  to  ordinary  dynamites.  Their  use  in 
cold  weather  avoids  the  inconvenience  of  thawing.  In  other  respects  they 
involve  much  the  same  hazards  in  handling  and  in  transportation  as  do  the 
ordinary  dynamites. 

High  explosives  other  than  dynamite  generally  come  under'  four  groups: 
I.  Nitrocellulose  and  Nitrostarch  Explosives;  II.  Chlorate  Mixtures;  III.  Am- 
monium Nitrate  Mixtures;  IV.  Picric  Acid  and  Picrates. 

NITROCELLULOSE  AND  NITROSTARCH  EXPLOSIVES. — The  basis  of  these  ex- 
plosives is  either  nitrostarch  or  nitrocellulose.  These  compounds  are  formed 
by  the  treatment  of  either  starch,  cotton,  paper,  or  wood  meal,  with  a 
mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  The  acid  is  then  removed  by  thor- 
ough washing  with  water,  and  often  by  boiling  with  water.  The  resulting 
nitrostarch  or  nitrocellulose  has  the  same  appearance  as  the  material  before 
nitration.  It  has,  however,  become  much  more  inflammable,  and  under 


22  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

certain  conditions  explosive.  For  use  as  a  commercial  explosive,  the  nitro- 
starch  or  nitrocellulose  is  usually  mixed  with  sodium  nitrate  or  a  mixture 
of  sodium  and  ammonium  nitrates.  Explosives  of  this  group  are  generally 
less  sensitive  to  shock,  friction  and  detonation  than  dynamites.  Having  no 
liquid  ingredient,  they  are  not  subject  to  exudation.  In  use,  they  are  ex- 
ploded by  the  ordinary  blasting  cap  or  electric  blasting  cap.  As  a  rule, 
explosives  of  this  group  burn  with  great  rapidity  when  ignited  in  the 
open  air. 

CHLORATE  MIXTURES. — Explosives  of  this  group  consist  of  a  mixture  of 
chlorates  or  perchlorates  or  both  with  some  organic  matter.  Explosives 
containing  chlorates  are  liable  to  be  sensitive  to  shock,  friction  or  detonation. 
Some  of  them  ignite  at  low  temperatures.  Chlorate  explosives  if  made  from 
improper  or  impure  ingredients,  are  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition.  Increase 
of  sensitiveness  is  also  possible. 

Explosives  containing  perchlorates  without  chlorates,  are  less  sensitive  to 
impact,  friction  and  detonation  than  the  chlorate  explosives  and  are  not 
liable  to  spontaneous  decomposition. 

AMMONIUM  NITRATE  MIXTURES. — Explosives  of  this  group  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  ammonium  nitrate  with  some  organic  combustible  material.  As 
a  rule,  these  explosives  are  the  safest  explosives.  They  are  less  sensitive 
to  shock,  friction  and  detonation  than  the  others.  Owing  to  a  large  per- 
centage of  ammonium  nitrate,  some  of  these  explosives  will  burn  very  slowly 
even  when  placed  in  a  hot  fire. 

PICRIC  ACID  AND  PICRATES. — Picric  acid  consists  of  a  yellow  crystalline 
powder  of  intensely  bitter  taste  and  explosive  properties.  It  is  formed  by 
the  nitration  of  phenol  (carbolic  acid).  Picric  acid  combines  directly  with 
•metals  to  form  salts  known  as  picrates.  Picric  acid  and  picrates  are  used 
in  the  color  industries  and  in  the  manufacture  of  explosives,  principally  for 
military  use.  High  price  and  fumes  from  explosion  render  them  of  little 
use  for  commercial  explosives. 


EDITOR'S  NOTE.- — For  handling  and  storage  of  Explosives,  see  page  211. 


DANGEROUS   ARTICLES   OTHER  THAN   EXPLOSIVES 

For  the  purposes  of  safe  transportation  by  rail,  dangerous  articles  other 
than  explosives  are  divided  into  five  classes,  namely: 

I. — Inflammable    Liquids.      (Red    label.) 

II.— Inflammable    Solids.      (Yellow   label.) 

III.— Oxidizing   Materials.      (Yellow    label.) 

IV.— Corrosive    Liquids.      (White   label.) 

V. — Compressed    Gases.      (Red    or    green    (gas)    label.) 

An  inflammable  liquid,  as  defined  by  the  Bureau  of  Explosives,  does  not 
mean  any  liquid  that  can.  be  burned.  The  meaning  is  restricted  to  liquids 
which  at  ordinary  temperatures,  give  off  inflammable  vapors.  These  vapors 
are  not  only  inflammable,  but,  when  mixed  in  proper  proportions  with  air 
in  an  enclosed  space,  will  explode  with  violence,  if  ignited  by  any  means. 
This  action  is  exactly  similar  to  explosions  caused  by  ignition  of  mixtures 
of  coal  gas  and  tar  in  houses,  cellars,  sewers,  etc.,  which  frequently  occur 
through  the  accidental  escape  of  gas  into  enclosed  spaces.  Any  liquid 
giving  a  flash  point  of  80°  F.  or  less,  open  cup,  is  classified  as  an  inflammable 
liquid. 

The  flash  point*  is  determined  by  gradually  heating  the  liquid  in  question 
in  a  small  open  cup.  After  each  five  degrees  rise  in  temperature  a  small 
flame  is  passed  across  the  top  of  the  cup  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  above 
the  surface  of  the  liquid.  The  lowest  temperature  at  which  a  flash  passes 
over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  called  the  flash  point.  It  will  readily 
he  seen  that  the  lower  the  flash  point  of  any  liquid  the  greater  the  risk  of 
handling. 

Inflammable  solids  include  such  solid  materials  other  .than  explosives  as 
are  liable  to  cause  fires  by  self-ignition  though  friction,  through  absorption 
of  moisture  or  through  spontaneous  chemical  changes. 

Oxidizing  materials!  include  all  substances,  such  as  chlorates,  peroxides, 
perchlorates,  permanganates  and  nitrates,  that  yield  oxygen  readily  to  stimu- 
late combustion  of  organic  matter. 

Corrosive  liquids  include  the  strong  mineral  acids,  in  strength  greater 
than  \k  concentrated,  and  other  strongly  corrosive  liquids,  the  transportation 
of  which  involves  risks,  similar  to  "transportation  of  the  acids. 

COMPRESSED  GASES. — Gases  are  commonly  shipped  compressed  in  steel 
cylinders.  Among  the  inflammable  gases  so  shipped  are  acetylene,  blaugas, 
hydrogen  gas,  pintsch  gas,  liquefied  petroleum  gas  and  coal  gas;  among  the 
non-inflammable  gases  shipped  are  anhydrous  ammonia,  carbonic  acid  gas  or 
carbon  dioxide,  chlorine,  compressed  air,  nitrous  oxide  or  dental  gas,  oxygen 
and  sulphur  dioxide.  These  gases  are  compressed  or  liquefied  at  pressures 
varying  from  50  to  1,800  pounds  per  square  inch  or  higher.  Of  the  above 
gases  the*  following  are  commonly  shipped  in  the  liquefied  condition, — 
blaugas,  liquefied  petroleum  gas,  anhydrous  ammonia,  carbon  dioxide,  chlorine, 
nitrous  oxide,  and  sulphur  dioxide.  The  inflammable  gases  are  liable  to  be 
ignited  if  they  escape,  while  any  compressed  gas  may  burst  the  cylinder 
from  internal  pressure.  Pressure  will  always  increase  with  increase  of  tem- 
perature, and  should  any  cylinder  of  compressed  gas  be  exposed  to  fire  it 

*  See  also  page  216. 
t  See  also  page   130. 

23 


24  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

will  inevitably  explode  unless  provided  with  an  efficient  safety  device.  Cylin- 
ders occasionally  explode  on  account  of  being  dropped  or  exposed  to  external 
violence. 

Definitions 

A  brief  description  of  the  principal  articles  included  in  the  above  classes, 
and  other  articles  of  special  or  peculiar  hazard  for  rail  or  water  transportation, 
is  given  below: 

Acetate  of  Amyl  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid  having  an  odor  like  bananas. 
It  is  made  from  amyl  alcohol  and  is  used  as  a  solvent  of  nitrocellulose  in 
the  manufacture  of  lacquers.  Different  grades  of  amyl  acetate  vary  in  in- 
flammability with  the  character  of  impurities,  contained.  The  commercial 
grades  in  ordinary  use  give  a  flash  point  about  70°  F.,  and  are  therefore 
classed  as  inflammable  liquids.  Very  small  units  of  the  absolutely  pure 
material  give  flash  point  above  80°  F.,  and  are  not  classed  as  inflammable 
liquids. 

Acetate  of  Ethyl  or  Acetic  Ether,  is  a  clear,  colorless  volatile  liquid  of 
fragrant  odor,  used  as  a  medicine  and  as  a  flavoring.  It  is  very  inflammable, 
having  a  flash  point  of  approximately  40°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable 
liquid. 

Acetate  of  Methyl  is  a  clear  colorless  liquid  of  pleasant  odor.  It  is  of 
about  the  same  degree  of  inflammability  as  acetone,  and  is  classed  as  an 
inflammable  liquid  under  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations  and  is  not  accepted  by 
many  of  the  steamship  companies. 

Acetic    Ether.      (See    Acetate    of    Ethyl.) 

Acetone  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  a  pleasant  odor  somewhat 
similar  to  wood  alcohol.  It  is  used  largely  as  a  solvent  for  nitrocellulose 
in  the  production  of  lacquers,  etc.  Acetone  is  highly  inflammable,  having 
a  flash  test  of  35°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Acetylene  is  an  inflammable  gas  of  formula  C2  Ha.  It  is  formed  by  the 
action  of  water  on  calcium  carbide.  When  compressed  alone  it  is  liable  to 
explosion.  It  is,  however,  extremely  soluble  in  acetone.  It  can  be  shipped 
only  in  steel  cylinders  filled  with  a  porous  material  satisfactory  to  the  Bureau 
of  Explosives.  This  porous  material  must  be  charged  with  acetone  or  equiva- 
lent solvent.  Acetylene  is  used  for  head  lights  on  locomotives,  automobiles 
and  motor  boats,  for  signal  lights,  and  for  welding  purposes.  It  requires  a  red 
(gas)  label. 

Acid,  Acetic,  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  a  pungent  odor,  and  is 
used  chiefly  in  technical  work.  It  is  not  inflammable,  nor  is  it  classed  as 
a  corrosive  liquid  under  the  regulations.  Glacial  acetic  acid  is  the  most 
concentrated  acetic  acid,  and  solidifies  at  temperature  of  50°  F.  Its  ship- 
ment is  restricted  by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,  Arsenic,  is  a  white  crystalline  solid  material,  not  inflammable  or 
corrosive,  but  highly  poisonous,  and,  therefore,  prohibited  by  some  steam- 
ship lines.  It  is  also  shipped  in  concentrated  aqueous  solution.  Its  ship- 
ment on  passenger  steamers  is  restricted  by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,  Arsenious,  is  a  white,  solid  material,  either  in  powder  or  lumps, 
used  in  paint,  glass  and  leather  industries;  it  is  highly  poisonous,  but  not 
otherwise  dangerous.  Its  shipment  on  passenger  steamers  is  restricted  by 
the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,  Carbolic,  is  shipped  both  in  the  solid  and  liquid  state.  Material  is 
poisonous,  somewhat  corrosive,  and  has  an  exceeding  strong  odor.  It  is 
not  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid  or  solid,  but  its  shipment  is  restricted 
by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,   Formic,  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  pungent,  irritating  odor.      When  con- 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     25 

centrated,  it  has  a  caustic  effect  on  the  skin,  but  does  not  have  the  strong 
corrosive  effect  of  the  mineral  acids,  and  is  not  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid 
under  the  regulations.  Its  shipment  is  restricted  by  the  Depaitment  of 
Commerce. 

Acid,  Hydrochloric  (Muriatic  Acid),  is  a  corrosive  liquid,  varying  from 
colorless  to  yellow,  according  to  purity.  It  gives  off  acid  vapor  of  a 
peculiarly  irritating  odor.  It  cannot  be  packed  in  iron  drums,  but  is  usually 
packed  in  glass  bottles  or  carboys.  It  is  also  shipped  in  tank  cars  provided 
with  acid-proof  lining.  Hydrochloric  acid  will  damage  or  destroy  many 
articles  by  contact,  but  does  not  cause  fires.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive 
liquid. 

Acid,  Hydrocyanic,  is  a  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  having  odor  and  taste 
of  bitter  almonds.  Both  liquid  and  its  vapor  are  highly  poisonous.  It  is  of 
slight  commercial  importance.  Its  shipment  by  water  is  restricted  by  the 
Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,  Hydrofluoric,  or  Etching  Acid,  is  a  fuming  corrosive  liquid  used 
principally  for  etching  on  glass.  It  cajinot  be  kept  in  glass  bottles,  owing 
to  its  solvent  action  on  glass.  It  also  dissolves  all  metals  except  gold,  platinum 
and  lead.  It  is  consequently  shipped  in  vessels  of  lead,  rubber,  or  ceresine 
(a  material  similar  to  paraffin),  or  in  asphaltum-lined  barrels  or  wooden 
tank  cars.  Hydrofluoric  acid  is  made  by  treatment  of  the  mineral  known 
as  fluor  spai  with  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid.  It 
is  refused  by  many  steamship  companies. 

Acid,  Mixed,  is  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  used  for  nitration 
of  glycerin  or  cellulose  in  the  manufacture  of  nitroglycerin  and  nitrocellulose. 
This  acid  mixture  coming  into  contact  with  organic  matter  is  sure  to  cause 
fire,  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  shipped  or  stored  in  glass  containers, 
owing  to  risk  of  breakage,  except  it  is  in  a  glass  carboy,  packed  in  a  tight 
cylindrical  iron  case,  covering  bottom  and  sides  of  carboy,  the  space  between 
bottle  and  case  being  filled  with  non-combustible  cushioning  material,  and 
the  case  fitting  tightly  in  the  outside  wooden  box.  It  is  also  shipped  in 
iron  drums  or  tank  cars.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid.  It  is  refused 
by  many  steamship  companies. 

Acid,    Nitrating.      (See   Acid,    Mixed.) 

Acid,  Muriatic.      (See  Acid,  Hydrochloric.) 

Acid,  Nitric,  is  a  fuming,  corrosive  liquid,  varying  from  colorless  to  red, 
according  to  purity.  It  has  a  corrosive  action  on  almost  all  metals.  It  is 
also  a  strong  oxidizing  agent,  and  when  brought  into  contact  with  wood  or 
other  organic  matter  is  likely  to  cause  fire.  Nitric  acid  is  made  of  different 
strengths  for  different  purposes.  The  stronger  acid  is  more  likely  to  cause 
fire.  It  is  packed  in  glass  bottles  or  carboys.  These  bottles  or  carboys  must 
be  packed  in  incombustible  packing.  It  is  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  on  a  nitrate — usually  sodium  nitrate.  It  is  used  largely  in  the  manu- 
facture of  explosives.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid.  It  is  refused  by 
many  steamship  companies. 

Acid,  Nitre-Hydrochloric,  is  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochorlic  acids. 
This  acid  gives  off  chlorine  gas,  especially  if  warmed.  It  is  highly  corrosive, 
having  the  power  to  dissolve  all  metals,  including  gold  and  platinum.  It  is 
packed  in  glass  bottles  or  carboys.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid. 

Acid,  Oxalic,  is  in  the  form  of  a  white  crystalline  solid.  It  is  odorless, 
and  slightly  corrosive  but  poisonous.  It  is  not  generally  regarded  as  hazard- 
ous for  transportation. 

Acid,  Phosphoric,  consists  of  a  clear  colorless,  odorless  liquid  of  a  syrupy 
consistency.  It  is  but  very  slightly  corrosive,  and  is  not  classed  as  a  cor- 


26  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

rosive  liquid  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations,  nor  is  it  generally  restricted  by 
the  steamship  companies. 

Acid,  Picric,  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid  of  intensely  bitter  taste.  It  is 
used  in  leather  and  dye  industries,  also  as  a  military  explosive.  The  dry 
material  is  a  high  explosive.  When  thoroughly  mixed  with  not  less  than 
10  per  cent  water,  in  waterproof  containers,  it  is  treated  as  an  inflammable 
solid. 

Acid,  Pyroligneous,  is  the  crude  acid  obtained  by  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood.  It  is  of  yellowish  or  brownish  color,  and  contains  approxi- 
mately 6  per  cent  acetic  acid,  together  with  tarry  matters.  It  has  a  strong 
smoky  odor.  It  is  entirely  uninflammable  and  without  hazard  in  shipment. 

Acid,  Sulphuric.,  is  a  heavy,  oily,  corrosive,  odorless  liquid.  It  varies 
from  colorless  to  almost  black,  according  to  purity.  Sulphuric  acid  is  made 
by  the  oxidation  of  sulphur,  by  burning  the  native  sulphur  or  iron  pyrites. 
The  sulphur  dioxide  formed  directly  by  the  burning  is  still  further  oxidized 
to  sulphuric  acid  by  either  the  contact  process  or  the  lead  chamber  process. 
Sulphuric  acid  will  char  wood  or  almost  any  other  organic  matter,  but  is 
unlikely  to  cause  fire.  It  is  largely  used  in  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
acids,  fertilizers,  explosives,  and  in  refining  of  oil.  It  is  shipped  in  glass 
bottles  and  carboys,  or  in  iron  drums  or  tank  cars.  It  is  classed  as  a  cor- 
rosive liquid.  It  is  refused  by  some  steamship  companies,  and  its  shipment 
by  boat  is  restricted  by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Acid,  Valerianic,  is  a  colorless,  oily  liquid  of  a  very  offensive,  rancid  odor. 
It  is  not  dangerously  corrosive  or  inflammable,  but  owing  to  offensive  odor 
is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  lines. 

Air,  Liquid,  is  air  liquefied  by  high  pressure  and  low  temperature.  It  is 
shipped  in  double  walled  glass  bottles  with  silvered  walls;  the  space  between 
the  double  walls  is  a  vacuum.  These  containers  are  built  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  well-known  "  thermos  bottles."  The  containers  for  liquid 
air  are  not  tightly  closed,  and  evaporation  may  take  place  without  causing 
internal  pressure.  Liquid  air,  owing  to  its  concentration  has  a  strong 
oxidizing  effect  on  finely  divided  organic  matter.  Owing  to  its  extremely 
low  temperature,  it  causes  effects  similar  to  severe  burning  if  it  should 
come  in  contact  with  the  skin.  It  is  of  small  practical  value,  and  shipments 
are  chiefly  confined  to  material  for  demonstration  purposes. 

Alcohol,  Denatured,  consists  of  grain  alcohol  to  which  some  substance 
has  been  added,  rendering  it  unfit  for  use  as  a  beverage,  but  not  interfering 
with  its  use  in  the  arts.  Ordinary  denatured  alcohol  contains  wood  alcohol 
and  benzine,  and  consequently  the  flash  point  is  lowered  to  40°  F.,  ap- 
proximately. It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Alcohol,  Grain,  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid  of  characteristic  taste  and 
color.  It  is  obtained  by  fermentation  of  grain  or  other  starch  or  sugar- 
containing  material.  It  mixes  with  water  in  all  proportions.  Pure  alcohol 
has  a  flash  test  of  55°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Alcohol,  Solidified,  consists  of  wood  alcohol  which  has  been  colloided  to 
a  soft  semi-transparent  mass  of  about  the  consistency  of  a  jelly.  It  is 
made  either  by  colloidirig  with  nitrocellulose,  or  with  a  kind  of  soap.  The 
former  kind  is  unchanged  by  moderate  heat  while  the  latter  is  liquefied. 
Solidified  alcohol  gives  off  inflammable  vapors  at  temperatures  of  approxi- 
mately 50°  F.  or  above,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  its  physical  condition 
is  such  as  to  prevent  leakage  from  defective  containers  it  is  not  classed 
as  a  dangerous  article. 

Alcohol,  Wood,  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  of  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is 
obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  wood.  It  mixes  with  water  in  all  pro- 
portions and  has  a  flash  test  of  45°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     27 

Alfalfa  Feeds*  consist  of  varying  mixtures  of  ground  alfalfa  hay,  with 
molasses,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  cracked  corn,  oats,  and  various 
other  feeds.  Carload  shipments  of  these  feeds  under  some  circumstances 
heat  spontaneously  and  in  extreme  cases  may  cause  fire.  The  use  of  inferior 
or  mouldy,  or  exceedingly  damp  ingredients,  or  the  wetting  of  the  material 
in  transit  promotes  this  heating.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  dangerous  article. 

Ammonia,  Anhydrous,  is  a  compressed  liquefied  gas  shipped  in  iron  or 
steel  cylinders  at  pressure  approximating  150  Ibs.  per  square  inch  at  60°  F. 
Gas  is  entirely  non-combustible  and  is  used  for  refrigerating  purposes.  Cylin- 
ders must  be  kept  away  from  heat  and  must  not  be  dropped  or  struck.  It 
requires  a  green  (gas)  label. 

Ammonia,  Aqua,  is  in  the  form  of  a  clear  colorless  liquid  having  a 
strong  odor  of  ammonia.  It  consists  of  ammonia  gas  dissolved  in  water. 
It  is  slightly  corrosive  but  has  a  strong  odor.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  hazard- 
ous article  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations,  but  its  shipment  is  restricted  by 
some  of  the  steamship  companies. 

Ammonium   Hydroxide.      (See   Ammonia,   Aqua.) 

Ammonia    Water.       (See    Ammonia,    Aqua.) 

Ammonium  Picrate,  is  a  crystalline  powder  of  yellow  to  orange  color  and 
having  an  intensely  bitter  taste.  It  is  a  high  explosive,  but  is  extremely 
insensitive  to  friction,  impact  or  detonation. 

Ammunition  Bombs  or  Bombardments  are  fireworks.  They  consist  of  heavy 
paper  shells  containing  bursting  charge  of  black  powder  or  other  explosive, 
and  in  addition  usually  contain  colored  stars  of  chlorate  composition.  These 
bombs  are  meant  to  be  fired  into  air  from  a  mortar.  Some  of  these  bombs 
are  very  large  and  heavy  and  explode  with  great  violence.  When  assembled 
with  blasting  caps  or  detonators  they  are  forbidden  for  transportation.  These 
bombs  are  not  accepted  by  steamship  lines,  and  when  shipped  by  rail  are 
classed  as  a^ecial  fireworks  or  as  high  explosives,  according  to  nature  and 
composition. 

Ammunition  for  Cannon  embraces  all  fixed  or  separate-loading  ammuni- 
tion too  heavy  for  use  in  small  arms.  When  the  component  parts  are 
packed  in  separate  outside  package  such  packages  may  be  shipped  as  smoke- 
less powder  for  cannon,  explosive  projectiles,  empty  (including  solid  and 
sand  loaded)  projectiles,  primers,  or  fuses.  Igniters  composed  of  black 
powder  may  be  attached  to  packages  in  shipments  of  smokeless  powder  for 
cannon. 

Ammunition  for  Small  Arms  consists  usually  of  a  paper  or  metallic  shell, 
the  primer,  powder  charge  and  projectile,  the  materials  necessary  for  one 
firing  being  all  in  one  piece,  such  as  is  used  in  sporting  or  fowling  pieces, 
or  in  rifle,  pistol  practice,  etc. 

Amyl    Acetate.      (See    Acetate    of   Amyl.) 

Aqua    Fortis.      (See    Acid,    Nitric.) 

Aqua   Regia.      (See    Nitro-Hydrochloric   Acid.) 

Animal  Charcoal  or  Bone  Black  consists  of  a  charcoal  formed  by  the 
destructive  -distillation  of  bones.  It  is  used  largely  as  a  clarifying  agent 
in  sugar  refining,  etc.  Owing  to  the  large  amount  of  mineral  matter  con- 
tained, it  does  not  possess  the  hazards  of  wood  charcoal,  and  is  not  clashed 
as  an  inflammable  solid.  It  is  accepted  generally  by  the  steamship  com- 
panies. 

Arsenic    Trioxide.       (See    Acid,    Arsenious.) 

Asphaltum  Paint  or  Varnish  consist's"  of  asphaltum  in  solution  in  benzine, 
benzol,  or  other  solvents.  Its  inflammability  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
solvents  used. 


28  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Automobile  Supplies,  N.  O.  S.,  may  include  gasoline,  acetylene  ij.is  tanks, 
or  rubber  cement,  which  are  all  properly  classed  as  inflammable. 

Bags,  Empty,  used  for  nitrate  of  soda.  The  jute  bags  used  in  shipment 
of  nitrate  of  soda  become  impregnated  with  the  nitrate,  which,  unless  thor- 
oughly removed  by  washing  with  water,  renders  the  bags  very  inflammable. 

Barium    Chlorate.      (See    Chlorates.) 

Barium  Nitrate  consists  of  a  heavy  white  crystalline  salt,  which  is  a 
strong  oxidizing  agent.  It  is  occasionally  used  in  explosives,  but  mostly 
to  produce  a  red  color  in  fireworks.  It  is  commonly  shipped  in  barrels 
or  boxes,  and  thus  packed  it  is  not  classed  as  dangerous  by  the  T.  C.  C. 
Regulations. 

Barium  Peroxide,  Barium  Dioxide,  Barium  Binoxide,  is  a  heavy  grayish 
white  powder  insoluble  in  water.  It  is  a  strong  oxidizing  agent  used  prin- 
cipally in  bleaching  and  in  the  manufacture  of  hydrogen  peroxide.  It  is 
incombustible  alone,  but  when  mixed  with  organic  matter  is  dangerously 
inflammable.  Mixtures  of  barium  peroxide  and  organic  matter  are  ignited 
by  friction  and  barium  peroxide  rubbed  between  wooden  surfaces  is  liable 
to  cause  fire.  It  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material  and  must  be  shipped 
in  metal  containers,  except  small  quantities  which  may  be  packed  in  bottles. 

Barrels,  Empty,  having  been  previously  filled  with  gasoline,  benzine,  naphtha, 
or  other  inflammable  liquids  should  be  shipped  with  bungs  closed,  as  interiors 
contain  inflammable  vapor  either  alone  or  mixed  with  air  in  proportions  to 
form  explosive  mixture.  Accidental  entrance  or  contact  with  spark  or  flame 
may  cause  fire  and  explosion.  So-called  "  empty  barrels  "  often  still  contain 
a  small  quantity  of  the  inflammable  liquid  which  may  escape  in  handling  the 
barrel,  thus  causing  further  risk.  The  risk  is  not  considered  great,  however. 

Batting,  Dross,  consists  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  cotton  fiber  nrd  rosin. 
It  is  formed  by  the  filtration  of  melted  rosin  through  raw  cotton.  If 
ignited  it  burns  very  rapidly,  but  is  not  regarded  as  liable  to  spontaneous 
ignition.  It  is  not  classed  as  inflammable  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations,  but 
it  is  not  accepted  by  steamship  companies. 

Benzene.       (See    Benzol.) 

Benzine  is  the  lighter  and  more  inflammable  distillate  from  crude  petroleum. 
It  is  of  varying  specific  gravity,  but  is  exceedingly  inflammable,  and  has  a 
well-known  characteristic  odor.  It  is  used  for  lighting,  heating,  power  and 
as  a  solvent.  The  flash  point  varies  with  different  grades,  but  is  approxi- 
mately o°  F.  or  below.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Benzol  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid  of  aromatic  odor,  distilled  from  coal 
tar.  It  is  very  inflammable,  having  a  flash  test  of  approximately  20°  F.  It 
is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Benzol,    Trinitro,    is    a   yellow   crystalline   solid.      It   is  a   high   explosive. 

Benzoyl  Chloride,  consists  of  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  an  intensely 
irritating  and  offensive  odor.  It  is  combustible,  but  not  dangerously  inflam- 
mable. It  is  not  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid  by  the  I.  C-  C.  Regulations, 
but  is  refused  by  many  of  the  steamship  companies. 

Bichloride  of  Tin  (or  more  properly  Tetrachloride  of  Tin)  is.  shipped  in 
two  forms.  In  the  anhydrous  condition  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  heavj",  colorless, 
corrosive  liquid,  giving  off  fumes  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  shipped  in 
bottles,  carboys  and  in  iron  drums,  and  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid.  It 
is  also  shipped  in  a  hydrated  condition,  in  the  form  of  white  crystals.  In 
this  form  it  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous  article  for  transportation. 

Bichromate  of  Soda  and  Bichromate  of  Potash  are  yellow  crystalline  salts 
which  act  as  oxidizing  agents.  They  are  not  considered  hazardous  for 
railroad  transportation,  and  are  accepted  by  all  steamship  companies  so 
far  as  known. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     29 

Binitro  Toluol  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,  melting  at  158°  F.  Material 
is  not  explosive  nor  dangerously  inflammable.  In  appearance  it  strongly 
resembles  trinitrotoluol,  which  is  a  high  explosive. 

Blacking,  X.  O.  S.  Some  liquid  blackings  contain  a  volatile  inflammable 
liquid  solvent,  and  may  therefore  give  a  flash  test  of  80°  F.  or  below, 
in  which  case  they  will  be  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 

Blacking,    Stove,    Liquid.       (Similar    to    above.) 

Blasting  Caps  consist  of  small,  hollow  copper  cylinders,  containing  fulmin- 
ate of  mercury  or  a  mixture  of  fulminate  of  mercury  and  potassium  chlorate. 
These  caps  are  used  for  detonating  dynamite  and  other  high  explosives.  They 
are  sensitive  to  shock  and  very  dangerous. 

Blangas  is  a  colorless  inflammable  gas,  having  odor  similar  to  Pintsch  gas. 
It  is  formed  by  passing  mineral  oil  into  a  highly-heated  retort;  the  oil  is 
decomposed,  forming  gaseous  products.  The  gas  is  compressed  to  high 
pressure,  removing  liquids  that  condense  during  compression.  The  gas  is 
shipped  in  steel  cylinders  at  a  pressure  of  approximately  1,500  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Cylinders  require  a  red  (gas)  label. 

Bleaching  Powder  is  a  heavy  white  powder  composed  chiefly  of  calcium 
hypochlorite.  It  is  often  known  under  the  name  of  chloride  of  lime.  It 
gives  off  chlorine  gas  when  heated  or  brought  in  contact  with  acids.  It 
also  gives  off  small  amounts  of  chlorine  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere 
and  thus  may  cause  damage  to  other  freight.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous 
article. 

Blue  Billy,  or  Pyrites  Cinder,  is  the  residue  from  burning  pyrites  m  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  a  heavy,  dark  red  material,  consisting  chiefly 
of  iron  oxide. 

Bombs,  Whistling,  are  fireworks  containing  small  quantities  of  potassium 
picrate,  a  high  explosive.  These  bombs  are  not  believed  to  be  specially 
hazardous  in  transportation,  but  are  classed  as  special  fireworks  on  account 
of  composition. 

Bromine  is  a  heavy,  reddish  brown  liquid,  which  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures gives  off  poisonous,  suffocating  vapors  of  the  same  color.  Its  odor  is 
very  irritating  to  the  eyes  and  throat.  Bromine  is  not  inflammable,  but  is 
corrosive  and  has  an  oxidizing  effect  on  organic  matter.  Owing  to  its 
oxidizing  effect  it  causes  heating  when  in  contact  with  organic  matter  and 
may  cause  fire.  It  is  shipped  in  glass  bottles,  and  these  bottle  should  be 
packed  in  non-combustible,  mineral  packing,  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive 
liquid  for  transportation  and  requires  a  white  label.  It  is  refused  by  many 
steamship  companies. 

Bronzing  Liquids  usually  contain  pyroxylin  or  soluble  cotton  dissolved  in 
volatile  inflammable  solvents.  Benzine  is  often  used  to  thin  the  solution, 
hence  flash  point  of  mixture  is  generally  very  low.  Risks  are  due  entirely 
to  inflammable  nature  of  the  solvent.  Classed  as  inflammable  liquid. 

Calcium  Carbide  is  a  grayish  black  solid  material  formed  by  fusion  of 
lime  and  coke  in  an  electric  furnace.  Addition  of  water  to  calcium  carbide 
causes  formation  of  acetylene  gas.  Carbide  is  not  explosive  or  inflammable. 
It  is  always  packed  in  tight  metallic  containers.  The  type  of  container  used 
for  this  material  shipped  by  water,  is  defined  by  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce. Material  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous  article  by  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Calcium  Lights  and  Calcium  Light  Tubes  are  steel  cylinders  always  shipped 
in  pairs,  one  cylinder  containing  compressed  oxygen  and  the  other  compressed 
hydrogen  gas.  The  later  is  an  inflammable  gas,  and  requires  the  red  label, 
while  the  former  is  non-inflammable  and  requires  the  green  label. 

Calcium  Oxide  (Unslaked  Lime  or  Quicklime),  is  a  white,  solid  mass 
obtained  by  burning  limestone.  Material  is  incombustible,  but  combines  with 


30  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

water,  giving  off  a  great  heat,  sufficient  to  cause  ignition  of  surrounding 
substances.  Risks  of  transportation  are  due  to  contact  with  moisture  or  to 
hot  loading.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies.  It  is  not 
classed  as  a  hazardous  article  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Calcium  Phosphide  is  a  reddish  or  grayish  solid  mass,  which  decomposes 
on  contact  with  water,  forming  hydrogen  phosphide,  which  ignites  spon- 
taneously, on  contact  with  air.  It  is  used  in  signal  fires.  It  is  classed 
as  an  inflammable  solid  by  I.  C.  C.  Regulations,  and  is  refused  by  many 
steamship  companies.  When  shipped  it  must  be  packed  in  hermetically  sealed 
metal  cans  enclosed  in  metal  lined  wooden  boxes,  or  it  may  be  shipped  in 
securely  closed  iron  or  steel  barrels. 

Camphene  is  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  turpentine,  formerly  used  as  an 
illuminant  but  not  now  shipped.  Camphene  is  also  a  name  used  for  a  solid 
organic  substance  resembling  camphor,  which  is  not  dangerous. 

Caps,  Blasting  Caps,  Electric  Caps,  Exploders,  Detonators.  (See  Blasting 
Caps.) 

Caps,  Toy,  consist  of  small  portions  of  a  mixture  of  antimony  sulphide, 
red  phosphorus  and  potassium  chlorate,  between  two  layers  of  paper.  These 
caps  are  in  the  form  of  discs  forming  one  cap,  or  in  strips  forming  a 
number  of  caps.  Under  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations  the'  weight  of  explosive 
material  in  a  single  cap  is  limited  to  0.35  grain.  Owing  to  the  small  size 
of  the  units  of  explosive  substance,  the  risks  of  transportation  are  small. 
The  caps  do  not  ignite  spontaneously,  nor  explode  in  mass  from  external 
causes,  except  when  the  units  exceed  the  legal  limit.  They  are  classed  as 
special  fireworks. 

Carbolic   Acid.      (See   Acid,    Carbolic.) 

Carbon  Bisulphide  (Carbon  Disulphide  or  Bisulphide  of  Carbon)  is  a 
heavy  clear  colorless  to  yellow  liquid,  having  a  very  offensive  and  char- 
acteristic odor.  It  gives  off  inflammable  vapors  at  o°  F.  This  vapor  ignites 
at  comparatively  low  temperatures,  a  spark  or  flame  not  being  required, 
as  temperature  of  a  high-pressure  steampipe  will  ignite  vapors.  Carbon 
bisulphide  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  oils,  fats,  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  rubber, 
also  to  kill  vermin.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid,  and  is  refused 
by  many  steamship  companies.  It  is  the  most  hazardous  of  any  of  the 
inflammable  liquids. 

Carbon  Black,  or  Lamp  Black,  consists  of  light  and  finely  divided  carbon. 
It  is  obtained  by  burning  oil  or  gas  with  a  smoky  flame.  It  is  used  as  a 
pigment.  It  is  considered  by  some  to  have  risks  of  spontaneous  ignition, 
but  is  not  classed  as  an  inflammable  solid.  Occasional  fires  in  shipments 
are  more  probably  due  to  sparks  remaining  from  the  manufacturing  process, 
or  to  external  sparks. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  or  Carbon  Dioxide,  is  a  non-inflammable  gas,  which 
is  shipped  compressed  in  steel  cylinders.  It  is  used  in  making  carbonated 
beverages.  It  requires  a  green  label.  It  is  shipped  under  high  pressures, 
and  occasional  accidents  are  caused  by  bursting  of  the  cylinders.  These 
cylinders  are  more  liable  to  burst  if  exposed  to  heat,  or  if  roughly  handled. 

Carbon   Oil.      (See  Hydrocarbon.) 

Carbon  Tetrachloride  is  a  heavy,  colorless  liquid  of  aromatic  odor  resembling 
that  of  chloroform.  It  is  an  anaesthetic,  but  it  is  dangerous  to  heart  action. 
It  is  quite  volatile,  boiling  at  171°  F.,  but  is  entirely  incombustible.  It  is 
used  as  a  solvent,  and  as  a  fire  extinguisher.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous 
article  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Celluloid  is  the  commonly  accepted  name  for  all  pyroxylin  plastic  articles. 
It  is  the  trade  name  of  the  plastic  vised  by  one  company  and  objection  has 
been  made  to  its  use  as  including  all  such  plastics.  It  is  a  solid  material 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     31 

made  from  nitrocellulose  and  camphor,  together  with  some  solvent.  It 
ignites  at  low  temperatures.  It  is  not  generally  accepted  by  the  steamship 
companies. 

Celluloid  (Pyroxylin  Plastic)  Scrap,  consists  of  trimmings,  clippings,  and 
other  waste  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  articles,  from  the  sheets, 
rods  or  blocks  in  which  it  is  originally  manufactured.  Owing  to  its  finely 
divided  condition  it  is  more  hazardous  than  the  original  celluloid.  It  is 
classed  as  an  inflammable  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations  and  is  not  accepted 
by  the  steamship  companies. 

Cement,    Leather.      (See    Cement,    Rubber.) 

Cement,    Shoe.       (See    Cement,     Rubber.) 

Cement,    Naphtha.       (See    Cement,    Rubber.) 

Cement,  Liquid,  N.  O.  S.,  may  be  a  roofing  cement  or  a  rubber  cement,  etc. 

Cement,  Roofing,  generally  consists  of  a  mixture  of  pitch,  tar  or  asphalt, 
with  some  more  or  less  inflammable  liquid  solvent.  The  inflammability  will 
depend  on  amount  and  character  of  the  solvent  remaining  in  finished  cement. 

Cement,  Rubber,  is  a  heavy  solution  of  rubber  in  gasoline  or  carbon 
bisulphide.  It  is  highly  inflammable,  having  a  flash  test  at  or  near  o°  F. 
It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Charcoal  is  the  product  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  It  is  a 
highly  porous  substance,  and  has  the  property  of  absorbing  great  quantities 
of  various  gases.  When  freshly  burned,  this  absorption  sometimes  proceeds 
so  rapidly  as  to  cause  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  the  coal.  Freshly  burned, 
wet,  or  finely  divided  charcoal,  especially  the  hard  wood  charcoal  made  in 
ovens  or  retorts,  is  most  liable  to  this  risk.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable 
solid. 

Charcoal  Tablets  are  small  tablets  made  by  compression  of  powdered  char- 
coal usually  mixed  with  some  binding  material.  Owing  to  the  small  bulk 
in  packages  and  the  presence  of  other  ingredients  these  tablets  are  not 
regarded  as  hazardous. 

Chemicals,  N.  O.  S.,  may'  include  materials  classed  as  inflammable  liquid, 
inflammable  solid,  oxidizing  material  or  corrosive  liquid. 

Chili    Saltpetre    (Sodium    Nitrate).       (See    Nitrates.) 

Chlorate    of    Barium.      (See    Chlorate.) 

Chlorate    of  -Potassium.       (See    Chlorate.) 

Chlorate  of    Sodium.      (See   Chlorate.) 

Chlorates  are  salts  of  such  bases  as  barium,  strontium,  sodium  and  potas- 
sium, etc.,  and  are  generally  spoken  of  as  barium  chlorate,  strontium  chlorate, 
sodium  chlorate,  and  potassium  chlorate.  There  are  also  chlorates  of  other 
bases,  but  the  ones  mentioned  above  are  the  most  important.  All  the 
chlorates  are  in  the  form  of  white  crystalline  salts  and  are  strong  oxidizing 
agents.  Mixed  with  organic  matter,  they  form  very,  inflammable  mixtures, 
and  frequently  act  as  high  explosives,  when  mixed  with  finely  divided  com- 
bustible material.  All  chlorates  when  brought  in  contact  with  sulphuric  acid 
are  liable  to  cause  fire  or  explosion.  Mixtures  of  chlorates  with  organic 
matter  may  be  ignited  by  friction.  Barium  chlorate  and  strontium  chlorates, 
are  principally  used  in  fireworks.  Potassium  chlorate  is  used  in  fireworks 
and  explosives.  Sodium  chlorate  is  used  to  some  extent  in  explosives. 
Chlorates  are  commonly  shipped  in  wooden  kegs  and  are  classed  as  oxidizing 
materials  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  Their  shipment  is  also  restricted  by 
the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Chlorate  Tablets.  Small  tablets  consisting  wholly  or  in  part  of  potassium 
chlorate  are  used  medicinally  for  sore  throat,  etc.  These,  if  in  large  bulk, 
possess  same  hazards  as  the  chlorate  in  any  other  form.  Packed  in  bottles 
in  small  units  they  possess  no  particular  risk. 


32  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Chloride  of  Phosphorus,  or  (Phosphorus  Trichloride  is  a  fuming,  colorless 
liquid,  strongly  corrosive.  It  acts  strongly  on  organic  matter,  producing 
great  heat.  Bottles  containing  this  liquid  should  be  packed  in  non-combustible, 
mineral  packing.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regula- 
tions. It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Chloride  of  Silicon  is  a  colorless  liquid,  fuming  strongly  in  air.  It 
has  a  suffocating  odor.  Mixed  with  water,  it  decomposes,  forming  hydro- 
chloric acid.  It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 
It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Chloride  of  Sulphur,  or  Sulphur  Chloride,  is  a  yellow  to  reddish  corrosive 
fuming  liquid.  It  is  a  solvent  for  sulphur,  and  is  used  in  vulcanizing  rubber. 
It  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  It  is  not 
accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Chlorine  Gas  is  a  heavy,  greenish  yellow  gas  of  suffocating,  irritating  odor. 
It  is  used  for  bleaching,  and  also  for  de-tinning  iron,  and  is  shipped  liquefied 
in  steel  cylinders.  It  is  very  poisonous,  but  not  cpmbustible.  It  requires  a 
green  label.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Chromic  Acid  (Anhydrous)  is  in  the  form  of  reddish  brown  crystals. 
Material  is  caustic  and  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent.  Mixed  with  organic 
matter  it  may  ignite  spontaneously  or  explode,  and  in  such  mixtures  it  is 
always  highly  combustible,  in  shipment  it  must  be  kept  away  from  organic 
matter  and  moisture.  It  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material.  It  is  not 
accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Cleaning  Fluids  frequently  consist  largely  of  gasoline,  naphtha,  or  other 
inflammable,  volatile  solvents,  in  which  case  they  are  classed  as  inflammable 
liquids. 

Coal  Gas  is  the  gas  obtained  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  bituminous 
coal.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  lighting  and  heating  purposes  in  towns  and 
cities,  being  distributed  for  this  purpose  through  pipes  at  very  low  pressure. 
A  relatively  small  amount  of  coal  gas  is  compressed  and  used  for  welding. 
The  compressed  gas  is  shipped  in  steel  cylinders;  the  maximum  pressure  to 
which  it  is  compressed  is  approximately  2,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch.  For  trans- 
portation purposes  it  is  classed  as  Compressed  Gas  Inflammable  and  requires 
a  red  (gas)  label. 

Coal    Oil.      (See    Kerosene.) 

Coal    Tar    Distillate.      (See    Benzole.) 

Coal    Tar    Naphtha.      (See    Benzole.) 

Coal    Tar    Oil.      (See    Benzole.) 

Collodion  is  a  solution  of  nitrocellulose  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol. 
It  has  a  flash  test  of  approximately  o°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable 
liquid.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies,  and  its  shipment 
is  restricted  by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

Cologne    Spirits.       (See    Alcohol,    Grain.) 

Columbian    Spirits.      (See    Alcohol,    Wood.) 

Common  Fireworks  include  all  that  depend  principally  upon  nitrates  to 
support  combustion  and  not  upon  chlorates;  that  contain  no  phosphorus 
and  no  high  explosive  sensitive  to  shock  and  friction;  that  produce  their 
effect  through  color  display  rather  than  by  loud  noises.  If  %oisa  is  the 
principal  object,  the  units  must  be  small  and  of  such  nature  and  manufacture 
that  they  will  explode  separately  and  harmlessly,  if  at  all,  when  one  unit 
is  ignited  in  a  packing  case.  They  must  not  be  designed  for  ignition  by 
shock  or  friction.  Examples  are  (Chinese  firecrackers,  Roman  candles,  rockets, 
pin  wheels,  colored  fires,  serpents,  railway  fusees,  flash  powders,  etc. 

Compounds,  Cleaning,  may  contain  gasoline  or  other  inflammable  solvents. 
In  this  case  they  will  be  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES      33 

Compounds,  Polishing,  N.  O.  S.  Many  liquid  polishing  compounds  con- 
tain an  abrasive  material  held  in  suspension  by  gasoline  or  some  other 
inflammable  liquid. 

Compounds,  Type  Cleansing,  may  contain  gasoline  or  other  similar  inflam- 
mable liquid. 

Compounds,  Vulcanizing,  may  include  rubber  cements,  which  are  in- 
flammable liquids,  or  sulphur  chloride,  which  is  classed  as  a  corrosive  liquid. 
Cordeau  detonant  is  a  fuse  consisting  of  a  thin  walled  lead  tube  approxi- 
mately 1/6  inch  in  diameter  filled  with  finely  powdered  trinitrotoluol.  This 
cordeau  detonant  can  be  exploded  only  by  attaching  a  blasting  cap  to  the 
lead  tube  in  a  peculiar  way.  Otherwise  it  is  non-hazardous,  and  can  be 
shipped  without  any  restriction,  except  that  it  must  not  be  loaded  in.  the 
same  package  with  blasting  caps  or  high  explosive. 

Cotton.  This  material  is  generally  shipped  in  bales.  It  is  not  liable  to 
spontaneous  ignition,  but  is  readily  ignited  by  very  small  sparks,  and  is 
capable  of  maintaining  a  smoldering  combustion  for  a  number  of  days 
before  breaking  openly  into  flame.  When  once  ignited  .it  is  impossible  to 
extinguish  fire  without  pulling  bales  entirely  apart.  The  cotton,  if  contam- 
inated with  animal  or  vegetable  oils,  is  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition.  In 
this  way  linseed  oil  is  the  greatest  hazard. 

Cotton,  Burnt,  is  cotton  which  has  been  on  fire,  and  has  not  been  subse- 
quently repicked  and  rebaled.  Such  cotton  is  liable  to  retain  fire  inside 
the  bales,  and  maintain  a  smoldering  combustion  for  a  long  time,  and  ulti- 
mately break  out  into  open  flame.  This  "  burnt  cotton  "  is  classed  as  a 
yellow  label  inflammable,  and  must  not  be  offered  or  accepted  for  shipment 
until  not  less  than  five  days  have  elapsed  since  the  last  evidence  of  fire  in  it. 

Cotton,    Soluble.      (See    Nitrocellulose.) 

Cotton,  Waste,  of  itself  is  not  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition,  but  when 
oily  or  greasy  with  animal  or  vegetable  oils,  it  is  liable  to  spontaneous 
heating  and  ignition.  The  ordinary  oily  cotton  wastes  contain  mineral 
lubricating  oils,  and  are  not  liable  to  spontaneous  heating.  Cotton  waste 
containing  more  than  5  per  cent  animal  or  vegetable  oils  is  a  forbidden 
article  under  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Cresote,  or  Cresote  Oil,  is  a  heavy,  brownish  liquid  of  peculiar,  char- 
acteristic, penetrating  odor.  It  is  combustible,  but  the  flash  point  is  high. 
It  is  used  largely  as  a  preservative  for  lumber.  Shipment  is  refused  by 
some  steamship  lines  on  account  of  objectionable  odor.  Its  shipment  is 
restricted  by  the  Department  of  Commerce.  j 

Creosoted  Lumber  is  lumber  which  has  been  treated  with  creosote.  .Ship- 
ment is  refused  by  some  steamship  lines  on  account  of  objectionable  odor. 

Crude  Oil,  as  it  comes  from  the  well  is  a  heavy,  oily  liquid,  having  color 
varying  from  green  to  almost  black.  It  usually  has  a  disagreeable  odor, 
and  varies  in  inflammability  according  to  percentage  of  more  volatile  in- 
gredients. Crude  oils  produced  in  the  east  are  generally  very  inflammable, 
while  many  of*  those  from  the  south  and  west  have  flash  point  above  100°  F. 

Crude    Petroleum.      (See    Crude    Oil.) 

Cyanide    of    Potash.      (See    Potassium    Cyanide.) 

Cymogen  is  one  of  the  most  volatile  of  the  distillates  from  crude  petroleum. 
It  has  a  flash  test  of  o°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid.  This 
term  is  but  little  used. 

Dental  Gas  is  nitrous  oxide  gas.  Is  a  colorless,  incombustible  gas  of 
pleasant  odor.  It  is  shipped  compressed  and  liquefied  in  steel  cylinders.  It 
is  used  as  an  anaesthetic  by  dentists,  but  is  not  otherwise  hazardous.  It 
requires  a  green  (gas)  label. 

Desiccated    Leather    Scrap   consists   of    leather   scrap    that   has   been    digested 


34  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

with  steam,  either  with  or  without  addition  of  acid,  and  then  dried  and 
powdered.  The  drying  is  frequently  of  such  nature  as  to  partially  char 
the  material,  causing  the  freshly  finished  product  to  be  subject  to  spontaneous 
ignition  in  same  way  as  freshly  burned  charcoal. 

Detonating  Fuses  are  used  to  detonate  the  high  explosive  bursting  charges 
of  projectiles  or  torpedoes.  In  addition  to  a  powerful  detonator  they  may 
contain  several  ounces  of  a  high  explosive,  such  as  picric  acid  or  dry 
nitrocellulose,  all  assembled  in  a  heavy  steel  envelope,  the  flying  fragments 
of  which,  in  case  of  explosion,  would  be  very  dangerous.  From  their  careful 
design,  manufacture,  and  packing,  detonating  fuses  are  not  liable  to  be 
exploded  in  transportation  except  by  fire  of  considerable  intensity. 

Detonators.       (See    Blasting    Caps.) 

Dip,    Sheep,    sometimes    contains    inflammable    liquid    ingredients. 

Disinfectants,  Liquid.  Some  few  liquid  disinfectants  may  contain  inflam- 
mable liquids,  and  as  such  would  be  so  classed.  Most  of  the  liquid  disin- 
fectants are  not  classed  as  inflammable,  but  are  sometimes  objectionable  on 
account  of  odors  ^of  essential  oils  or  formaldehyde. 

Distillates   may   include    petroleum   or   coal   tar  products   of   low   flash   point. 

Drier,  Paint,  and  Japan,  N.  O.  S.  If  liquid,  may  include  volatile  solvents, 
and  require  classification  as  inflammable  liquid. 

Driers  are  liquids  added  to  paints  or  varnishes  to  improve  their  drying 
qualities.  They  frequently  contain  volatile  solvents  such  as  benzine  and 
may  therefore  be  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 

Dross,  Lead,  is  a  term  properly  applied  to  the  material  skimmed  from 
the  surface  of  molten  lead.  This  material  when  cold  is  entirely  non- 
hazardous.  The  term  is  sometimes  improperly  applied  to  the  scrap  from 
the  lead  chambers  used  in  making  sulphuric  acid.  This  material  is  more 
or  less  saturated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  is  commonly  refused  by  steam- 
ship lines. 

Dross,  Zinc,  is  a  term  properly  applied  to  the  material  skimmed  from 
the  surface  of  modern  zinc,  and  is  a  by-product  of  galvanizing  iron.  This 
dross  is  entirely  non-hazardous.  The  term  zinc  dross  is  sometimes  applied 
to  zinc  dust,  which  is  an  inflammable  solid  under  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Drugs,    N.    O.    S.      (See    Chemicals,    N.    O.    S.) 

Drums,    Empty.       (See    Barrels,    Empty.) 

Dynamite  is  any  high  explosive  formed  by  the  mixing  of  nitroglycerin  with 
an  absorbent  material  so  as  to  form  a  plastic  solid. 

Electric  Primers  consist  of  small  brass  tubes  containing  compressed  black 
powder  and  small  pieces  of  platinum  resistance  wire.  Copper  wires  are 
attached  externally  to  one  end  of  primer,  which  bears  a  slight  superficial 
resemblance  to  an  electric  blasting  cap.  Electric  primers  are  used  for  firing 
cannon,  and  are  comparatively  safe  for  shipment.  When  accepted  for  either 
rail  or  boat  shipment,  they  must  be  packed  and  marked  according  to  I.  C.  C. 
Regulations. 

Eradicator,  Paint  or  Grease,  frequently  contains  ether  or  gasoline,  and  is, 
therefore,  then  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Ether  (Sulphuric  Ether)  is  a  clear,  colorless,  highly  volatile ,  and  inflam- 
mable liquid.  It  has  a  peculiar  pungent  odor,  boils  at  temperature  of  97°  F. 
and  gives  a  flash  test  at  o°  F.  It  is  made  by  treatment  of  alcohol  with 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is  used  medicinally  As  an  anaesthetic,  technically  as  a 
solvent  of  fats,  oils,  rosins,  etc.,  and  mixed  with  alcohol  as  a  solvent  for 
nitrocellulose  in  manufacture  of  smokeless  powder.  It  is  classed  as  an 
inflammable  liquid.  Its  shipment  is  restricted  by  Department  of  Commerce, 
and  it  is  not  accepted  by  many  steamship  companies. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     35 

Ether,  Petroleum,  is  a  very  light  and  volatile  petroleum  distillate.  It  is 
more  inflammable  than  ordinary  gasoline,  and  is  principally  used  as  a  solvent. 

Ethyl   Acetate.      (See    Acetate    of    Ethyl.) 

Ethyl  Alcohol.      (See   Alcohol,   Grain.) 

Ethyl  Chloride  is  a  colorless  highly  volatile  and  inflammable  liquid,  which 
boils  at  55°  F.  Consequently,  unless  confined  in  hermetically  sealed  con- 
tainers, it  will  immediately  evaporate  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  used 
as  an  anaesthetic..  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  ship  this  material  in  sealed 
glass  or  metal  tubes,  and,  on  account  of  the  secure  method  of  packing  and 
small  quantity  shipped,  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  list  of  dangerous  articles 
in  the  regulations. 

Ethyl  Methyl  Ketone  is  a  colorless  inflammable  liquid,  somewhat  resembling 
acetone  in  its  properties,  and  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose.  It  has  a  flash 
point  of  approximately  30°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Ethyl  Nitrite  is  a  thin,  yellowish  liquid,  boiling  at  61°  F.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly volatile  and  inflammable,  and  has  an  odor  somewhat  like  apples.  It 
may  ignite  spontaneously  in  storage  at  a  temperature  of  194°  F.,  or  if 
mixed  with  fat  or  other  organic  matter  at  167°  F.  It  is  usually  shipped  in 
alcoholic  solution  containing  15  per  cent  ethyl  nitrite.  This  solution  is  also 
exceedingly  volatile  and  inflammable.  Ethyl  nitrite,  either  pure  or  in  15 
per  cent  solution,  should  be  packed  in  sealed  glass  tubes.  It  is  chiefly  used 
in  making  spirits  of  nitrous  ether,  a  medicinal  preparation  containing  4  per 
cent  ethyl  nitrite.  Spirits  of  nitrous  ether  is  somewhat  more  inflammable 
than  ordinary  alcohol.  All  of  these  preparations  are  classed  as  inflammable 
liquids. 

Excelsior  is  shredded  wood  used  as  a  packing  material.  Owing  to  its 
finely  divided  form,  it  Is  readily  ignited  by  sparks,  and  therefore  not  carried 
by  some  steamship  lines. 

Explosive  Projectiles,  or  loaded  shells  for  use  in  cannon,  are  not  liable 
to  be  exploded  except  by  fire  of  considerable  intensity,  and  the  flying  frag- 
ments wonld  then  be  very  dangerous. 

Extracts,  N.  O.  S.  Extracts  may  be  dried  powders,  water  solutions,  or 
alcoholic  solutions;  in  the  last  case  they  may  be  classed  as  inflammable  liquid. 

Ferro  Silicon  is  a  compound  of  iron  and  silicon.  It  occasionally  gives 
off  poisonous  gas  when  in  large  bulk,  and  especially  if  wet.  When  shipped 
by  water,  should  be  on  deck  or  in  well-ventilated  portion  of  hold  away  from 
quarters  of  passengers  and  crew.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  dangerous  article  for 
rail  transportation,  but  is  not  accepted  by  some  of  the  steamship  companies. 

Fertilizers.  Mixed  or  complete  commercial  fertilizers  have  little  or  no 
fire  hazard.  Separate  ingredients  such  as  desiccated  leather  scrap  or  tankage, 
spent  iron  oxide,  garbage  tankage  and  partially  charred  organic  residues,  are 
often  improperly  shipped  under  the  name  of  fertilizer.  Some  of  these 
ingredients  in  bulk  are  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition. 

Fiber.  Commercial  fibers,  such  as  cocoa,  jute,  palmetto,  etc.,  are  required 
to  be  baled  for  shipment,  and  owing  to  inflammability,  are  not  accepted 
at  all  by  some  steamship  lines,  and  only  under  certain  restrictions  by  others. 

Fiberloid.      (See   Celluloid.) 

Fillerine  (fertilizer  ingredient)  is  waste  iron  oxide  which  has  been  used 
for  the  purification  of  coal  gas.  It  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  on 
exposure  to  air.  It  is  added  to  fertilizers  to  produce  bulk  rather  than  for  any 
fertilizing  value. 

Fire,  Colored  or  Tableau,  are  pyrotechnic  mixtures  for  illuminating  and 
signal  purposes.  These  mixtures  usually  contain  chlorates,  and  often  sulphur. 
Mixtures  containing  both  chlorate  and  sulphur  are  liable  to  spontaneous 


36  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

ignition.  All  such  mixtures  are  classed  as  common  fireworks  when  accepted 
for  shipment. 

Fireworks  include  everything  that  is  designed  and  manufactured,  pri- 
marily, for  the  production  of  pyrotechnic  effects.  They  consist  of  common 
fireworks  and  special  fireworks. 

Flue  Dust  consists  of  finely  divided  dust,  either  carbonaceous  in  form  of 
soot,  or  metallic,  containing  zinc,  etc.  Some  of  these  dusts  contain  large 
proportion  of  zinc  in  a  metallic  condition,  and  these  are  inflammable.  Others 
contain  zinc  as  oxide  and  are  .non-hazardous. 

Freezing  Point  of  Alcoholic  Liquids,  etc.  The  freezing  points  of  mixtures 
of  ethyl  alcohol  and  water  are  given  in  Lanuolt  &  Bornstein's  tables.  They 
are  as  follows : 

Per  Gent.  Freezing 
Alcohol.  Point. 

2.4% 30.2°    Fahr. 

5.0% 28.4° 

8.1% 26.0° 


36.4% 3-2° 

51.0% — 10.0° 

86.2% —30.0° 

It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  practically  all  alcoholic  liquors  are  liable 
to  freeze  in  extreme  temperature  at  times  prevalent  in  the  Northwest.  While 
it  is  possible  to  freeze  some  other  liquids,  water  or  water  solutions  are  the 
only  ones  which  expand  on  freezing. 

It  is  believed  that  no  damage  will  result  from  the  freezing  of  any  liquid 
other  than  alcoholic  liquors,  or  other  liquids  which  consist  of  solutions 
in  water. 

Fusees  are  colored  fire  mixtures  placed  in  pasteboard  tubes.  Mixtures  some- 
times contain  both  sulphur  and  chlorate,  and  in  this  case  are  somewhat  liable 
to  spontaneous  ignition,  especially  if  old  or  damp.  Must  be  designated  as 
common  fireworks  for  shipment.  Potassium  perchlorate  is  at  present  being 
much  subs'tituted  for  potassium  chlorate  in  these  products,  much  reducing 
the  chances  of  accidental  or  spontaneous  ignition. 

Fuses,  Platinum,  are  made  from  platinum  wire,  and  are  used  as  igniters 
over  gas  jets,  etc.,  causing  ignition  when  exposed  to  coal  gas  or  alcoholic 
vapors. 

Fulminate  of  Mercury  is  a  heavy  grayish  powder  of  crystalline  form.  It 
is  formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  and  alcohol  on  metallic  mercury.  This 
material  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive  and  dangerous  of  explosive  substances. 
It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  detonators,  blasting  caps  and 
primers. 

Fulminate  of  Silver  is  a  grayish  white  crystalline  material  used  in  toy 
torpedoes.  It  is  even  more  sensitive  than  mercury  fulminate,  and  cannot 
be  shipped  in  bulk  by  rail. 

Fusel  Oil  (Amyl  Alcohol)  consists  of  a  colorless  to  yellowish  liquid  having 
a  penetrating,  disagreeable  odor  resembling  that  of  bad  whiskey.  It  is  pro- 
duced in  the  fermentation  of  starch  and  sugar,  and  is  separated  from  grain 
alcohol.  Fusel  oil  being  a  mixture  of  various  higher  alcohols,  and  varying 
in  purity,  has  no  definite  flash  test.  So  far  as  known  all  the  commercial 
fusel  oil  has  a  flash  point  above  80°  F.  and  is  therefore  not  classed  as  an 
inflammable  liquid.  The  flash  point  is  commonly  from  100°  to  no0  F.  It 
is  generally  accepted  by  the  coast  steamship  companies,  and  much  is  imported. 

Garbage  Tankage,  a  product  from  digestion  and  extraction  of  garbage, 
consists  mainly  of  vegetable  fibers;  it  sometimes  causes  spontaneous  ignition 
and  is  refused  by  some  steamship  companies. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTH-ER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     37 

Gas   Oil   may   be   a  product   of  low   flash  point. 

Gasoline.       (.See    Benzine.) 

Gas   Purifying   Waste    (fertilizer   ingredient).      (See    Iron   Mass,    Spent.) 

Grease   Eradicator.      (See   Eradicator.) 

Greek  Fire  is  colored  fire  mixture  used  for  pyrotechnic  purposes.  Must 
be  designated  as  common  fireworks. 

Gun    Cotton.      (See    Nitrocellulose.) 

Hay,  Baled,  owing  to  its  inflammability,  is  not  accepted  by  some  steam- 
ship lines. 

Hemp,  when  baled,  is  accepted  by  some  steamship  lines  and  not  by  others. 
When  loose  it  is  accepted  by  none. 

High  Wines.      (See  Alcohol,   Grain.) 

Hydrocarbon  is  a  liquid  that  condenses  on  compression  of  Pintsch  gas. 
It  is  highly  inflammable,  having  a  flash  test  of  o°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an 
inflammable  liquid. 

Hydrochloric    Acid.       (See    Acid,    Hydrochloric.) 

Hydrogen  Gas  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  inflammable  gas,  shipped  compressed 
in  steel  cylinders.  It  requires  red  (gas)  label. 

Hydrofluoric   Acid.      (See   Acid,   Hydrofluoric.) 

Hydrocyanic  Acid.      (See   Acid,  Hydrocyanic.) 

Insect  and  Vermin  Destroying  Preparations  frequently  contain  carbon 
bisulphide,  gasoline,  naphtha  or  other  inflammable  liquids.  Such  prepara- 
tions are  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 

Iron  Mass  is  a  mixture  of  wood  shavings  with  a  hydrated  ferric  oxide.  If 
carefully  made  and  properly  oxidized,  it  is  entirely  safe.  If  an  undue 
amount  of  unoxidized  iron  remains,  further  oxidation  is  liable  to  occur, 
causing  sufficient  heat  in  closely  packed  material  to  cause  fire.  Material 
is  used  to  remove  sulphur  from  coal  gas.  If  properly  prepared  it  is  not 
classed  as  an  inflammable  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations,  but  if  not  properly 
prepared  it  is  a  forbidden  article  and  is  refused  by  most  of  the  steamship 
companies.  If  not  properly  oxidized  it  is  classed  as  a  forbidden  article  by 
tl:e  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Iron  Mass,  Spent  (Iron  Sponge,  Spent)  consists  of  the  iron  mass  or  sponge 
after  saturation  with  sulphur  in  gas  purification.  The  spent  material  is 
hable  to  spontaneous  combustion  on  exposure  to  air.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  fittle  traffic  in  this  material. 

Iron    Sponge.       (See    Iron    Mass.) 

Iron    Sponge,    Spent.      (See    Iron    Mass,    Spent.) 

Japan    Drier.       (See    Drier,    Japan.) 

Iron  Turnings,  Borings,  Filings,  when  in  large  bulk,  have  a  fire  hazard, 
as  they  oxidize  spontaneously  if  wet  and  the  oxidation  may  produce  enough 
heat  fcr  ignition.  This  risk  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  material  to  be  classed 
as  inflammable  by  I.  C.  C.  Regulations  and  material  is  accepted  by  stean: 
s'r  ip  companies. 

Kerosene  is  a  petroleum  distillate  commonly  used  for  lighting  purposes 
It  has  a  flasn. point  approximately  115-125°  F.,  and  is  not  classed  as  an  in 
flammable  liquid  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some 
of  the  steamship  companies. 

Ketone,   Methyl   or   Ethyl.      (See   Ethyl   Methyl   Ketone.) 
Laboratory    Supplies,    N.    O.    S.       (See    Chemicals,    N.    O.    S.)   . 
Lacquer  usually  consists  essentially  of  nitrocellulose   dissolved   in   a   volatile 
solvent    or    a    mixture    of    volatile    solvents.      Inflammability    depends    on    the 
character    of    these    solvents.      It    is    classed    as    an    inflammable    liquid. 

Lacquer  (Shellac)  consists  of  a  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol  and  lias  a 
flash  test  of  about  40-70°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 


38  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Lead  Nitrate  is  a  heavy  white  translucent  salt,  which  is  an  oxidizing 
agent.  It  is  used  medicinally,  and  in  the  color  industry.  It  is  commonly 
shipped  in  barrels  and  boxes  and  when  so  packed  is  not  classed  as  an 
oxidizing  material  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Leather  Cement  is  a  solution  of  rubber  in  gasoline  or  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  is  consequently  very  inflammable,  having  a  flash  test  of  approximately 
o°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Leather  Meal.      (See  Dessicated  Leather  Scrap.) 

Leather  Scrap.     (See  Dessicated  Leather  Scrap.) 

Ligroin  is  the  more  volatile  distillate  from  crude  petroleum;  it  has  a  flash 
test  of  o°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid.  This  term  is  seldom 
used.  , 

Lime.      (See  Calcium  Oxide.) 

Light  Oil.      (See  Benzole.) 

.     Liniments    frequently    contain    crude    petroleum,    ether,    alcohol    and    other 
volatile    inflammable    liquids. 

Liquid    Bronze.      (See    Bronzing    Fluids.) 

Liquids,    N.    O.    S.      Classification    depends    on    character. 

Liquefied  Petroleum  Gas  is  the  liquid  condensed  by  compressing  the  gas 
fron1  petroleum  oil  wells,  known  as  casing  head  gas.  For  transportation 
purposes  the  term  is  applied  only  to  such  products  whose  xvapor  tension  at 
100°  F.  exceeds  10  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

When  the  vapor  pressure  at  100°  F.  does  not  exceed  10  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  it  may  be  shipped  as  gasoline.  When  the  vapor  pressure  at  100°  F. 
lies  between  10  Ibs.  and  25  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  shipments  must  be  made 
in  metal  kegs,  drums  or  barrels  complying]  with  I.  C.  C.  Specification  No.  5, 
or  in  specially  built  tank  cars.  Such  material  is  classed  as  inflammable  liquid. 

When  the  vapor  pressure  at  100°  F.  exceeds  25  Ibs.  per  squate  inch, 
material  must  be  shipped  as  a  compressed  gas. 

Luxor  Oil  is  a  trade  name  for  a  certain  make  or  grade  of  petroleum 
oil  used  for  burning  and  illuminating.  It  is  not  classed  as  an  inflammable 
liquid. 

Magnesium,  Metallic,  is  a  white  metal;  in  mass  it  is  non-hazardous,  but  in 
form  of  powder  or  ribbon  it  is  highly  inflammable,  burning  with  intense 
heat  and  light.  It  is  used  in  flashlight  powder  and  pyrotechnics.  In 
powdered  form  it  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  solid. 

Matches,  "  Strike  Anywhere  "  usually  contain  phosphorus  sesquisulphidt 
and  potassium  chlorate,  together  with  other  ingredients.  Under  the  present 
Federal  law  the  manufacture  or  importation  of  matches  containing  yellow 
or  white  phosphorus  is  not  probable.  The  new  matches  are  non-poisonous, 
but  have  about  the  sanae  fire  hazards  as  those  containing  the  yellow  or  white 
phosphorus.  The  temperature  of  ignition  is  much  higher  than  with  the  old 
phosphorus  match,  but  sensitiveness  to  impact  and  friction  is  about  the  same. 
The  risks  in  transportation  are  about  the  same  as  with  the  old  match.  When 
a  package  of  matches  is  ignited  by  impact  or  friction,  the  head  composi- 
tion burns  off  the  matches,  and  the  fire  generally  goes  out  unless  the  package 
is  broken.  If  the  package  is  broken,  allowing  access  of  air,  the  fire  will 
continue.  Strike  Anywhere  Matches  are  classed  as  inflammable  "solids. 

Matches,  N.  O.  S.,  may  be  either  "  strike  anywhere  "  or  "  strike  on  box  " 
matches.  In  former  case  they  are  classed  as  inflammable. 

Matches,  "  Strike  on  Box,"  are  those  that  are  supposed  to  strike  only 
on  the  prepared  surface  of  the  box.  They  can,  however,  usually  be  ignited 
by  rubbing-  on  glass,  linoleum,  or  on  a  smooth,  unvarnished  surface.  The 
active  principle  of  the  head  composition  is  potassium  chlorate,  while  the 
prepared  surface  on  box  contains  red  phosphorus. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     39 

EDITOR'S  NOTE.— The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  label  one  manufacturer's 
matches  as  meeting  the  following  requirement: 

Class  A,  or  Strike-on-Box. — These  have  heads  made  of  a  stable 
chemical  compound  with  heat  ignition  point  exceeding  340  degrees 
Fahrenheit  and  with  low  susceptibility  to  ignition  by  shock  and 
with  the  explosive  character  and  the  fly  hazard  during  combustion 
reduced  so  far  as  is  at  present'  practicable  for  this  type  of  match 
and  have  strong  splints,  treated  to  prevent  afterglow. 

Class  B,  or  Strike-Anywhere. — These  have  heads  made  of  stable 
chemical  compounds  with  heat  ignition  point  exceeding  300  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  especially  well  safeguarded  against  ignition  by 
shock,  with  practically  no  explosion  or  fly  hazard  during  com- 
bustion and  with  the  inert  bulb  (not  ignitible  by  friction)  prevent- 
ing to  a  large  degree  the  accidental  ignition  of  the  tip,  and  have 
strong  splints  treated  to  prevent  afterglow. 

Mercuric  Chloride,  or  Corrosive  Sublimate,  is  a  heavy  white  salt  in  form 
of  powder  or  lumps.  It  is  very  poisonous,  but  not  otherwise  hazardous  for 
shipment.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  lines. 

Metallic  Potassium  and  Metallic  Sodium  are  soft  white  metals  of  silvery 
lustre  on  freshly  cut  surface,  similar  in  appearance  to  freshly  exposed  surface 
of  lead.  These  metals  are  very  readily  oxidized,  and  contact  with  water 
will  cause  ignition.  They  are,  therefore,  packed  in  mineral  oil  to  protect 
from  air  or  water,  or  in  hermetically  sealed  tin  cylinders  or  metal  drums. 
The  chief  risk  with  these  metals  is  that  they  may  be  brought  in  contact 
with  water.  They  are  classed  as  inflammable  solids. 

Metal   Polish,    Liquid.      (See  Polish.) 

Methyl   Alcohol.      (See   Alcohol,    Wood.) 

Mirbane  Oil,  or  Mono-Nitro-Benzol,  is  a  heavy  oily  liquid  of  yellow  to 
brownish  color,  and  having  the  odor  of  bitter  almonds.  Material  is  not 
very  inflammable,  having  a  flash  test  of  approximately  200°  F. 

Moss,  Florida.  This  material,  owing  to  fibrous  nature,  is  readily  ignited 
by  sparks,  etc. 

Moving  Picture  Film  consists  largely  of  nitrocellulose  and  has  risks  similar 
to  pyroxylin  plastics,  but  to  a  greater  degree.  Material  may  be  ignited  by 
sparks  or  by  proximity  tc  steam  pipes  or  other  sources  of  heat.  Material 
when  ignited  burns  with  extraordinary  and  almost  explosive  rapidity. 
Rolls  of  films  should  be  packed  in  strong  and  tight  boxes,  complying  with 
the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  They  are  classed  as  inflammable  solids  when  shipped 
by  express.  There  are  some  non-inflammable  films  made  of  cellulose  acetate. 
Owing  to  the  higher  cost,  and  lack  of  durability  of  this  kind  of  film,  the 
amount  used  is  negligible. 

Muriatic    Acid.       (See    Acid,    Hydrochloric.) 

Naphtha.       (See     Benzine    or    Benzol.) 

Naphtha    Cement.      (See    Leather    Cement.) 

Naphtha,   Coal  Tar.      (See   Benzol.) 

Naphtha  Soap  is  a  soap  said  to  contain  a  small  percentage  of  naphtha. 
This  soap  is  alleged  to  have  caused  fire  and  explosion  several  years  ago 
in  a  ship's  hold  at  Liverpool.  It  is  not  received  by  some  of  the  steamship 
lines,  but  is  not  classed  as  an  inflammable  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Naphtha,    Wood.       (See    Alcohol.) 

Naphthalene  (Coal  Taf  Camphor)  is  a  white  crystalline  solid,  having  odor 
somewhat  similar  to  camphor.  Material  is  readily  ignited  by  sparks. 


4O  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Negative.  Cotton.       (See    Nitrocellulose.) 

Neutral  Spirits.      (See  Alcohol,  Grain.) 

Nitrate   of   Barium.      (See    Barium    Nitrate.) 

Nitrate  of   Lead.      (See   Lead   Nitrate.) 

Nitrate    of    Potassium.       (See    Potassium    Nitrate.) 

Nitrate    of    Soda,       (See    Sodium    Nitrate.) 

Nitrate    of    Strontia.      (See    Strontium    Nitrate.) 

Nitre.       (See    Potassium    Nitrate.) 

Nitrite.       (See    Sodium    Nitrite.) 

Nitric    Acid.       (See    Acid,    Nitric.) 

Nitrating    Acid.       (See    Acid,    Mixed.) 

Nitre-Benzol.      (See   Mirbane   Oil;    see   Trinitro   Benzol.) 

Nitrocellulose  is  formed  by  the  nitration  of  cotton  by  treatment  with  a 
mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  After  removal  of  acid  the  product 
is  dried.  It  then  has  the  same  physical  form  as  the  original  cotton,  but  is 
highly  inflammable  and  explosive.  Sometimes  the  nitrocellulose  is  pulped 
before  drying,  and  is  then  in  form  of  a  fine  light  powder  rather  than  in 
fibrous  condition. 

Nitrocellulose  when  dry,  is  shipped  under  requirements  for  high  explosives. 
When  wet  with  volatile  solvent!  or  dissolved  in  solvents  it  is  classed  as  an 
inflammable  liquid.  When  wet  with  not  less  than  20  per  cent  of  water 
it  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  solid. 

Nitroglycerin  is  obtained  by  nitration  of  glycerin  with  a  mixture  of  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  a  heavy  oily  liquid  of  yellowish  color  resembling 
glycerin  in  appearance.  It  is  highly  explosive  and  dangerous,  and  shipment 
is  prohibited. 

Nitroglycerin.  Spirits  is  a  solution  of  nitroglycerin  of  not  more  than  10 
per  cent  strength  in  grain  alcohol.  It  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes.  The 
inflammability  of  this  solution  is  the  same  as  that  of  grain  alcohol.  It  is 
not  explosive,  but  rupture  of  package  may  allow  alcohol  to  evaporate,  and 
thus  leave  the  explosive  nitroglycerin.  On  account  of  the  practice  of  shipping 
this  article  in  small  units,  seldom  exceeding  four  ounces  of  one  per  cent 
solution,  in  quantity,  it  is  .not  mentioned  in  the  list  of  dangerous  articles 
in  the  regulations. 

Nitrotoluol.  There  are  various  compounds  shipped  as  nitrotoluol,  for 
example,  dinitrotoluol,  mononitrotoluol,  and  trinitrotoluol,  some  liquid  and 
some  solid.  None  of  the  liquid  nitrotoluols  are  explosive  or  dangerous.  Of 
the  solid  nitrotoluols,  trinitrotoluol  is  the  only  one  classed  as  a  high  explosive. 

Nitrous    Ether.      (See    Ethyl    Nitrite.) 

Oil,  Dead,  is  the  heavy  oil  distilled  from  coal  tar  after  the  distillation 
of  the  light  oil.  This  heavy  oil  is  not  very  inflammable,  having  a  high 
boiling  point  and  flash  test.  It  is  not  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid  by 
the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Oil,    Mirbane.      (See   Mirbane   Oil.) 

Oil,    Petroleum,    N.    O.    S.      Classification    depends   on   flash   point. 

Oil,  Rosin,  Light,  is  distilled  from  rosin.  It  is  a  light  oil,  having  about 
the  same  degree  of  inflammability  as  turpentine. 

Oil    of    Turpentine.       (See    Turpentine.) 

Oil    of    Vitriol.      -(See    Acid,    Sulphuric.) 

Oxygen  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  non-inflammable  gas.  It  is  shipped  com- 
pressed in  steel  cylinders.  It  requires  a  green  (gas)  label.  Some  of  these 
cylinders  contain  the  oxygen  under  very  high  pressures,  approximately  2,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies.  . 

Paint,    Aluminum.       (See    Bronzing    Liquid.) 

Paint,    Bronzing.      (See    Bronzing   Liquid.) 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     41 

Paint,    Gold.      (See    Bronzing    Liquid.) 

Paints,  Liquid,  are  paints  in  which  the  pigment  is  generally  of  miner-il 
or  metallic  origin;  the  inflammability  of  these  paints  depends  wholly  on 
the  nature  of  the  liquid  ingredients. 

Paint  Removers  frequently  contain  wood  alcohol,  naphtha  or  other  in- 
flammable solvents,  and  such  materials  are  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 

Paper,  Waste.  Old  or  scrap  paper  shipped  in  bales  is  readily  ignited  by 
sparks.  It  is  also  liable  to  have  a  fire  hazard  owing  to  the  accidental  pres- 
ence of  matches,  oily  waste,  and  other  foreign  articles. 

Paraffin  Oil  is  a  heavy  non-volatile  petroleum  oil  of  high  flash  test.  It 
is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  lines. 

Paste,  Shoe,  may  be  a  solution  of  rubber  in  gasoline  or  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  therefore  would  be  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Pentane  is  a  clear,  colorless,  volatile  liquid,  having  a  pleasant  odor.  It 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.63,  and  boils  at  temperature  of  95°  F.  or  less. 
It  gives  a  flash  test  at  or  below  o°  F.  and  is  consequently  highly  inflammable. 
It  is  obtained  from  the  more  volatile  portions  of  petroleum,  and  is  used 
as  a  standard  in  determining  candle  power  of  various  lights  and  illuminants. 
Material  is  about  the  same  inflammability  as  88°  naphtha.  It  is  classed  as 
an  inflammable  liquid. 

Perchlorate  of  Potash.  A  white  crystalline  solid,  used  as  an  oxidizing  agent 
in  fireworks  and  explosives.  It  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material  by  the 
I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies. 

Petroleum    Ether.      (See    Benzine.) 

Petroleum    Spirit.       (See    Benzine.) 

Petroleum    Naphtha.      (See    Benzine.) 

Petroleum  Oil  may  include  any  oil  derived  from  crude  petroleum,  but 
usually  term  is  used  to  indicate  the  ordinary  illuminating  oil.  The  classifica- 
tion as  to  inflammability  will  depend  on  flash  test. 

Petroleum  Products,  N.  O.  S.  Classification  as  to  inflammability  will 
depend  on  flash  point. 

Phenol.       (See    Acid,    Carbolic.) 

Phosphorus,  Red  or  Amorphous,  is  different  in  physical  form  from  yellow 
phosphorus.  It  is  a  reddish  brown  powder,  not  spontaneously  inflammable, 
nor  poisonous.  It  is  not  dangerously  inflammable,  and  is  not  classed  as 
inflammable,  and  its  shipment  is  not  restricted  by  either  the  railways  or 
steamship  lines. 

Phosphorus,  Yellow,  is  a  yellow,  waxy  solid  of  peculiar  characteristic  odor. 
It  is  highly  inflammable  and  will  ignite  at  ordinary  temperature  if  exposed 
to  the  air.  It  is  usually  shipped  under  water.  Beside  being  inflammable, 
it  is  very  poisonous.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  solid.  It  is  not 
generally  accepted  by  the  steamship  companies. 

Phosphorus,    White.       (See    Phosphorus,    Yellow.) 

Pintsch  Gas  is  formed  by  heating  fuel  oil  in  a  retort.  The  gas  produced 
is.  compressed,  the  condensed  liquid  is  drawn  off,  and  the  dry  compressed 
gas  is  stored  in  iron  or  steel  tanks.  Its  chief  use  is  for  lighting  railway 
coaches.  It  is  shipped  in  metal  cylinders  and  requires  the  red  (gas)  label. 

Pitch  Roof  Coating.      (See  Cement,  Roofing.) 

Platinum  Fuse  (Platinum  Black)  is  finely  divided  metallic  platinum,  which 
causes  spontaneous  ignition  of  mixtures  of  air  and  inflammable  vapors  or 
gases.  It  is  used  in  patent  cigar  and  gas  lighters,  also  in  some  chemical 
apparatus. 

Polish,  Liquid.  May  contain  inflammable  liquid  ingredients,  of  such  char- 
acter as  to  make  flash  test  of  mixture  80°  F.  or  lower. 

Polishing    Liquids.       (See    Polish.) 


42  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Potash,  N.  O.  S.,  may  include  nitrate,  chlorate  or  permanganate  of  potash, 
and  therefore  be  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material. 

Potassium    Chlorate.      (See    Barium    Chlorate.) 

Potassium  Cyanide  is  a  heavy  white  solid  material,  highly  poisonous,  but 
not  otherwise  hazardous.  It  is  used  in  recovering  precious  metals,  in  case 
hardening  and  electro-plating.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  lines, 
but  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous  article  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Potassium   Metallic.      (See   Metallic    Potassium.) 

Potassium  Nitrate  is  a  white  crystalline  salt,  which  acts  as  an  oxidizing 
agent.  It  is  used  to  some  extent  chemically,  and  largely  in  the  manufacture 
of  black  rifle  powder.  It  is  commonly  shipped  in  barrels  or  boxes,  and 
when  so  packed  is  not  classed  as  dangerous  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Potassium  Permanganate  is  a  purplish  crystalline  salt,  soluble  in  water, 
giving  a  highly  colored  solution.  It  is  very  rich  in  oxygen  and  may  cause 
fire  when  mixed  with  combustible  material.  Contact  with  sulphuric  acid  will 
also  cause  fire.  It  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  -material  by  the  1.  C.  C. 
Regulations.  It  is  not  accepted  by  some  steamship  companies.  It  should 
never  be  packed  in  the  same  outside-  container  with  formaldehyde. 

Potassium    Peroxide.       (See    Sodium    Peroxide.) 

Preparations,  Insect  and  Vermin  Destroying,  if  liquid,  sometimes  contain 
carbon  bisulphide  or  gasoline,  and  would  in  such  case  be  classed  as  in- 
flammable liquids. 

Preservers,  Iron,  Steel,  or  Wood,  may  contain  volatile  inflammable  liquids 
sufficient  to  lower  flash  test  to  80°  F.  or  below. 

Primers,    Electric.       (See    Electric    Primers.) 

Primers,  Percussion  and  Time  Fuses  are  devices  used  to  ignite  the  black 
powder  bursting  charges  of  projectiles,  or  the  powder  charges  of  ammunition. 
For  small-arms  ammunition  the  primers  are  usually  called  "  small-arm  primers  " 
or  "  percussion  caps." 

Proof    Spirits.      (See    Alcohol,    Grain.) 

Prussic   Acid.      (See    Acid,    Hydrocyanic.) 

Pyralin.      (See   Celluloid.) 

Pyroxylin.      (See    Nitrocellulose.) 

Pyroxylin   Plastic.      (See   Celluloid.) 

Pyroxylin  Solutions  consist  of  pyroxylin,  nitrocellulose,  or  soluble  cotton 
dissolved  in  amyl  acetate,  or  other  solvent.  The  pyroxylin  solutions  are 
used  as  a  basis  for  the  manufacture  of  lacquer,  leather  coating  compounds, 
leather  substitutes,  etc.,  and  are  generally  thicker  than  ordinary  lacquers, 
but  have  no  greater  fire  hazard.  They  are  classed  as  inflammable  liquids. 

Rags,  Old,  are  refused  by  certain  steamship  lines  owing  to  the  fire  risk. 
Old  rags  are  commonly  very  dirty  and  if  oily  or  wet  are  liable  to  spon- 
taneous heating  or  ignition.  Rags  contaiinng  more  than  5  per  cent  animal 
or  vegetable  oil,  and  wet  rags  are  prohibited  articles  under  the  I.  C.  C. 
Regulations. 

Railway    Fusees.       (See    Fusees.) 

Railway   Torches.      (See    Fusees.) 

Railway  Torpedoes.      (See  Torpedoes,   Track.) 

Removers,    Paint,   Oil  or  »Varnish.      (See    Paint   Removers.) 

Rhigolene.      (See    Benzine.) 

Rice  Straw  is  refused  by  certain  steamship  lines  due  to  liability  to  fire 
from  sparks,  etc. 

Rosin   Dross.      (See   Batting,   Dross.) 

Rubber,  Regenerated,  Shoddy,  or  Reclaimed,  consists  of  old  rubber  which 
has  been  subjected  to  chemical  treatment  of  various  kinds  to  prepare  it  for 
further  use  in  the  rubber  industry.  Some  grades  of  these  regenerated,  shoddy 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     43 

or  reclaimed  rubbers  are  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition.  According  to  the 
I.  C.  C.  Regulations  these  rubbers  must  be  packed  in  tight  metal  containers, 
or  in  wooden  boxes  complying  with  Shipping  Container  Specification  No.  17, 
except  when  in  the  form  of  dense,  homogeneous,  non-porous  sheets,  or  rolls, 
the  sheets  of  thickness  of  %  inch  or  greater  packed  flat  or  in  rolls. 

Certain  grades  of  rubber  scrap  if  ground,  powdered,  or  granulated,  are 
also  subject  to  this  risk  of  spontaneous  ignition.  Such  scrap  containing  more 
than  45  per  cent  rubber  must  also  be  shipped  in  tight  metal  containers  or 
in  wooden  boxes  complying  with  Shipping  Container  Specification  17.  Re- 
generated, reclaimed,  or  shoddy  rubbers,  or  ground  rubber  scrap  icquiring 
this  special  packing  are  classed  as  inflammable  solids  under  the  I.  C.  C. 
Regulations. 

Rubber    Cement,    Rubber    Solution.       (See    Cement,    Rubber.) 

Safety  Fuse  consists  ordinarily  of  a  core  of  fine  grain  black  powder, 
which  is  surrounded  by  yarn,  tape,  pitch,  rubber,  etc.  Squibs  are  merely 
small  paper  tubes  containing  a  small  quantity  of  black  powder,  one  end  of 
each  tube  being  twisted  and  generally  tipped  with  sulphur. 

Saltpetre.      (See    Potassium    Nitrate.) 

Shavings,  Wood,  are  refused  by  some  steamship  lines,  due  to  risk  of  fire 
from  sparks  or  other  external  causes. 

Shellac,  Liquid,  is  a  solution  of  shellac  in  grain  alcohol  or  denatured 
alcohol.  It  has  flash  test  of  40-70°  F.,  respectively,  according  to  solvent. 
It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Small-arms    Ammunition.      (See    Ammunition.) 

Sodium    Metallic.       (See    Metallic    Sodium.) 

Sodium  Nitrate  is  a  white  or  yellowish  white  salt,  imported  in  large 
amount  from  Chili.  It  is  used  very  largely  in  fertilizers,  in  explosives,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  nitric  acid.  It  is  hygroscopic,  and  is  therefore  liable 
to  be  quite  damp.  It  is  commonly  shipped  in  jute  bags  of  approximately 
200  pounds  capacity.  When  so  packed  it  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material 
by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  packed  in  boxes, 
barrels  or  kegs  as  are  the  other  nitrates  it  is  not  classed  as  an  oxidizing 
material. 

Sodium  Nitrite  is  a  yellowish  white  salt,  somewhat  moist  in  appearance. 
It  is  an  oxidizing  material  which,  while  containing  less  oxygen  than  the 
nitrates,  is  more  readily  decomposed,  and  therefore  generally  more  active. 
When  mixed  with  organic  matter,  it  is  more  readily  ignited  than  a  corre- 
sponding mixture  of  sodium  nitrate.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture-  of  dyes. 
Material  is  rather  hygroscopic,  and  is  commonly  shipped  in  barrels,  casks  or 
cases,  and  not  in  bags. 

Sodium  Peroxide,  or  Potassium  Peroxide,  is  a  white  or  yellowish  white 
powder  possessing  very  strong  oxidizing  properties.  It  is  decomposed  by 
water  or  acids.  In  contact  with  organic  matter  it  is  ignited  by  heat,  friction 
or  moisture.  It  is  always  shipped  in  tight,  metallic  containers.  It  is  a 
hazardous  commodity.  It  is  classed  as  an  oxidizing  material. 

Softener,    Leather,    may    contain    inflammable    liquids. 

Soluble    Cotton.       (See    Nitrocellulose.) 

Solvents  include  such  inflammable  liquids  as  acetone,  ether,  naphtha,  etc. 
Such  articles  are  classed  as  inflammable  liquids.  Solvents  may  have  flash  points 
above  or  below  80°  F.,  according  to  nature. 

Soot  consists  chiefly  of  finely-divided  carbonaceous  matter  together  with 
some  ammonium  sulphate.  The  presence  of  latter  renders  it  of  value  as  a 
fertilizer.  It  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

Special  Fireworks  include  all  that  contain  any  quantity  of  red  phosphorus, 
a  fulminate,  or  other  high  explosive  sensitive  to  shock  or  friction;  or  that 


44  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

contain  units  of  such  size  that  the  explosion  of  one  while  being  handled 
would  produce  a  serious  injury;  or  that  require  a  special  appliance  or  tool, 
mortar,  holder,  etc.,  for  their  safe  use:  or  that  are  designed  for  ignition 
by  shock  or  friction.  Examples  are  giant  firecrackers,  bombs  and  salutes 
(not  high  explosives),  toy  torpedoes  and  caps,  ammunition  pellets  fired  in  a 
special  holder,  railway  torpedoes,  etc. 

Spirits    of    Nitrous    Ether.      (See    Ethyl    Nitrite.) 

Stain,  Furniture  or  Leather,  may  contain  inflammable  liquids  of  such  nature 
as  to  give  flash  point  of  80°  F.  or  below. 

Spirits    of    TurpeiAine.      (See    Turpentine.) 

Strontia  may   be   term   used   to  designate  strontium   nitrate. 

Strontium  Nitrate  consists  of  a  heavy  white  crystalline  salt,  which  is  a 
strong  oxidizing  agent.  Its  principal  use  is  making  a  red  fire  in  fireworks. 
It  is  commonly  shipped  in  barrels,  and  boxes,  and  when  so  packed  is  not 
classed  as  an  oxidizing  material  by  the  I.  C.  C.  Regulations. 

Sulphuric    Acid.      (See    Acid,    Sulphuric.) 

Sulphur  Dioxide  is  the  gas  formed  by  burning  sulphur  on  iron  pyrites  in 
air.  It  has  the  well  known  irritating  and  suffocating  odor  of  burning 
sulphur.  The  liquefied  gas  is  shipped  in  iron  or  steel  cylinders.  It  is  entirely 
non-inflammable.  The  pressure  at  70°  F.  is  approximately  50  pounds  per 
square  inch.  It  requires  a  green  (gas)  label. 

Tankage,  Dried  Blood,  is  composed  of  blood  from  slaughter  houses,  evap- 
orated to  dryness  and  pulverized.  It  is  used  as  fertilizer.  It  is  not 
inflammable. 

Tankage,    Garbage.      (See    Garbage   Tankage.) 

Tankage,  N.  O.  S.,  consists  chiefly  of  various  kinds  of  slaughter  house 
scraps  and  offal.  The  fat  and  grease  are  first  extracted,  and  residue  is  then 
dried.  Tankage  of  this  character  is  not  inflammable,  nor  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  e 

Temperatures.  In  this  pamphlet  measurements  of  temperature  Lave  been 
expressed  in  Fahrenheit  degrees,  as  that  scale  is  in  common  every  day  use 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In  technical  books,  laboratory 
reports,  etc.,  the  Centigrade  scale  is  often  used.  The  following  table  will 
serve  to  change  the  Centigrade  temperature  to  the  corresponding  Fahrenheit 
temperature. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES      45 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF    THERMOMETERS 


1  Fahrenheit  degree  =  5/9  deg.  Cent. 

1  Centigrade  degree  =  9/5  deg.  Fahr. 

1  Reaumur  degree     =9/4  deg.  Fahr. 

Temp.  Fahrenheit     =  95  X  temp.  C.  +  32  deg 

Temp.  Centigrade     =  5/9  (temp.  F.  —  32  deg.) 

Temp.  Reaumur        =  4  /5  temp.  C. 

Freezing  point:    Reaumur  =    0  deg.;  Cent.  =      0  deg.;  Fahr.  =    32  deg 

Boiling  point:       Reaumur  =  80  deg.;  Cent.  =  100  deg.;  Fahr.  =  212  deg. 


=  4/9  deg.  Reaumur 
=  4/5  deg.  Reaumur 
=  5/4  deg.  Cent. 
=  9/4  R.  -f  32  deg. 
=  5/4  R. 

4/9  (F.  —  32  deg.) 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Reau. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Reau. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Reau. 

—18 

0 

—  14 

107 

225 

86 

234 

455 

187 

—15 

5 

—12 

110 

230 

88 

237 

460 

190 

—12 

10 

—10 

113 

235 

90 

240 

466 

192 

—9 

16 

—7 

116 

241 

93 

242 

469 

194 

—7 

19 

—6 

118 

244 

94 

245 

475 

196 

—4 

25 

—3 

121 

250 

97 

248 

480 

198 

—1 

30 

—1 

124 

255 

99 

251 

4S6 

201 

2 

36 

2 

127 

261 

102 

253 

489 

202 

5 

41 

4 

129 

264 

103 

256 

495 

205 

7 

45 

6 

132 

270 

106 

259 

500 

207 

10 

50 

8 

134 

275 

107 

262 

505 

210 

13 

55 

10 

137 

280 

110 

265 

511 

212 

16 

61 

13 

140 

296 

112 

267 

514 

214 

18 

64 

14 

142 

289 

114 

270 

520 

216 

21 

70 

17 

145 

295 

116 

273 

525 

218 

24 

75 

19 

148 

300 

118 

276 

531 

221 

27 

81 

22 

151 

306 

121 

278 

534 

222 

29 

84 

23 

153 

309 

122 

281 

540 

225 

32 

90 

26 

156 

315 

125 

284 

545 

227 

35 

95 

28 

159 

320 

127 

287 

550 

230 

38 

100 

30 

162 

325 

130 

290 

556 

232 

41 

106 

33 

165 

331 

132 

292 

559 

234 

43 

109 

34 

167 

334 

134 

295 

565 

236 

46 

115 

37 

170 

340 

136 

298 

570 

238 

49 

120 

39 

173 

345 

138 

301 

576 

241 

52 

126 

42 

176 

351 

141 

303 

579 

242 

54 

129 

43 

178 

354 

142 

306 

585 

245 

57 

135 

46 

181 

360 

145 

309 

590 

247 

60 

140 

48 

184 

365 

147 

312 

595 

250 

63 

145 

50 

187 

370 

150 

315 

601 

252 

66 

151 

53 

190 

376 

152 

317 

604 

254 

68 

154 

54 

192 

379 

154 

320 

610 

256 

71 

160 

57 

195 

385 

156 

323 

614 

258 

74 

165 

59 

198 

390 

158 

326 

620 

261 

77 

171 

62 

201 

396 

161 

329 

625 

263 

79 

174 

63 

203 

399 

162 

332 

630 

266 

82 

180 

66 

206 

405 

165 

335 

636 

268 

85 

185 

68 

209 

410 

167 

337 

639 

270 

88 

190 

70 

212 

415 

170 

340 

645 

272 

91 

196 

73 

215 

421 

172 

343 

650 

274 

93 

199 

75 

217' 

424 

174 

346 

656 

277 

96 

205 

77 

220 

430 

176 

348 

659 

278 

99 

210 

79 

223 

435 

178 

351 

665 

281 

102 

216 

82 

226 

441 

181 

354 

670 

283 

104 

219 

83 

228 

444 

182 

357 

675  . 

286 

/ 

231 

450 

185 

360 

681 

288 

46  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Toluene  is  a  distillate  from  coal  tar.  It  resembles  benzol  in  odor  and 
appearance,  but  is  somewhat  heavier  and  less  volatile.  It  has  a  flash  test 
of  55°  F.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  liquid. 

Toluol.      (See    Toluene.) 

Torches,    Railroad.       (See    Fusees.) 

Torpedoes,  Toy,  small  paper-covered  pellets  containing  a  paper  cap  con- 
taining a  small  quantity  of  red  phosphorus  and  chlorate.  This  cap  is  sur- 
rounded by  particles  of  gravel  to  produce  friction.  The  paper  cap  in  torpedo 
is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  small  particle  of  loose,  dry,  silver  fulminate. 
Classed  as  special  fireworks.  Sometimes  these  torpedoes  owing  to  undue 
sensitiveness  or  improper  packing,  will  explode  in  mass.  Such  explosions 
are  rare,  and  of  comparatively  slight  force. 

Torpedoes,  Track,  consist  of  hollow  tin  or  fiber  discs,  filled  with  a  mixture 
of  sulphur,  potassium  chlorate,  and  sand  or  gravel.  They  are  meant  to  be 
exploded  by  weight  of  locomotive  passing  over  them.  Classed  as  special 
fireworks. 

Trinitro  Benzol.  This  compound  when  dry  is  a  high  explosive,  but  when 
wet  with  not  less  than  20  per  cent  water  and  placed  in  waterproof  con- 
tainers, may  be  shipped  as  inflammable  solid,  with  yellow  label. 

Trinitro    Phenol.       (See    Trinitro    Benzol.) 

Trinitrotoluol.      (See    Trinitro    Benzol.) 

Turpentine  is  a  clear,  colorless  liquid  of  well  known  characteristic  odor. 
It  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  the  exudation  from  -  pine  trees.  It  is 
used  principally  in  paints  and  varnishes.  It  has  a  flash  test  of  95°  F. 

Turpentine  Substitutes  are  usually  petroleum  distillates,  usually  having 
about  the  same  flash  test  as  turpentine,  but  the  flash  point  may  be  below 
80°  F. 

Varnish    Removers.      (See    Paint   Remover.) 

Varnish,    N.    O.    S.,    may   have    flash    test    at    80°    F.    or   below. 

Viscoloid.       (See    Celluloid.) 

Whistling    Bombs.       (See    Bombs,    Whistling.) 

Wood  Flour  is  finely  divided  wood,  which  has  been  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  by  mechanical  means.  It  is  used  as  an  absorbent  in  dynamite 
manufacture,  and  also  to  a  certain  extent  in  paper  making.  It  is  readily 
ignited  by  sparks,  but  burns  slowly  when  ignited.  It  is  not  considered  liable 
to  spontaneous  ignition.  It  is  not  classed  as  a  hazardous  article  by  the 
I.  C.  C.  Regulations  and  is  commonly  accepted  by  the  steamship  companies. 

Wood  Naphtha.      (See   Alcohol,   Wood.) 

Wood  Pulp.  This  term  is  commonly  applied  to  Wood  Flour  in  the  ex- 
plosives trade.  It  is  more  properly  applied  to  the  material  made  by  digesting 
wood  with  caustic  soda,  or  sulphurous  acid.  These  pulps  are  felted  and 
baled.  They  are  not  used  in  the  explosives  business,  but  in  paper  manu- 
facture. As  regard  to  hazard  wood  pulp  is  approximately  the  same  as 
wood  flour. 

Wood    Spirits.       (See    Alcohol,    Wood.) 

Xylene,  or  Xylol,  is  a  coal  tar  distillate  similar  to  toluol,  but  heavier  and 
less  inflammable.  It  has  a  flash  test  of  95°  F. 

Xylonite.       (See    Celluloid.) 

Zinc   Dross.      (See    Dross,   Zinc   or   Lead.) 

.  Zinc  Dust,  consists  chiefly  of  finely  divided  metallic  zinc.  It  is  liable  to 
spontaneous  ignition  if  wet.  It  is  classed  as  an  inflammable  solid. 

Zinc  Flue  Dust,  from  some  processes  is  very  similar  to  zinc  dust  and 
has  the  same  risks.  Other  zinc  flue  dusts  consist  almost  wholly  of  oxides 
and  are  non-hazardous. 


DANGEROUS  ARTICLES  OTHER  THAN  EXPLOSIVES     47 
COMMON  NAMES  OF  CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES 

Aqua  Fortis Nitric  Acid 

Aqua  Regia Nitro-Muriatic  Acid 

Blue  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Copper 

Cream  of  Tartar Bitartrate  of  Potassium 

Calomel Chloride  of  Mercury 

Chalk Carbonate  of  Calcium 

Salt  of  Tartar Carbonate  of  Potassia 

Caustic  of  Potassa Hydrate  of  Potassium 

Chloroform Chloride  of  Gormyle 

Common  Salt Chloride  of  Sodium 

Copperas,  or  Green  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Iron 

Corrosive  Sublimate Bi-chloride  of  Mercury 

Diamond Pure  Carbon 

Dry  Alum Sulph.  Alum,  and  Pptassium 

Epsom  Salts Sulphate  of  Magnesia 

Ethiops  Mineral Black  Sulphide  of  Mercury 

Fire  Damp Light  Carbureted  Hydrogen 

Galena Sulphide  of  Lead 

Glucose Grape  Sugar 

Goulard  Water Basic  Acetate  of  Lead 

Iron  Pyrites Bisulphide  of  Iron 

Jeweler's  Putty Oxide  of  Tin 

King  Yellow Sulphide  of  Arsenic 


Laughing  Gas 

Lime 

Lunar  Caustic 

Mosaic  Gold 

Muriate  of  Lime. . 


.  Protoxide  of  Nitrogen 
.  Oxide  of  Calcium 
.  Nitrate  of  Silver    . 
.  Bisulphide  of  Tin 
Chloride  of  Calcium 


Niter  of  Saltpeter Nitrate  of  Potash 

Oil  of  Vitriol Sulphuric  Acid 

Potash Oxide  of  Potassium 

Red  Lead Oxide  of  Lead 

Rust  of  Iron Oxide  of  Iron 

Sal  Ammoniac Muriate  of  Ammonia . 

Slacked  Lime :  Hydrate  of  Calcium 

Soda Oxide  of  Sodium 

Spirits  of  Hartshorn Ammonia 

Spirit  of  Salt Hydrochloric  or  Muriatic  Acid 

Stucco,  or  Plaster  of  Paris Sulphate  of  Lime 

Sugar  of  Lead Acetate  of  Lead 

Verdigris Basic  of  Acetate 

Vermilion Sulphide  of  Mercury 

Vinegar Acetic  Acid  (Diluted) 

Volatile  Alkali Ammonia 

Water Oxide  of  Hydrogen 

White  Precipitate " Ammoniated  Mercury 

White  Vitriol Sulphate  of  Zinc 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS 

On  examining  the  danger-producing  features,  or  hazards,  as  they 
are  commonly  designated, ,  of  various  businesses,  it  will  be  found 
that  most  of  them  can  be  classified  as  furnaces,  driers  or  kettles. 
There  are  many,  however,  which  can  hardly  be  included  in  any  of 
these  groups,  and,  as  they  are  dissimilar,  they  will,  in  the  following 
article,  be  treated  under  the  general  heading  "  Miscellaneous." 

Furnaces 

In  practically  all  instances  the  features  of  significance  here  are 
setting,  clearance,  stack  or  chimney  and  method  of  heating  or  fuel 
used. 

By  setting  is  meant  the  nature  of  the  enclosing  walls  of  the  fur- 
nace and  the  manner  in  which  these,  as  forming  the  furnace,  are  set 
or  arranged,  as  well  as  the  condition  in  which  they  may  be  found. 

Clearance  refers  to  the  distance  of  any  heated  portions  of  the 
furnace  from  woodwork  or  other  fixed  inflammable  materials,  and 
does  not  include  distance  to  or  proximity  of  temporary  rubbish  or 
other  materials,  which  is  a  matter  of  management.  Clearance  is 
further  analyzable  into  bottom,  side — meaning  any  one  or  all  four 
sides — and  overhead  clearance. 

By  stack  or  chimney  is  meant  the  enclosure  for  the  flue  conveying 
away  the  heated  gases  of  combustion,  including  the  breeching  or 
uptake  or  downtake  to  such  stack  or  chimney.  The  construction, 
location  inside  or  outside  or  in  walls,  condition  and  clearance  of 
stacks  or  chimneys  are  the  significant  features  in  connection  with 
them. 

Method  of  heating  or  fuel  used  refers  to  the  source  of  heat,  and 
includes  coal,  coke,  wood,  gas,  gasolene,  electricity  (as  in  carbide 
furnaces),  fuel  oil,  etc.,  and  the  conditions  under  which  these  may 
be  handled  or  used.  A  fuller  treatment  of  these  features  is  given 
under  "  Boilers,"  and  will  not  be  repeated  elsewhere. 

Annealing  Ovens'. — These  are  too  numerous  in  kind  to  receive 
specific  mention.  The  more  common  and  the  general  characteristics 
of  the  ovens  as  a  class,  therefore,  will  be  given.  Annealing  ovens 
are  primarily  arid  principally  for  drawing  an  undesired  temper 
acquired  in  shaping  materials  or  to  prevent  brittleness  by  providing 
a  gradual  cooling  process. 

Plate  glass  annealing  ovens  or  kilns,  as  they  are  called,  are  large 
flat  ovens  heated  to  about  noo  degrees  F.,  into  which  the  freshly 
rolled  plate  of  glass  is  pushed  and  kept  for  five  days  until  it  has 
gradually  cooled.  Inasmuch  as  the  roofs  over  these  ovens  are  gen- 
erally low,  the  heat  from  open  doors  may,  in  time,  desiccate  the 
roof  timbers ;  the  roof  supports  are  also  frequently  found  in  contact 
with  the  setting. 

48 


M.\\rF.\<"!  fkixc  HAZARDS  49 

Sheet-iron  annealing  ovens  and  those  in  tin-plate  rolling  mills 
are  small  house-like  ovens,  .generally  brick  and  iron-bound,  in  which 
the  sealed  annealing-boxes  are  placed,  the  boxes  containing  stacked 
sheets  of  iron  rendered  too  hard  by  the  repeated  rolling  they  have 
received.  Roofs  above  these  are  low  in  some  plants;  they  should  be 
well  away  from  the  tops  of  the  ovens,  and  the  surrounding  floor 
should  be  fireproof,  as  the  annealing  boxes  are  dragged  out  quite  hot. 

The  bake  ovens  or  annealing  ovens  in  wire  mills  are  for  drawing 
the  temper  acquired  in  passing  the  wire  through  the  dies  in  the 
operation  of  "  drawing,"  or  for  drying  the  coils  after  the  scale  has 
been  removed  from  the  rods.  Generally  brick  and  iron,-  with  no 
special  characteristics. 

Annealing  ovens  for  beer  bottles  or  glass  bottles,  to  be  used 
under  pressure,  differ  from  leers  (q.  v.),  in  that  the  bottles  are 
stacked  in  brick,  iron-bound  ovens  and  allowed  to  remain  several 
days. 

Malleable  castings  are  annealed  by  enclosing  'them  in  pots  or 
boxes  containing  red  hematite  and  heating  them  several  days  in  a 
(brick  oven-like  furnace. 

Assaying  Furnaces. — There  are  several  general  kinds,  for  cal- 
cination, roasting,  reduction,  fusion,  scorification,  cupellation  and 
smelting.  If  ore  be  damp,  it  is  calcined  to  dry  it;  if  it  be  a  sulphide, 
it  must  be  roasted  before  charged  in  the  crucible  with  the  fluxes, 
etc.,  the  object  of  roasting  being  to  ensure  oxidation  and  the 
elimination  of  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc.  In  reduction  and 
fusion  the  ore  is  heated  with  fluxes  and  reducing  agents  in  a  crucible 
or  scorifier.  Scorification  and  cupellation  may  both  be  classed  as 
a  combination  of  fusion,  roasting  and  sublimation,  the  difference 
being  that  in  the  case  of  cupellation  the  volatile  compounds  formed 
are  absorbed  by  the  cupel,  while  in  scorification  they  form  a  slag. 
Smelting  in  its  restricted  sense  is  the  reduction  of  ores,  sweepings, 
metallurgical  products,  etc.,  by  fusion  in  a  furnace.  Calcining  and 
roasting  furnaces  have  shallow  fireplaces  and,  ordinarily,  brick 
bodies  bound  with  iron,  cast-iron  top  plate,  removable  grate-bars, 
a  hood  to  carry  off  fumes  and  a  stack  or  chimney  of  brick,  iron  or 
clay;  the  temperature  used  is  not  high.  Reduction  and  fusion  fur- 
naces are  similar  to  ordinary  crucible  brass  furnaces  (q.  v.)  ;  a  high 
temperature  is  used.  The  various  furnaces  above-mentioned  are 
similar  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  forms. 

Bake  Ovens. — Reference  is  made  here  to  ovens  for  baking  crack- 
ers, bread,  etc.  Modern  bakeries  generally  have  large  brick  ovens 
with  a  grate  fire  at  the  bottom  of  a  large  chamber,  in  which,  above 
the  fire,  rotates  a  sort  of  ferris  wheel,  the  cars  of  which  are  flat  pans 
to  carry  the  crackers,  biscuits,  etc.,  to  be  baked.  These  ovens  have 
brick-arched  ceilings  covered  with  a  foot  or  more  of  sand,  so  that 
top  clearance  is  not  so  significant  as  side  clearance.  The  firing  pit 
should  be  fireproof.  The  wheel  is  moved  by  machinery  and  so  timed 
in  its  rotation  that  baking  is  accomplished  in  one  complete  turn, 
when  the  product  is  removed  by  paddles.  Xewly-baked  crackers 
should  not  be  barreled  immediately,  as  they  contain  sufficient  heat 
to  cause  trouble.  Xor  should  the  cracker  coolers  and  chutes  be  of 
wood.  Bread  bake  ovens  are  generally  flat  and  massively  built,  so 
as  to  retain  the  heat  at  an  even  temperature,  and  clearance  is  not 
so  important,  although  it  is  well  to  keep  them  free.  Portable  iron 


I 

50  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

ovens  are  also  frequently  used  for  various  baking  operations  in  the 
case  of  smaller  orders,  being  practically  large  ovens  similar  to  those 
in  ranges. 

Bark  Furnaces. — Generally  in  connection  with  boilers  at  tanneries 
and  for  burning  spent  bark.  Occasionally  they  are  mere  burners, 
like  fireplaces,  in  which  no  effort  is  made  to  utilize  the  heat,  but 
as  a  rule,  they  are  brick  and  iron  furnaces  attached  to  the  boiler 
fronts  and  fed  from  the  top,  the  bark  being  piled  on  top  as  it  falls 
from  the  conveyor.  Inasmuch  as  the  bark  is  damp,  this  practice 
and  that  of  piling  it  against  the  side  setting  of  the  furnaces  and 
boilers  are  not  so  objectionable  as  they  would  appear. 

Barrel  Heaters. — Usually  the  worst  feature  in  cooper  shops,  not 
excepting  the  boiler  hazard.  Sometimes  they  are  simply  open 
hearths  on  which  the  barrels  are  placed  and  a  fire  built  inside. 
Again,  they  are  salamanders  on  a  platform.  Yet  again  they  are 
cylinder-like  stoves  with  the  flue  at  the  bottom,  or  conical-shaped 
stoves  with  telescoping  flues  at  the  apex,  so  as  to  permit  the  removal 
of  the  barrels  from  about  the  stoves.  Rarely  they  are  gas-heated 
cylindrical  stoves  or  steam-heated  cylinders.  Probably,  the  most 
objectionable  form  is  the  open  hearth;  the  safest,  the  steam  cylinder. 
Salamanders  are  not  so  bad  as  the  open  hearth,  but  nearly,  and  the 
other  forms  are  fairly  safe  when  properly  arranged.  Doubtless, 
the  reasons  for  these  opinions  are  clear  when  it  is  reflected  that 
refuse  nearly  always  strews  the  floor  about  such  heaters.  The  floor 
about  heaters  for  6  feet  or  more  should  be  protected. 

Bessemer  Converters. — Tilting  steel,  fire-brick-lined  furnaces  for 
eliminating  the  carbon  and  silicon  from  pig  iron,  preparatory  to  its 
conversion  into  steel  or  ingot  iron,  by  forcing  a  blast  of  air  through 
the  iron  while  it  is  molten.  Inasmuch  as  the  blast  is  powerful, 
sparks  and  red-hot  cinders  are  thrown  100  feet  or  more  into  the  air, 
and  all  roofs  within  reach  should  be  incombustible. 

Billet  Furnaces. — Reheating  furnaces  for  billets  which  are  blcnms, 
of  iron  or  steel  drawn  into  smaller  bars.  Generally  brick,  iron- 
bound.  Clearance  of  both  stack  and  furnace  important. 

Blacksmith  Forges. — These  are  in  general  stationary  and  port- 
able. Practically  all  portable  forges  are  iron  or  steel,  with  attached 
geared  blowers.  Stationary  forges  may  be  of  the  portable  type  or 
consist  of  iron  or  brick  bodies  into  the  center  of  which  the  blast-hole 
is  built.  Occasionally,  such  forges  have  wooden  box-like  bodies ; 
these  are  objectionable,  as  a  rule.  Forges  are  such  simple  hazards 
that  the  dangers  are  often  overlooked.  A  few  remarks  are  therefore 
added.  They  should  not  be  located  near  wooden  partitions  or  boxes 
or  other  inflammable  materials  against  or  into  which  coals  might 
land  when  the  blast  is  on.  These  sometimes  smoulder  undetected 
and  break  out  later.  Floors  which  are  splintered  or  in  bad  repair 
or  with  wide  cracks  between  the  boards  are  also  objectionable,  as 
well  as  the  presence  of  openings  in  sheathing  or  lath  and  plaster 
finish  on  walls,  ceilings  or  partitions.  The  fans  or  blowers  supplying 
the  blasts  are  sometimes  run  by  belts  from  the  floor  below,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  nothing  inflammable  is  underneath  the 
belt-hole.  Anvils  are  also  apt  to  throw  scale  around  even  further 
than  the  sparks  from  forge  fly  ordinarily. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  51 

Blast  Furnaces. — A  type  of  furnace,  consisting  of  tall  structures 
in  which  the  materials  and  fuel  are  mixed  together,  an  air  blast 
introduced  near  the  bottom,  and  in  which  fusion  of  the  contents 
is  effected.  The  principal  furnace  of  the  type  is  used  to  smelt  ore 
in  making  pig  iron.  Formerly  they  were  brick  or  stone,  like  huge 
lime  kilns,  but  nowadays  they  are  tall  iron  and  steel  stacks,  lined 
with  fire-brick,  with  loading  platforms  near  the  top  and  tap-holes 
and  tuyeres  near  the  bottom,  the  tap-holes  being  for  draining  off 
the  molten  iron  and  the  tuyeres  the  mouths  of  the  air  blasts.  A 
bell  or  cup-and-cone  arrangement  closes  the  top  after  each  charge. 
The  gases  pass  through  a  flue  in  the  side  into  a  "  down  comer " 
leading  to  the  boilers,  "  stoves/'  etc.  Explosions,  arising  from  air 
admitted  during  charging,  are  possible,  but  are  guarded  against  by 
explosion  doors  consisting  of  simple  flap-checks.  There  is  also 
danger  of  the  charge  bridging  or  arching,  technically  known  as 
"  hanging,"  within  the  furnace,  and  then  collapsing  and  bursting 
the  sides  or  bottom  out.  There  should,  therefore,  be  no  inflam- 
mable material  near  the  furnace.  Owing  to  the  repeated  flaring 
noted  at  the  top  of  the  furnaces  during  charging,  the  structures 
on  the  loading  platform  near  the  charging  door  should  be  fireproof. 
Smaller  furnaces  of  the  type  are  used  in  smelting  lead. 

Bloom  Furnaces. — For  reheating  blooms  or  long  slab-like  masses 
of  steel  or  malleable  iron  from  which  the  slag  has  been  forced  by 
hammer,  rolls  or  squeezer.  Clearance  of  both  stack  and  setting 
important. 

Blow  Furnaces. — In  window  glass  factories.  Large  reheating 
furnaces  for  heating  the  glass  cylinder  as  it  is  blown.  Generally 
brick  and  iron-bound,  and  burning  coke,  coal,  ga,s  or  fuel  oil.  In 
front  of  the  round  openings  into  which  the  blower  holds  the  cylin- 
der are  footpaths  generally  of  wood  for  the  workmen  to  walk  back- 
ward and  forward  upon  in  swinging  the  cylinder.  A  dip  pit  is  under 
these  paths  and  generally  communicates  with  a  basement.  Aside 
from  the  regular  furnace  hazard  is  the  danger  of  charring  the 
wooden  footpath,  which  is  necessarily  wood,  as  the  cylinder  strikes 
against  it  from  time  to  time,  and  stone  and  iron  would  fracture  the 
glass. 

Bluing  Ovens. — Generally  small  brick  ovens,  practically  for  tem- 
pering, used  in  giving  the  blue  finish  to  gun  barrels,  revolvers,  etc. 
No  special  comments  necessary. 

Boilers. — The  hazard  of  these  is  mainly  due  to  piling  lumber  or 
small  pieces  of  wood  on  top  of  the  boilers  to  dry,  to  direct  exposure 
of  beams,  joists,  partition  or  other  woodwork  by  the  breeching  or 
stack,  to  back-drafts,  or  to  the  ignition  of  piles  or  trains  of  shavings 
in  front  of  the  furnace. 

The  objection  to  drying  inflammable  materials  over  boilers  arises 
from  the  fact  that  unequal  expansion  of  the  boiler  itself,  its  arch- 
ings  or  its  setting,  causes  cracks  in  the  setting  or  arching.  Where 
shavings  are  used  sparks  will  fly  out  quite  freely,  and  even  hot  air 
will  escape  from  the  crevices  sufficiently  to  char  and  ignite  wood 
near,  laid  there  to  be  dried  out.  This  is  the  main  danger  at  this 
point.  The  fine  dust  which  settles  on  top  of  boilers  will  in  some 
instances  smoulder  and  hold  fire  like  punk,  and  an  additional  danger 
arises  here.  The  writer  has  conducted  many  experiments  with  such 


52  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

dust.  While  most  dust 'of  this  'description  will  not  ignite'  easily  when 
laid,  some  6f  a  fluffy,  splintery,  fibrous  nature  will,  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  the  tops  of  boilers  free  from  it.  The  dust  from 
soft  wood  removed  by  sanders,  especially  by  side  abrasion,  is  par- 
ticularly apt  to  smoulder  or  flame  up.  Sand  and  ashes  are  sometimes 
used,  to  cover  the  arching,  but  these  are  not  .safeguards  enough  to 
warrant  the  practice  of  drying  wood,  etc.,  on  top  of  the  boiler  since 
they  set  in  time,  and  fissures  and  crevices  form  in  them  also. 

Back-drafts  are  due  mainly  to  the  accumulation  of  unignited  gas 
in  the  furnace  or  flue  from  temporary  choking,  caused  by  wind, 
sudden  atmospheric  changes,  etc.,  and  may  send  sparks  and  coals 
from  the  furnace  into  the  fire  room.  For  this  reason  the  door  of 
the  shavings  vault  should  not  be  opposite  that  of  the  furnace. 
Neither  should  any  communication  with  the  main  building  be  oppo- 
site the  furnace,  even  when  provided  with  a  fire-door,  as  the  latter 
might  be  opened  at  the  time  of  a  back-draft.  Back-drafts,  however, 
are  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  breeching,  unless  lined  with  brick,  is  a  serious  exposure  to 
woodwork  even  two  or  three  feet  away,  and  for  this  reason  proper 
precaution  should  be'  taken  to  protect  any  woodwork  so  exposed. 
Soot  accumulations  sometimes  cause  over-heating,  and  even  where 
refuse  alone  is  used  as  fuel  the  crowding  of  a  boiler  may  overheat 
the  breeching.  Unlined  iron  stacks  may  also  become  a  source  of 
danger  for  very  similar  reasons.  As  a  rule,  however,  such  stacks 
are  not  as  serious  hazards  as  the  breeching,  which  is  too  frequently 
ignored  as  a  hazard.  Stacks  should  be  well  ventilated  and  provided 
with  hoods  and  thimbles  where  they  pass  through  the  roof.  Joists 
should  not  be  let  into  brick  stacks  unless  the  latter  are  very  heavy, 
and  it  is  just  as  well  then  to  be  on  the  safe  side  by  providing  headers 
about  the  stacks  to  carry  floor  beams  or  joists. 

Trains  of  shavings  are  sometimes  left  by  a  careless  fireman  from 
the  furnace  to  the  open  door  of  the  vault.  These  may  be  ignited 
and  start  a  fire.  Again,  shavings  from  the  dust  collector  are  occa- 
sionally allowed  to  fall  through  the  air  from  the  bottom  of  the 
collector  to  the  floor  in  front  of  the  boiler,  where  they  are  shoveled 
into  the  furnace.  The  objection  to  this  practice  need  not1  be  pointed 
out.  A  remote  danger  is  the  explosion  of  dust  in  the  feed  flues 
where  shavings  are  blown  directly  to  the  boilers.  This  danger  is 
practically  obviated  by  the  intervention  of  dust  collectors,  back- 
check  flaps  and  automatic  regulators.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  "the  boiler  hazard  is  most  serious  when  soft  wood  is  worked  and 
merely  nominal  where  wet  wood  (as  in  butter-dish  factories)  is, 
handled.  Where  refuse  is  used  for  fuel,  spark-arresters  should  be 
provided  for  the  stack,  as  the  risk  or  its  neighbors  often  suffer  loss 
from  flying  sparks.  Sparks  are  particularly  noticeable  when  there 
is  a 'forced  draft,  unless  the  draft  is  produced  by  exhausting  steam 
into  the  stack. 

Brass  Furnaces.- — As  a  rule,  cylindrical  iron,  fire-brick-lined  fur- 
naces containing  coke  fires  upon  which  rest  the  crucibles  holding  the 
brass  to  be  melted.  Provided  with  covers.  Coal  is  nowadays  Used 
as  fuel,  also,  but  needs  more  blast  to  get  the  desired  heat.  Stacks 
of  such  furnaces  are  very  hot  and  usually  too  light.  The  furnaces, 
unless  set  in  the  ground,  should  be  suspended  in  iron  pits  clear  of 
all  woodwork,  as  side  and  overhead  exposures*  are  intense. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  53 

Brazing  Forges. —  lira/ing  is  an  operation  similar  to  soldering 
nn  a  large  scale,  the  metal  corresponding  to  the  solder  having,  how- 
ever, a  higher  degree  of  fusibility  than  the  latter.  It  is  really  the 
welding  of  two  metals,  alike  or  dissimilar,  to  a  third  between  them. 
Ordinarily  some  modification  of  a  Biinsen  burner  is  used,  but  black- 
smith forges  (q.  v.)  are  frequently  used.  Many  brazing  apparatus 
use  the  Run  sen  burner  or  blowpipe  principle,  the  llames  impinging 
against  the  work  as  it  rests  on  a  bed  of  coke,  charcoal,  stones  or 
fire-bricks  to  give  the  heat  a  cumulative  effect.  Such  beddings 
should  never  rest  upon  wood-work,  as  they  heat  through  gradually 
and  set  fire  to  the  charred  wood-work.  It  is  impracticable  to  detail 
at  this  point  the  various  methods  of  supplying  heat.  See  "  Gaso- 
lene," "  Fuel-oil,"  etc. 

Busheling  Stoves. — Used  for  heating  flat-irons,  tailors'  irons,  etc., 
in  hat,  overall,  shirt  and  clothing  factories  and  similar  risks.  They 
are  ordinary  stoves  with  polygonal  bodies,  against  the  many  faces 
of  which  the  irons  are  allowed  to  rest  while  being  heated.  Hazard 
that  of  large  overheated  stoves.  See  ''  Slug  Heaters." 

Calciners. — These  are  of  kiln  .type  and  for  expelling  moisture. 
Lime  kilns,  calcination  furnaces,  plaster  kilns,  etc.,  are  examples. 
Generally  heavily  built  of  brick  or  stone.  Well  to  prevent  wood- 
work from  coming  in  contact  with  setting,  ho'wever,  as  fissures  may 
form. 

Candy  Furnaces4. — Usually  cylindrical  iron,  fire-brick-lined  and 
having  concentric  annular  lids  for  varying-sized  kettles.  Coke  or 
hard  coal  fires  generally  used;  sometimes  gas  and  artificial  coals. 
Chimneys  very  hot  and  frequently  too  thin.  Brick  or  cement  plat- 
form with  raised  edges  should  surround  furnaces,  and  hood  be  pro- 
vided overhead  if  ceiling  be  low,  in  case  of  accident  from  boiling 
over.  Used  in  candy  kitchens  and  factories,  bakeries,  for  syrup 
boiling,  in  extract  works,  in  fruit-cleaning  establishments,  etc. 

Carbide  Furnaces. — Electric  furnace  for  making  calcium  carbide 
from  lime  and  coke  by  fusion.  Intense  heat  internally,  but  furnaces 
are  heavily  built  and  usual  furnace  hazard  mild. 

Carbon  Point  Furnaces. — -For  baking  lamp  carbons.  Intense  heat 
used  and  clearance  and  stack  important. 

Coffee  Roasters. — Name  signifies  use.  .Generally  brick  with  rotat- 
ing horizontal  metal  cylinders  set  in  them  for  tumbling  coffee  as  it 
is  roasted.  Coal,  coke  or  gas  fuel  generally  used.  Some  danger  of 
roasted-out  gas  igniting.  Clearance  all  sides  and  stack  important. 
Xo  wooden  spouts  should  be  allowed  near,  and  coffee  should,  after 
roasting,  be  cooled  in  iron  receptacles,  as  it  retains  sufficient  heat 
to  char  wood.  Preferably  ceiling  and  floor  of  roaster  room  should 
be  fireproof. 

Coke  Ovens.-t-For  roasting  gas  out  of  soft  coal  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  coke.  Generally  stone  and  arranged  in  batteries  many  hun- 
dred feet  long.  Seldom  under  cover. 

Cupolas.— Smaller  blast  furnaces  used  in  foundries  for  remelting 
iron  preparatory  to  casting.  Generally  iron,  fire-brick-lined  stacks, 
with  charging  door  in  the  side,  air  blast  and  tap-hole  near  bottom 
and  dumping  bottom.  They  emit  a  shower  during  a  melt,  especially 
when  the  charge  runs  low.  Should  have  good  clearance  at  roof  and 


54  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

charging  floor,  as  well  as  at  the  "  dump  "  or  place  where  the  refuse 
slag  and  cinders  are  allowed  to  fall  from  the  bottom  after  a  run. 
The  "  dump  "  is  the  worst  feature  in  connection  with  cupolas,  espe- 
cially large  ones  such  as  those  in  car-wheel  foundries,  when  the 
heat  from  the  pile  of  cinders  and  slag  is  so  intense  that  it  may  ignite 
woodwork  30  feet  away.  Small  hose  should  always  be.  provided  at 
cupolas,  and  the  cupola  house  itself,  if  not  cut  off,  should  preferably 
be  fireproof. 

Crematories. — Reference  is  made  more  particularly  to  garbage 
crematories.  Those  for  cremating  the  dead  are  generally  gas-heated 
and  in  elaborately  fireproof  surroundings.  Garbage  and  dead  animal 
burners  are  generally  box-shaped  brick  furnaces,  bound  with  iron, 
with  charging  doors  in  the  top  which  is  level  with  the  receiving  floor 
and  grates  underneath.  An  effort  is  made  to  make  them  self-sus- 
taining in  the  matter  of  fuel,  gas,  coke,  coal  and  fuel  oil  being  used 
to  assist  the  cremation.  Ceilings  above  furnace  and  charging  doors 
should  be  high  and  receiving  floor  should  _not,  unless  fireproof,  be 
in  contact  with  setting.  Small  garbage  crematories  are  in  use  in  the 
back  yards,  in  some  cities,  these  being  small  brick  enclosures  without- 
tops. 

Flattening  Ovens. — Used  in  window  glass  factories  to  roll  out  or 
flatten  the  glass  after  the  glass  cylinder  has  been  seamed  or  cracked 
along  its  length.  A  combination  reheating  and  annealing  oven,  the 
reheating  part  containing  a  circular  rotating  table  upon  which  the 
glass  is  flattened  by  means  of  wooden  blocks  on  the  ends  of  pokers 
or  rods.  Roofs  over  these  generally  low,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to 
let  roof  timbers  rest  on  the  setting.  See  "  Leers." 

Galvanizing  Furnaces. — Generally  long,  low,  brick  melting  fur- 
naces, with  the  fire  under  an  open  pot  containing  the  zinc  or  alloy. 
For  galvanizing  or  coating  with  zinc,  alloy,  pipe,  wire,  hooks,  eye- 
bolts,  velocipede  wheels,  etc.  Stack  generally  most  important  fea- 
ture, as  clearance  and  setting  are  apt  to  be  good.  Various  fuels  used. 

Gas  Producers. — Reference  is  made  more  particularly  to  those 
producers  making  fuel  gas  from  soft  coal  by  roasting  it,  the  gas 
being  conveyed  hot  directly  to  the  furnaces  by  means  of  large  flues. 
In  these  producers  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  carbon  dioxide 
is  reduced  to  carbon  monoxide  by  red-hot  carbon.  Ordinarily,  the 
producers  consist  of  deep  grates  into  which  the  fuel  is  fed  from 
above,  the  air  entering  below  the  charge.  There  are  several  makes 
of  producers  which  are  generally  iron,  fire-brick-lined,  and  in  a  two- 
story  house,  the  second  story  being  for  charging  purposes  and  the 
first  for  firing.  If  adjoining  or  exposing  main  buildings,  the  pro- 
ducer house  should  be  entirely  fireproof,  as  fires  are  frequent  from 
direct  exposure,  puffs  or  back-drafts,  dust  explosions  and  sponta- 
neous combustion  of  soft  coal. 

Gas  Stacks  and  Retorts. — Retorts  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
coal  gas.  They  are  cylindrical  receivers  horizontally  placed,  closed 
at  one  end  ami  sealed  at  the  other  by  a  hinged  door.  They  are 
arranged  in  tiers  like  the  tubes  of  a  boiler,  and  enclosed  in  a  brick 
setting  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  boilers,  with  a  coke  fire  under 
them.  The  retorts  are  filled  with  bituminous  coal,  sometimes  mixed 
with  cannel  coal,  from  which  gas  is  roasted  or  distilled.  This  gas 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  55 

passes  by  its  own  expansion  through  a  riser  at  the  front  end  which 
ascends  and  turns  downward  into  the  first  seal  or  hydraulic  main, 
as  it  is  called. 

The  dangers  in  connection  with  retorts  may  be  several.  Ordi- 
narily they  are  not  serious  in  properly  constructed  plants.  There 
is  the  ordinary  furnace  hazard.  In  withdrawing  the  charge  after 
a  "  run,"  there  is  a  possibility  of  its  setting  fire  to  any  woodwork 
with  which  it  might  come  in  contact  or  be  near,  and  the  building 
should  have  an  incombustible  floor  and  walls.  When  the  retort 
doors  are  opened  there  is  a  mild  explosion  of  the  already  heated 
and  expanded  residue  gas  inside  mixed  with  the  newly  admitted 
air,  resulting  in  some  soot  which  lodges  on  the  walls  and  roof,  as 
well  as  small  sparks  or  pieces  of  soot,  from  the  concussion,  being 
sent  upward.  Soot  is  also  produced  from  the  smoking  at  the  retort 
doors  when  the  riser  to  the  hydraulic  main  becomes  choked  until, 
in  time,  rhe  rafters  Become  coated  with  flaky  soot  which  the  above- 
mentioned  sparks,  or  those  of  extraneous  origin,  may  ignite.  It  is 
evident,  then,  that  the  retort  house  roof  should  be  incombustible. 
Another  danger  shared  between  the  retorts  and  hydraulic  main  is 
from  leakage  in  the  seal  of  the  latter  which  may  result  in  the 
admission  of  air  from  a  back  pressure  into  any  retort  which  should 
happen  to  be  opened  for  the  purpose  of  recharging.  Such  accidents 
have  occurred,  resulting  in  the  wreckage  of  the  hydraulic  main,  the 
top  of  the  retorts  and  the  roof. 

Stacks  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  water  gas.  They  are  the 
generator,  carburetter,  superheater  and  combined  stacks.  In  the 
separate  stack  system  the  generator  is  an  iron  cupola  or  stack  lined 
with  fire-brick,  and  containing  a  deep  bed  of  coke  fire  into  which 
steam  is  injected.  Before  the  "  run  "  is  begun,  however,  an  air  blast 
from  a  Sturtevant  or  other  fan  heats  the  fire  up  to  the  desired 
temperature.  It  is  then  shut  off  and  the  steam  admitted.  The  tem- 
perature, about  i6co  degrees  R,  disintegrates  the  steam  into  its 
component  elements,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  the  former  uniting  with 
the  coke  and  producing  carbonic  oxide,  and  the  latter  remaining 
free.  These  two  gases  pass  over  in  about  equal  volumes  to  the 
carburetter  through  what  would  otherwise  be  the  smoke  flue  of 
the  generator. 

In  this  system  the  carburetter  is  a  similarly  built  furnace  to  the 
generator  except  that  it  contains  a  checker-work  of  heated  bricks 
against  which  the  crude  oil  is  sprayed.  This  oil  is  first  heated  by 
being  led  up  through  the  delivery  main  of  the  superheater,  and 
is  drawn  from  tanks  by  means  of  small  steam  pumps.  The  heated 
bricks  vaporize  the  oil  which  mingles  with  the  hydrogen  and  car- 
bonic oxide  from  the  generator,  and  all  pass  on  to  the  superheater 
which  makes  them  a  fixed  gas  to  prevent  subsequent  condensation. 

There  is  something  of  the  furnace  hazard  in  the  carburetter,  but 
it  is  slight.  A  more  serious  danger  is  the  accidental  admission  of 
air,  which  can  come  through  the  blower  pipe,  as  stated,  or  through 
the  peep-holes  provided  for  the  operator  if  carelessly  manipulated 
or  injured.  The  peep-holes  are  iron  pipes  with  two  shut-off  valves, 
the  outer  having  a  center  of  glass,  or  one  shut-off  valve  and  a  fixed 
glass  eye-piece.  Evidently,  the  breakage  of  the  eye-piece  would 
result  in  an  accident  which  might  fire  the  building. 

The  superheater  in  the  separate  stack  system  is  a  furnace  similar 
to  the  carburetter,  without  the  oil  injectors,  and  provided  with  the 


56  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

final  smoke  flue  for  the  system  (when  the  blast  is  on),  which  flue' 
is  covered  with  a  lid  when  the  apparatus  is  making  a  "run."  After 
a  "  run "  the  lid  is  lifted,  the  air  blast  started,  and  any  remaining 
gas  blown  out  through  the  flue,  clearing  the  apparatus  for  a  new 
"  run."  The.  superheater  is  provided  with  a  water-seal  which  pre- 
vents the  gas,  during  a  "  run,"  from  returning  to  the  superheater. 

The  superheater  is  also  provided  with  peep-holes,  the  hazard 
from  which  has  been  indicated,  and  there  is  considerable  of  the 
furnace  hazard,  but  the  features  most  likely  to  result  in  fire  are 
the  "roaring"  at  the  top  of  the  stack  when  the  blast  is  put  on 
and  the  ignition  of  the  mingled  gas  and  air  at  that  point.  The 
"roaring,"  so-called,  makes  the  ventilator  above  red-hot,  and  the 
combustion  of  the  gas  and  air  envelops  the  whole  roof  with  flames. 
Evidently,  the  building  must  be  entirely  iron  and  brick.  The  roar- 
ing is  similar  to  that  of  a  foundry  cupola  and  from  very  much  the 
same  cause.  The  ignition  of  the  residue  gas,  and  the  air  at  the 
top  of  the  superheater  is  intentional,  being  effected  by  a  pilot-light 
at  the  point  designed  to  burn  any  escaping  gas.  It  is,  however, 
none  the  less  likely  to  burn  the  roof  if  it  is  wood.  Leakage  of  the 
oil:  pipe  in  the  delivery  main  may  also  cause  trouble,  but  it  would 
probably  be  local. 

In  the  combined  stack  system  each  stack  is  arranged  with  a  deep 
bed  of  coke  fire  at  the  bottom,  with  several  skeleton  arches -above, 
each  arch  carrying  its  quota  of  checker-bricks  against  which  the 
crude  oil  impinges.  Each  stack  has  also  a  blow-off  flue  and  lid. 

The  hazards  are  similar  to  those  in  the  separate  system,  except 
that  they  are  rather  more  marked,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  admis- 
sion of  air  is  apt  to  result  in  worse  explosions.  The  oil  is  also 
heated  by  a  jacket  of  steam  instead  of  being  passed  through  the 
pipe  inside  of  a  delivery  main.  Repairs  are  thus  more  easily  made 
and  the  exact  condition  of  the  oil  system  known.  The  arrange- 
ment of  glower  valves  is  more  complicated,  and  therefore  human 
error  is  likely  to  play  a  greater  part  in  accidents. 

Glory  Holes. — Small  reheating  furnaces  found  only  in  bottle  fac- 
tories, for  reheating  the  necks  preparatory  to  shaping  the  bead  upon 
it.  Formerly  heated  by  coke  and  coal  fires,  the  ashes  of  which 
fell  through  the  eye  and  could  expose  the  timbers  of  the  floor  under- 
neath. Now  heated  by  gas  or  fuel  oil.  Generally  well  away  from 
walls  and  surrounding  the  melting  furnace  proper,  the  room  con- 
taining which  has  a  high  'ceiling.  Ordinarily,  they  are  small  fire- 
brick, iron-bound  furnaces,  similar  to  large  soldering-iron  heaters, 
set;on  iron  legs. 

Hearths. — A  type  of  furnace  used  principally  in  metallurgical 
work  and  steel  and  iron  mills,  and  consisting  of  shallow  and  more 
or  less  open  fireplaces,  in  which  the  materials  and  fuel  are  mixed, 
a  blast  of  air  supplied  and  the  atmosphere  made  more  or  less  oxi- 
dizing by  varying  the  amount  of  air  supplied.  Generally  brick  and 
aron.  Clearance  important. 

Hearths. — Reference  is  not  made  to  the  type  bearing  this  name, 
but  to  fireplaces  and  barrel  hearths:  Chimneys  for  these  should  be 
double  brick,  with  ample  throats.  The  floor  of  the  fireplacg  should 
extend  well  in  front  of  the  fire,  and  the  space  under  the  lire  or  grate, 
if  any,  should  be  built  on  brick  or  cement  arches.  There. is  always 
danger,  with  wood  fuel,  of  sparks  flying  out  into  ai  room. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  57 

Heating  Furnaces. —  Furnaces  classifiable  thus  are  almost  innu- 
merable. The  principal  are  heating  furnaces  for  sheet  iron  in  cut 
nail  works;  rods  in  nut  and  holt  works;  billets  and  blooms  in  steel 
and  iron  works;  rods,  bars  and  blocks  in  forge  and  blacksmith 
-.i»l»s;  fagots  in  rolling  mills;  trunnions,  axles,  ordnance,  etc.,  in 
ordnance  foundries  and  forge  shops,  and  for  various  parts  in  straight 
metal  and  mixed  metal  and  wood-workers. 

Heating  Furnaces  (for  buildings). — These  are  of  the  general 
kinds — steam,  hot  air  and  hot  water.  Hot  air  furnaces  are  of  two 
kinds — those  supplying  the  hot  air  to  the  rooms  through  flues  and 
those  heating  the  rooms  by  circulating  the  hot  air  through  radiators. 
I  lot  water  heating  is  accomplished  by  circulating. hot  water  through 
radiators  similar  to  steam  radiators.  In  all  systems  a  furnace  is 
required,  and  this  is  generally  iron-jacketed  or  set  in  brick.  Top 
clearance  to  joists  and  side  clearance  to  wooden  bins  or  partitions 
are  generally  important.  Smoke  flue  should  also  have  good  clear- 
ance and  enter  chimney  horizontally.  Hot  water  and  steam  pipes 
should  not  come  in  contact  with  wood,  as  even  hot  water  pipes  char 
wood,  and  the  lower  the  temperature  at  which  wood  is  charred  the 
easier  it  ignites.  Hot  air  flues  should  be  double  in  partitions  and 
cold  air  intake  flues  should  be  iron  for  several  feet  away  .from  fur- 
nace. Ashes  should  be  kept  in  metal  receptacles  and  not  mixed 
with  papers  and  rubbish  -in  wooden  boxes  or  barrels. 

Kilns. — These  are  generally  for  expelling  moisture  or  chemical 
constituents  by  heating.  They  are  nearly  always  heavily  built  of 
brick  or  stone,  but  are  sometimes  metal  and  lined  with  fire-bricks. 
Lime  kilns  are  of  two  types,  continuous  and  periodic,  both  being 
subdivided  into  short  and  long-flame  kilns.  Short-flame  kilns  have 
alternate  layers  of  fuel  and  long-flame  kilns  burn  the  fuel  on  a 
grate,  the  gases  only  coming  in  contact  with  the  limestone.  Gyp- 
sum kilns  in  plate  glass  works,  in  which  the  gypsum  is  calcined  in 
making  plaster  of  paris  for  setting  the  glass  on  the  polishing  wheels, 
cement  kilns  and  rock-burning  kilns  in  plaster  mills,  are  all  similar 
to  lime  kilns.  Plaster  kilns  in  plate  glass  works,  for  reclaiming  the 
plaster  of  paris  after  it  has  been  used,  are  rather  furnaces  than 
kilns,  being  brick  and  iron-bound.  Calcining  operations  in  all  kinds 
of  metallurgical  work  are  frequently  carried  on  in  kilns.  Clearance 
the  main  feature  in  all. 

Knobbing  Furnaces. — Small  bfoomery  furnaces.  Much  used  for- 
merly in  steel  manufacture  and  then  using  charcoal  fuel.  Brick, 
iron-bound.  Roofs  above  were  low,  dried  out  and  subject  to  fre- 
quent fires  from  sparks  rising. 

Lead  Furnaces. — Tn  smelting  lead  there  are  four  general  kinds 
of  furnaces :  reverberatory,  blast  and  slag  furnaces,  and  melting-- 
pots for  desilverizing.  The  reverberatory  and  blast  furnaces  are  of 
the  usual  construction,  the  latter  resembling  a  foundry  cupola ;  the 
slacr  furnace  or  hearth  is  a  sort  of  blast  furnace  of  brick  and  iron 
construction,  for  treating  rich  slags  obtained  in  smelting  in  the 
reverberatory  furnaces,  and  the  melting-pots  are  huge  iron  kettles 
set  on  brick  foundations,  with  the  fire  underneath. 

Leers. — Low  brick  annealing  furnaces  for  bottles,  table  ware,  etc. 
Ordinarily  they  consist  of  a  tunnel-like  oven  with  a  fire  at  one  end, 


58  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

a  chimney  near  the  middle  and  an  open  door  at  the  other.  The 
ware  to  be  annealed  is  placed  upon  iron  trays  and  shoved  into  the 
heated  end  of  the  leer,  where  a  conveyor  engages  a  hook  or  lug  on 
the  trays  and  draws  them  through  to  the  cool  end  where  they  are 
removed  and  the  ware  packed.  Gradual  cooling  is  thus  accomplished 
and  brittleness  avoided.  Roofs  above  are  generally  low,  but  this 
fact  is  immaterial  unless  roof  supports  are  on  leer  setting.  Wooden 
braces  were  formerly  used  and  were  obviously  objectionable.  Pack- 
ing with  straw  or  paper  should  not  be  allowed  near. 

Melting-Pots. — These  occur  in  a  great  variety  of  risks  for  a 
variety  of  purposes.  Those  which  may  properly  be  classed  as  fur- 
naces generally  consist  of  a  pot,  kettle  or  basin  set  on  brick  founda- 
tions, with  a  gas,  coke,  oil  or  coal  fire  underneath.  Some  of  the 
more  common  are  lead  pots  for  melting  lead  in  moulding  ingots, 
strip  lead,  lead  castings,  etc. ;  solder-pots  in  can  factories  and  tin 
shops,  usually  for  remelting  and  reclaiming;  zinc  and  tin  furnaces 
for  galvanizing,  tinning,  etc.;  stereotype  furnaces,  for  melting  type 
metal  in  making  forms  from  matrices.  They  are  apt  to  be  set  in 
crowded  corners  or  places,  and  clearance  is  an  important  feature. 

Muffle  Furnaces. — A  type  of  furnace  used  in  metallurgy  and  for 
many  purposes  in  which  a  chamber  is  heated  by  the  flames  and 
gases  circulating  in  flues  around  them.  Generally  brick  and  iron- 
bound. 

Pipe-bending  Furnaces. — For  heating  large  pipes  preparatory  to 
bending.  Generally  similar  to  large  open  blacksmith  forges  and 
involving  the  same  hazards  on  a  large  scale. 

Pitching  Apparatus. — In  breweries.  For  coating  the  interior  of 
kegs  with  pitch  to  prevent  the  tannic  acid  of  the  oak  staves  from 
affecting  the  beer.  The  apparatus  generally  consists  of  a  super- 
heater for  burning  out  old  pitch  and  a  pitch  melting-pot.  Both  vary 
greatly  in  construction  and  details  of  use.  If  direct  fires  are  used, 
the  apparatus  should  be  outside  or  in  a  fireproof  room,  as  the  pitch 
is  apt  to  boil  over. 

Portable  Forges. — Used  for  heating  rivets,  small  pieces  of  metal 
to  be  worked,  tempering  tools,  etc.  Generally  consist  of  iron  basin 
on  iron  legs  with  blower  attachment.  See  "  Blacksmith  Forges." 

Pot  Arches. — In  glass  factories.  Brick,  iron-bound  furnaces  for 
baking  the  expensive  clay  glass  melting-pots  and  stones  and  tweels 
forming  the  furnaces.  Operated  at  a  high  temperature  and  gen- 
erally built  in  a  leanto.  Inasmuch  as  the  door  is  frequently  opened 
while  the  furnace  is  still  hot,  the  roof  overhead  will  become  charred 
and  ignited  unless  it  has  full  clearance.  Side  clearance  also  very 
important  and  no  wooden  braces  should  be  allowed. 

Puddling  Furnaces. — Reverberatory  furnaces  for  converting  pig 
iron  into  wrought  iron  by  the  expulsion  of  carbon  and  impurities. 
These  furnaces  are  brick,  fire-brick-lined  and  iron-bound.  Puddling, 
in  brief,  consists  of  melting  down  the  iron,  boiling  it  and  rabbling 
it  (stirring  up  the  charge),  firing  and  balling.  The  last  consists 
in  pushing,  by  means  of  rods  through  holes  in  the  work  door,  the 
spongy  iron  together  into  a  sort  of  ball,  which  is  then  removed  and 
shingled  in  a  hammer  or  squeezer.  Shingling  consists  of  welding 
the  particles  of  iron  together  and  squeezing  out  the  slag.  Clear- 
ance, especially  of  stack,  important. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  59 

Ranges. — Cooking  stoves,  generally  of  a  larger  size,  with  oven 
compartments,  broilers,  water-backs,  etc.  Generally  cast-iron  and 
sheet-iron.  Frequently  set  too  close  to  wainscoting  or  partitions 
and  space  behind  used  as  catch-all.  Wood  also  piled  behind  to  dry 
in  many  instances.  Both  are  bad  practices.  Hotel  ranges  fre- 
quently have  large  iron  hoods  above  them  to  carry  off  odors  and 
smoke  from  broilers,  etc.,  and  the  flues  from  these  hoods  should  be 
clear  of  woodwork,  as  they  often  burn  out  from  the  greasy  accumu- 
lations, and  bad  fires  have  resulted.  Coal  or  wood  ranges  should 
have  sheet  metal  in  front. 

Reduction  Furnaces. — See  "  Assaying  Furnaces." 

Refuse  Burners. — In  connection  with  sawmills,  refuse  is  burned 
in  pits,  piles  or  furnaces,  especially  built  for  the  purpose.  The 
pits  or  piles  should  evidently  be  located  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
mill  and  lumber  yards,  as  the  wind  carries  the  sparks  and  small 
brands  surprisingly  far.  Two  hundred  feet  square  clearance  is  fre- 
quently required,  but  this  distance  is  by  no  means  a  guaranty  of 
safety,  especially  if  refuse  be  burned  in  huge  piles,  to  which  it  is 
sent  on  conveyors  or  by  hand.  Such  piles  are  sometimes  seen  burn- 
ing continuously  at  the  end  of  a  long  conveyor,  which  drops  the 
refuse  on  the  heap  from  a  height  of  30  to  40  feet.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  mention  that  these  piles  are  a  serious  menace  to  sur- 
rounding property. 

A  regular  slab  burner  is  often  found  quite  near  the  mill,  some- 
times within  15  or  20  feet.  It  consists  of  a  cylindrical  furnace  of 
brick  or  iron,  lined  with  brick,  with  a  dome-shaped  wire  screen 
spark-arrester  at  the  top.  They  run  about  10  to  20  feet  in  diameter 
and  30  to  60  feet  in  height.  An  opening  in  the  side  about  20  feet 
from  the  ground  admits  the  refuse  which  is  brought  to  the  burner 
by  a' drag-conveyor.  These  are  much  safer  than  pit  or  pile  burners, 
but  may  start  fires.  It  is  possible  for  a  coal  of  fire  or  a  brand  to 
be  carried  back  into  the  mill  on  the  return  portion  of  the  conveyor. 
The  spark-arresters,  become  worn,  allowing  sparks  to  escape,  and 
sparks  sometimes  issue  from  the  lower  doors  or  cracks  above  them. 

In  connection  with  broom  factories,  small  brick  furnaces  are  used 
to  burn  unavailable  refuse.  They  are  frequently  too  close  to  build- 
ings and  surrounded  by  broom  straw. 

Regenerative  Furnaces. — A  type  of  furnace  for  many  uses,  in 
which  the  waste  heat  is  employed  for  heating  the  air,  or  air  and  gas, 
supplied  to  the  furnaces.  Most  important  is  steel  and  iron  plants. 
The  regenerative  feature  may  be  applied  to  other  types,  as  the  rever- 
beratory,  the  famous  Siemen's  furnace  being  a  regenerative  rever- 
beratory  furnace.  They  are  generally  brick  and  iron,  with  compart- 
ments and  chambers  for  the  waste  gases.  Generally  in  fireproof 
surroundings. 

Retorts. — Of  various  forms  and  for  a  multiplicity  of  uses. 
Where  of  the  furnace  type,  they  generally  consist  of  a  closed  vessel 
of  iron,  glass  or  stoneware  set  on  a  brick  foundation  or  enclosed  in 
brick,  with  the  fire  underneath.  Used  in  coal  gas  works,  in  which 
they  are  cylindrical  iron  chambers  enclosed  in  brick  walls;  in  nitric 
acid  plants,  in  which  they  are  stoneware  jugs  set  on  brick  furnaces; 
and  in  metallurgical  operations,  in  which  they  are  iron  vessels  fixed 
in  brick  work  and  heated.  Explosion  hazard  in  some  cases,  due  to 


6o  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

air  and  gas  inside  becoming  mixed  and  ignited.    Otherwise,  ordinary 
furnace  hazards  prevail. 

Reverberatory  Furnaces. — A  type  of  furnace  finding  many  appli- 
cations, in  which  the  fuel  is  burnt  in  a  separate  part  of  the  chamber, 
the  flame  and  hot  gases  only  coming  in  contact  with  the  material 
treated.  Used  extensively  in  steel  and  iron  mills  and  smelting- 
pfants.  Generally  brick  and  iron  and  in  fireproof  surroundings. 
If  not,  clearance  of  both  furnace  and  stack  important. 

Rivet  Forges. — Either  portable  forges  (q.  v.)  or  small  heating 
furnaces  for  heating  rivets  in  bridge,  structural  iron,  boiler,  iron 
tank,  ship  building,  etc.,  works. 

Rouge  Ovens. — In  plate  glass  works,  for  roasting  copperas  in  the 
manufacture  of  buffing  rouge  for  use  in  polishing.  Generally  flat, 
brick  furnaces. 

Salamanders. — Stoves  with  open  tops,  no  flues  and  generally 
raised  on  three  iron  legs.  Used  for  heating  purposes  in  foundries, 
rolling  mills,  etc.,  where  ceilings  are  high;  also  for  drying  out 
brewers'  vats  preparatory  to  varnishing,  for  drying  new  , plastering 
in  buildings,  for  taking  chill  off  foundry  sand,  etc.  Sometimes  used 
in  place  of  forges  for  heating  small  work  and  as  stove  in  barrel- 
heating.  Coke  or  charcoal  the  usual  fuel ;  sometimes  wood.  They 
should  have  fixed  pans  under  the  grates  and  be  used  with  great 
care  iri  any  environment  containing  combustibles. 

Slug  Heaters. — Stoves  or  furnaces  for  heating  the  removable  iron 
slug  used  in  one  form  of  tailors'  irons.  Generally  coke  or  coal-fired, 
brick-heating  furnaces.  Frequently  without  sufficient  clearance, 
and,  owing  to  frequent  tramping,,  floors  about  are  apt  to  be  worn. 
Found  in  connection  with  hat,  overall,  shirt  and  clothing  factories. 

Stalls*. — A  type  of  calcining  furnace  taking  its  name  from  its  gen- 
eral appearance,  in  which  the  materials  are  mixed  with  fuel.  Free 
access  of  air  is  permitted  and  no  fusion  takes  place.  Ordinarily, 
the  furnace  consists  of  two  rows  of  brick  compartments  with  a 
chamber  between,  each  compartment  having  th*e  top  and  outer  side 
open,  giving  the  appearance  of  horse-stalls.  These  open  places  are 
loosely  covered  during  the  operation.  Reguli  and  mattes  are  often 
calcined  in  stalls.  There  should  be  plenty  of  overhead  clearance. 

Stereotype  Furnaces. — For  melting  the  type  metal  used  in  cast- 
ing forms  from  the  pulp  matrices  in  large  printing  establishments. 
Generally  cylindrical  iron,  fire-brick-lined  furnaces,  similar  to  large 
candy  furnaces  with  the  lead  pot  set  in  the  top.  Frequently  set  in 
close  quarters. 

Stills  (direct-heated). — Rare  nowadays  for  distilling  spirits. 
Steam  still  used  more  frequently.  Direct-heated  stills  are  found  in 
small  plants  and  are  very  objectionable,  owing  to  the  danger  of 
explosion.  Furnace  hazard  'normal  otherwise,  the  copper  or  other 
metal  still  being  set  on  an  ordinary  brick  furnace.  Platinum  stills 
used  in  concentrating  sulphuric  acid  are  direct-heated,  but  no  in- 
flammable vapors  are  given  off ;  these  stills  are  very  valuable,  how- 
ever, and  easily  damaged  by  falling  lead  from  towers  or  chambers, 
in  case  of  fire,  heated  lead  and  platinum  forming  an  amalgam. 

Stoves. — Reference  is  made  to  heating  stove's,  laundry  stoves,  cook 
stoves,  etc.  Their  construction  is  familiar.  Their  hazards  consist 


M. \.\rKAcruRiNG  HAZARDS  61 

of  the  direct  exposure  of  inflammable  material  by  the  stove  itself 
or  its  flue,  the  emanation  of  sparks  from  the  grate  or  open  door  or 
from  crevices  in  the  stove  or  flue  and  the  escape  of  soot  or  sparks 
past  possibly  ill-lining  collars  or  thimbles  at  the  entry  of  the  flue 
into  the  chimney.  In  general,  wood  stoves  are  the  most  hazardous, 
and  all  stoves,  except  those  using  gas,  should  be  set  on  metal  or 
other  protection  ample  in  ai^ea ;  no  stovepipes  should  enter  a  chimiuy 
or  tile  flue  vertically,  and  chimneys  should  preferably  be  built  from 
the  ground  and  not  rest  on  side  brackets,  stirrups  or  attic  floors. 
Stovepipes  should  never  pass  through  blind  attics  or  other  concealed 
spaces,  and  ventilated  thimbles  should  protect  them  at  all  partitions. 

Stoves,  Hot  Blast.— For  utilizing  the  heated  waste  gases  from 
blast  furnaces  in  warming  up  the  air  furnishing  the  blast.  They  are 
variously  constructed  of  brick  or  iron-lined  with  brick,  with  checker- 
work  or  flues  inside  for  the  cold  air  to  pass  through  and  heated  by 
the  waste  gases  referred  to.  Such  stoves  are  huge  affairs,  generally 
detached  from  any  buildings. 

Tempering  Ovens. — Of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  generally  brick  or 
iron-bound  brick  and  lined  with  fire-brick.  For  tempering  tools, 
steel, 'parts,  etc.  Many  articles,  such  as  files,  are  tempered  by  thrust- 
ing them  first  into  a  pot  of  melted  lead  and  then  into  oil  or.  water 
or  other  bath. 

Tinners'  Furnaces. — Reference  is  made  to  all  soldering  iron  heat- 
ers. The  old  style  and  still  used  furnace  or  fire-pot  is  a  small  ver- 
tical sheet-iron  cylinder  stove,  set  on  a  pan  and  using  charcoal  fuel ; 
commonly  used  by  plumbers  and  roofers  and  either  portable  or 
stationary.  Many  fires  caused  by  leaving  them  alone  in  rubbishy 
surroundings,  the  wind  or  drafts  frequently  causing  them  to  flare 
up.  Later  fire-pots  use  gas,  oil  or  gasolene  flames,  and  are  iron 
boxes  lined  with  fire-brick,  with  an  apron  in  front  on  which  to 
rest  the  soldering-iron.  These  should  be  on  iron  legs,  if  inside,  and 
used  preferably  on  iron  tables.  The  use  inside  of  those  having 
gasolene  receivers  or  tanks  attached  should  be  discouraged,  the  gaso- 
lene being  supplied  to  the  burners,  and  the  blast  furnished  by  air 
under  pressure  in  the  receiver.  Such  portable  devices  are  subject 
to  hard  usage  and  become  leaky. 

Tinning  Furnaces. — In  tin  plate  works  the  sheet-iron  is  passed 
through  a  tank  of  palm  oil  and  then  through  a  large  kettle  being 
set  on  a  low  brick  furnace.  The  oil  sometimes  becomes  fired  and 
roof's  above  such  apparatus  should  be  high  or  fireproof  and  the 
floor  about  incombustible. 

Tire  Furnaces. — For  setting  tires.  In  ordinary  blacksmith  shops 
a  wood  fire  may  be  built  in  the  yard  about  the  tire  to  be  shrunk. 
In  some,  a  cabinet-like  oven  is  provided  for  heating  the  tire,  the 
object  of  heating  being  to  expand  the  tire  so  that  it  will  fit  over 
the  rim  of  the  wheel  which  is  made  a  little  larger  than  the  interior 
diameter  of  the  tire  when  it  is  cool ;  as  the  tire  cools,  the  rim  is 
pulled  tightly  down  upon  the  spokes  and  the  wheel  stiffened.  The 
wood  fires  referred  to  should  be  well  away  from  any  buildings. 

Wind  Furnaces. — A  type  of  furnace  consisting  of  deep  fireplaces, 
with  grates  at  the  bottom  and  flue  openings  at  the  top,  for  heating 
crucibles,  etc.  Used  for  many  purposes,  but  principally  in  metal- 
lurgical work.  > 


62  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Drying  and  Driers 

In  driers  of  all  kinds  the  principal  features  to  be  considered  are 
the  construction  and  method  of  heating.  Construction  is  intended 
to  include  all  matters  of  arrangement.  Frequently,  as  in  wood- 
workers, the  location  of  the  device  is  important.  To  save  repetition, 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  all  steam-pipes,  direct  or  exhaust,  may 
cause  fire,  the  steam-pipe  hazard  being  due  to  the  charring  and  sub- 
sequent ignition  of  the  inflammable  material.  Jets  of  hot  air  may 
also  cause  fire,  in  blower  systems,  even  where  the  jets  are  of  low 
temperature,  the  reason  for  this  being  obscure. 

Board  Drying. — In  knitting  mills.  Underwear  after  washing  is 
drawn  oveV  board  forms  which  are  suspended  by  hooks  from  the 
ceiling  or  racks  above  them,  and  the  room  heated  by  hot  air  or  steam- 
pipes.  Hosiery  and  knit  gloves  and  mittens  are  dried  similarly. 

Bone  Drying. — In  packing  plants,  bones,  after  being  washed,  are 
dried  on  open  steam-coils  a  foot  or  more  above  the  floor  or  in  spe- 
cially constructed  boxes  or  rooms,  generally  of  wood.  Wooden- 
slatted  trays  holding  the  bones  sometimes  rest  on  the  steam-pipes, 
the  practice  being  objectionable.  Modern  plants  build  these  dry- 
rooms  fireproof. 

Bone-black  Kilns. — The  decolorizing  and  clarifying  properties  of 
bone-black  are  restored  by  reburning  in  retorts  heated  by  furnaces 
which  are  usually  set  in  brick  and  iron-bound.  These  should  be 
located  in  fireproof  buildings,  as  there  is  not  only  a  bad  furnace 
hazard  but  a  great  deal  of  fine  dust  present.  The  elevators  for  the 
bone-black  should  also  be  preferably  of  iron  and  arranged  so  as  to 
be  self-cleaning.  Preliminary  heaters  are  located  above  the  kilns 
in  some  instances,  utilizing  the  hot  gases  from  the  furnaces.  They 
are  used  to  dry  the  bone-black  before  it  passes  into  the  retorts. 
Modern  plants  have  separately  constructed  and  arranged  kiln  houses, 
but  should  it  happen  by  any  chance  that  the  kiln  house  was  of 
ordinary  construction  and  not  cut  off,  it  should  be  regarded  as  a 
prohibitive  feature. 

Brick  Kilns. — These  are  in  general  clamps  and  permanent  kilns. 
Clamps  are  kilns  of  the  up-draft  type,  the  walls  of  which  are  built 
up  at  each  fire  or  run  and  torn  down  when  the  bricks  within  have 
been  burned.  They  are  generally  roofed  over  with  boards,  also  of 
a  more  or  less  temporary  nature,  but  are  sometimes  erected  in  regu- 
lar sheds.  The  fireplaces  are  built  at  the  bottom  on  each  side.  Sheds 
are  apt  to  be  badly  exposed  by  the  kiln  tops.  Some  continuous  kilns 
are  partially  temporary,  continuous  kilns  being  those  in  which  the 
firing  is  done  in  one  part  while  the  stacking  goes  on  in  another,  the 
operations  succeeding  each  other  around  the  kiln. 

Permanent  kilns  are  substantially  built  of  brick  and  iron-bound, 
and  are  either  of  the  down-draft  or  up-draft  type.  They  are  gen- 
erally not  under  cover,  although  sheds  similar  to  the  above  may  be 
built  over  them  or  over  the  fireplaces,  and  occasionally  they  are 
found  inside  buildings.  Clearance  and  method  of  heating  are  the 
most  important  features,  oil,  gas,  coal  and  coke  being  used  as  fuel. 
The  fireplaces  are  arranged  as  above. 

Terra  cotta,  terra  cotta  lumber,  tiles,  drain-pipes,  sewer  pipes,  etc., 
are  burned  in  similar  kilns. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  63 

Brick  Pan-Driers. — Flat  brick  furnaces,  the  top  being  like  a  floor 
on  which  green  bricks  are  stacked  to  dry.  Sand  or  other  stock  is 
also  sometimes  dried  on  such  a  floor. 

Brick  Tunnel-Driers. — Wooden  or  brick  driers  for  green  bricks 
built  in  the  form  of  tunnels,  into  which  the  bricks  are  pushed  on 
trucks  or  racks.  Generally  steam-heated. 

Butterworth  Driers. — A  drier  in  textile  mills  in  which  the  stock 
is  made  to  pass  backword  and  forward  between  flat  coils  of  steam- 
pipes  one  above  another.  Several  other  driers  of  the  same  general 
type.  If  wooden  enclosure,  rather  objectionable.  All  should  be 
easily  cleanable. 

Calendars. — Steam-heated  rolls  or  cans  through  which  paper, 
cloth,  rubber-covered  cloth,  etc.,  are  passed  to  be  heated  and 
smoothed.  Used  in  super-calendering  paper,  making  gossamer,  etc. 

Can  Driers. — A  type  of  drier  in  which  the  stock  is  wound  on  or 
laid  over  or  passes  over  and  between  can-like  cylinders  heated  inside 
by  steam  or  hot  water.  Used  in  slashers,  paper  engines,  pasteboard 
machines,  corrugated  strawboard  packing  machines,  etc. 

Candy  Starch  or  Dry-Rooms. — Generally  frame,  steam  or  hot  air 
heated  enclosures  containing  the  moulded  candy,  in  wooden  racks, 
to  be  dried.  Sometimes  built  fireproof,  but  rarely.  Explosion  haz- 
ard present  on  account  of  starch  in  mould,  and  no  open  lights 
should  be  used  inside  or  near  the  rooms.  Pipes  also  become  very 
dusty.  » 

Caul  or  Dry  Boxes  or  Heaters. — These  are  small  box-like  warm- 
ing and  drying  ovens  used  in  preparing  stock  to  be  glued,  and  rang- 
ing from  i  to  2  feet  on  a  side  to  15  or  20  feet  long  by  4  to  6  feet 
in  width  or  height.  They  are,  if  anything,  even  more  likely  to  start 
a  fire  than  kilns,  since  equal  care  is  not  taken  in  keeping  them 
clean.  A  fire  in  one  is  more  accessible,  however,  and  lining  with 
metal  reduces  the  hazard  considerably.  The  steam-pipes  should  be 
well  collared  where  they  enter  and  leave  the  boxes.  A  particularly 
objectionable  form  of  dry-box  is  that  sometimes  found  in  musical 
instrument  works,  where  several  turns  of  a  stovepipe  inside  supply 
the  heat.  Defective  joints  or  overheating  would  play  havoc.  It 
may  be  well  to  emphasize  the  objection  to  caul  or  dry  boxes,  as 
these  hazards  are  frequently  underestimated.  Certain  forms  are 
opened  at  the  top  and  difficult  to  clean.  Even  when  lined  with  tin, 
therefore,  there  is  a  chance  for  smouldering  to  occur  and  break 
out  after  hours.  Not  infrequently  wood  is  left  in  them  overnight, 
and  as  they  are  usually  located  where  a  fire  once  started  will 
spread  rapidly,  they  should  be  watched  carefully.  The  tin  lining, 
while  it  reduces  the  hazard,  is  not  entirely  effective  in  preventing 
a  fire.  Other  forms  have  objections  that  will  occur  to  any  one  after 
a  little  thought.  The  best  form,  and  one  which  should^be  regarded 
as  standard,  is  that  in  which  the  top,  sides  and  ends  are  iron,  with 
the  steam-pipes  on  iron  supports  about  6  inches  above  the  lower 
edges  of  the  sides  forming  the  only  bottom,  the  whole  apparatus 
resting  upon  iron  legs  2  or  3  feet  long.  With  this  arrangement,  the 
box  is  self-cleaning,  since  there  is  no  bottom,  and  the  hot  air,  being 
lighter  than  the  surrounding  air,  will  remain  in  the  box  above  the 
pipes.  If  iron  be  too  expensive,  frame  boxes  built  this  way  are 
much  more  desirable  than  any  other. 


64  FlRE    PREA'ENTION    AND    PROTECTION 

Chipped  Glass  Glue  Dry-Rooms. — Chipped  glass  is  made  by -first 
sanding  the  surface  and  then  applying  a  stiff  glue  which  on  drying 
curls  up  and  tears  off  the  surface  of  the  glass,  producing  the  fern- 
like  tracery  characteristic  of  chipped  glass.  The  drying  is  assisted 
by  gentle  steam  heat  in  frame,  compartments. 

Core  Ovens. — For  drying  the  cores  used  in  castings.  Generally 
large  brick  ovens  set  on  the  ground,  with  brick  and  iron  ceilings, 
iron  doors  at  the  entrance  and  a  coke  fire  inside.  The  flue  or 
chimney  of  this  type  is  generally  at  the  far.  end  from  the  fire,  so 
that  the  gases  and  heat  will  traverse  the  interior.  Another  form 
is  an  iron  oven  with  trays  to  carry  the  cores,  sometimes  steam- 
heated,  and  again  set  on  a  stove.  Mild  furnace  hazard  in  either 
kind. 

Dish  Warmers. — Also  used  as  driers.  Found  in  hotels  and  res- 
taurants and  generally  consisting  of  iron  steam-heated  closets  or 
ovens.  Steam-pipe  hazards. 

Dry  Lofts.— In  some  kinds  of  oilcloth  works  large  hanging  rooms 
heated  by  steam-pipes  are  used,  involving  the  steam-pipe  hazard 
and  that  of  explosion  from  the  volatile  ingredients  used  in  making 
the  oilcloth  and  a  serious  hazard.  Ground  rubber  is  also  seasoned 
or  dried  in  attics  or  lofts  heated  by  steam-pipes,  generally  with  a 
mild  temperature.  Tacking  lofts  in  tanneries  arc  similar  to  the 
last,  the  leather  or  skins  being  stretched  on  frames  which  are  hung 
from  hooks  on  the  bottom  of  joists  or  racks  built  below  the  joists 
for  the  purpose;  hot  air  is  sometimes  used;  hazard  mild,  as  a  rule. 
In  some  tanneries  the  tacking  frames  are  piled  one  above  another  in 
front  of  hot-air  pipe  openings. 

Emery  Driers. — In  plate  glass  and  other  factories  where  polish- 
ing emery  is  reclaimed.  Generally  metal  pans  set  over  steam-pipes 
or  stoves. 

Feed  Driers. — For  drying  refuse  from  corn-starch  works,  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  etc.  Horizontal,  rotating  iron  cylinders,  as  a  rule, 
steam-heated.  Sometimes  set  on  iron  legs  and  sometimes  in  brick- 
work. Furnace  heat  often  used,  coke,  coal,  gas  or  fuel  oil  supplying 
the  heat.  Stock  is  fed  in  one  end  and  gravitates  to  the  other,  falling 
to  the tfloor  or  into  a  conveyor  or  elevator  boot.  Clearance'  and 
manner  of  heating  important.  No  wooden  spouting  nor  partitions 
should  be  in  contact  with  setting.  Direct-heated  driers  should  be 
in  fireproof  surroundings  or  in  a  section  well  cut  off. 

Fertilizer  Driers. — Used  for  drying  blood  and  tankage  in  packing 
plants  and  tankage  in  garbage  reduction  works  or  similar  risks. 
Generally  consist  of  one  or  more  slightly  inclined,  rotating  iron 
cylinders  set  in  brick  and  heated  by  direct  fires  or  steam.  Some 
types  are  entirely  iron,  with  a  lagging  of  asbestos  and  set  on  iron 
legs.  The  tankage  is  picked  by  hand  or-  machines  and  shoveled  into 
hoppers  leading  to  the  cylinders,  in  which  it  'is  tumbled  and  from 
which  it  emanates  in  a  dry  state.  It  is  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  floor 
or  into  the  buckets  of  an  elevator.  The  surroundings  are  dusty  and 
woodwork  is  often  too  close  to  the  setting.  A  bad  feature  inside, 
as  a  rule. 

Fruit  Driers  or  Evaporators. — Generally  racks,  containing  screen- 
like  trays  for  the  fruit,  arranged  in  a  room  or  compartment  warmed 
by  hot  air  or  steam-pipes. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  65 

Glue  Dry-Rooms. — In  glue  factories  the  glue  is  brought  from  the 
chill  room,  sliced  up  and  placed  on  wire  screens  with  wooden  frames. 
These  are  piled  one  upon  another  on  trucks  and  pushed  into  long, 
low,  tunnel-like  compartments,  generally  frame  and  heated  by  hot 
air  or  steam-pipes. 

Grain-Driers. — These  are  of  three  general  kinds — direct-heated 
rotaries,  steam-heated  rotaries  and  stationary  driers,  heated  by 
steam  coils  or  by  air  from  furnaces  or  blown  through  steam-coils. 
The  first  are  seldom  found.  Steam-heated  rotaries  are  wooden  or 
iron  drums,  slightly  inclined,  into  which  the  grain  is  admitted  and 
tumbled  over  steam-coils  as  it  passes  through.  Hazard  that  of 
steam-pipes.  Should  be  constructed  so  as  to  be  readily  cleaned  and 
precautions  taken  to  see  that  fires  in  them  could  not  spread  through 
the  spouting. 

Stationary  driers  in  which  the  grain  rests  upon  the  steam-pipes 
as  a  grid  are  objectionable;  these  are  rare.  t 

A  stationary  drier,  such  as  is  used  in  oatmeal  mills  and  in  other 
risks  for  similar  purposes,  consists  of  circular  pans,  one  above 
another,  with  steam-pipes  under  each  pan.  The  grain  is  admitted 
to  the  top  pan,  where  it  is  stirred  and  pushed  along  by  revolving 
paddles  which  gradually  work  it  inward  until  it  reaches  an  opening 
near  the  center  through  which  it  falls  to  the  pan  below.  Here  an- 
other set  of  paddle's  pushes  it  and  tumbles  it  outward  until  it  falls 
off  the  outer  edge  to  the  pan  below.  This  operation  is  repeated 
through  the  whole  series  of  pans  until  the  grain  has  passed  through 
the  apparatus  and  is  removed  by  conveyors.  Fans  may  or  may  not 
be  provided  to  remove  the  moisture  which  is  driven  off.  Cooling 
may  be  done  on  unheated  pans  below  the  heated  ones,  or  separately. 
There  is  a  steam-pipe  hazard  in  connection  with  these,  and  fine  par- 
ticles which  the  paddles  do  not  touch  may  remain  and  become 
charred,  finally  causing  trouble.  Aside  from  the  actual  contact  of 
the  heating  pipes  with  combustible  material,  and  the  last-mentioned 
feature,  which  is  a  matter  of  care,  the  hazard  of  driers  of  this  type 
is  small.  They  should  'not  be  enclosed  in  wood,  however,  as  the 
wood  becomes  desiccated  and  is  readily  ignitible  in  case  small  fires 
start  on  the  pans. 

Stationary  driers,  in  which  the  grain  is  run  in  and  remains  quiet 
while  hot  air  is  blown  through  it  from  steam  coils,  are  practically 
the  only  ones  in  use  nowadays,  and  will  receive  more  detailed  men- 
tion. Most  of  them  work  on  the  same  principle,  the  main  difference 
between  them  being  in  the  mechanical  arrangements  for  holding 
the  grain  so  that  it  will  be  evenly  dried  or  conditioned.  Most  of 
them  have  ducts  running  through  the  grain,  into  which  hot  air  is 
forced  and  escapes  through  the  grain,  or  the  grain  is  columned  and 
the  air  blown  through  the  walls  of  the  columns.  The  ducts  and 
retaining  walls  are  variously  of  wood  and  netting,  netting  on  iron 
or  perforated  iron.  In  this  type  of  driers  the  possible  sources  of 
danger  are  the  use  of  steam-pipes  and  of  fans  or  blowers.  The 
steam-pipes  may  cause  trouble  by  actual  contact  with  temporary 
woodwork  or  by  charring  dust  or  refuse  of  a  combustible  sort  that 
may  accumulate  upon  them.  Blowers  or  fans  have  the  usual  engine 
( or  electric  motor)  hazards  accompanying  them,  as  well  as  a  bear- 
ings hazard  of  their  own.  They  also  produce  a  draft  toward  the 
steam-coils,  stir  up  grain  dust  and  provide  drafts  which  would  facili- 


66  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

tate  the  spread  of  .fire.  In  addition,  forced  drafts  of  hot  air  have 
a  peculiar  charring  effect  upon  wood,  causing  it  to  ignite  at  an 
alarmingly  low  temperature. 

The  Hess  and  Eureka  driers  column  the  grain,  through  which  the 
air  is  blown,  passing  first  through  grain  already  dried  on  its  way 
to  the  steam-coils.  These  driers  possess  many  advantages  and  are 
as  safe  as  can  be  expected. 

Hair  Batteries. — Arrangements  for  drying  hair  in  tanneries  or 
packing  plants.  Generally  screens,  gratings  or  perforated  iron  floors 
over  steam-pipes  or  hot-air  chambers  or  both.  Enclosures  generally 
frame, 

Hanging  Rooms. — In  tanneries  leather  is  suspended  from  hooks 
over  steam-pipes  on  racks  along  the  floor  or-  in  rooms  warmed  by 
hot  air ;  hazard  generally  mild.  Large  frame  halls  are  used  in  wall1 
paper  hanging  rooms,  the  folds  of  paper  moving  in  festoons  over 
steam-pipes  on  racks  underneath  ;  a  bad  hazard  in  case  fire  starts 
owing  to  construction  and  desiccated  condition  of  rooms  and  pres- 
ence of  so  much  inflammable  material.  Similar  dry-rooms  are  found 
in  playing-card  and  coated-paper  works. 

Hat  and  Hat  Body  Dry-Rooms. — In  felt,  wool  and  straw-hat 
factories.  Generally  frame  steam-heated  rooms  with  racks  and 
pegs  for  the  hats  or  bodies.  Steam-pipe  hazard  'only,  no  gas  being 
evolved  from  the  hats.  If  stoves  supply  the  heat,  the  hazard  is 
obviously  increased. 

Hominy  Kilns. — See  description  of  rotary  grain  driers.  The  type 
is  used  in  the  various  "  health  food  "  factories. 

Hop  Kilns. — The  hops  are  spread  to  a  depth  of  1.8  inches  on  a 
'slatted  floor  covered  with  burlap,  and  hot  air  passes  up  through 
them  from  a  furnace  in  the  first  story  of  the  kiln  house.  Twelve 
hours  is  the  usual  length  of  time  allowed  for  drying,  one  run  a 
day  being  the  custom.  Sometimes  two  runs  of  9  or  10  hours  are 
made.  In  the  latter  case  the  fires  have  to  be  forced,  as  greater 
heat  is  needed.  From  time  to  time  the  hops  are  turned  over  so  as 
to  permit  even  drying. 

Various  styles  of  furnaces  are  used,  the  most  common  being 
box-shaped  and  horizontal,  or  drum-shaped  and  vertical,  the  flue 
being  coiled  about  the  room  before  it  enters  the  chimney.  The  fur- 
nace is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  room  under  the  slatted  floor, 
in  which  room  sulphur  is  also  burned  in  a  flat  dish  or  pot  placed 
on  the  furnace,  the  fumes  rising  and  bleaching  the  hops.  Saltpetre 
is  also  similarly  burned,  in  some  cases,  to  toughen  the  hops  so  that 
they  will  not  damage  readily  in  handling. 

Chimneys  for  the  furnace  are  variously  constructed  of  brick,  vitri- 
fied, unglazed  and  cement  drain-pipes,  and  iron.  They  are  variously 
.built  and  supported,  the  brick  ones  generally  being  single. 

Kiln  house  is  two  stories  and  the  warehouse,  always  adjoining, 
also  two  stories.  Generally  frame  on  brick  or  stone  foundations. 

Japan  Ovens. — For  baking  enamel  or  japan  on  bicycle  frames, 
iron-work  of  buggy  tops,  sewing  machines,  typewriters,  etc.  They 
are  generally  and  preferably  brick,  tile  or  iron  or  combinations  of 
these.  Sometimes  they  are  frame.  If  the  oven  is  on  a  wooden  floor 
its  own  floor  should  be  two  thicknesses  of  brick  laid  with  cement 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  67 

mortar  or  one  layer  on  ^-inch  of  asbestos  on  sheet-iron.  Doors  to 
be  of  iron  and  tight-fitting.  Explosion  vent  to  be  provided,  prefer- 
ably in  the  ceiling  and  leading  to  the  outside  air.  Heating  oy 
steam-pipes  on  iron  supports,  preferably  at  the  sides.  No  open 
lights  should  be  used  'near,  as  the  vapors  given  off  during  baking 
are  explosive  when  mixed  with  air.  If  other  than  steam  heat,  such 
as  that  from  open  gas  flames,  stoves  or  furnaces,  be  used,  there 
should  be  no  direct  connection  between  the  interior  of  the  oven  and 
the  chamber  containing  the  open  flames,  otherwise  explosions  will 
be  imminent.  Preferably,  japan  ovens  should  be  located  outside. 

Ladle  Driers. — For  drying  out  and  semi-baking  the  clayjining  in 
bull  and  pouring  ladles  in  foundries.  Sometimes  wood  fires  are  built 
inside  of  them  ;  sometimes  ovens,  somewhat  similar  to  core  ovens, 
are  built  for  the  purpose. 

Laundry  Dry-Rooms. — Generally  frame,  with  sectional  sliding- 
racks  to  carry  the  articles  to  be  dried,  and  heated  by  steam-pipes. 
They  should  be  entirely  iron  or  fireproof.  Lining  with  sheet-iron 
or  asbestos  does  not  make  them  safe.  Screens  should  be  provided 
above  the  steam-pipes  to  catch  socks,  collars,  etc.,  accidentally  fall- 
ing. See  also  remarks  on  lumber  kilns,  many  of  which  apply  here. 

Lithographed  Card  Dry-Rooms. — For  drying  freshly  litho- 
graphed cards.  Generally  frame  compartments  provided  with  gentle 
steam  heat.  Similar  to  japan  ovens,  but  a  milder  hazard. 

Lithographed  Tin  Dry-Rooms.— Used  also  for  baking  painted 
and  varnished  cans.  Practically  the  same  as  japan  ovens  (q.  v.). 

Lumber  Kilns.- — In  general,  kilns  may  be  classified  as  direct- 
heated  and  steam-heated.  Direct-heated  kilns  may  be  further  sub- 
divided into  what  are  known  as  furnace,  smoke  and  open-fire  kilns. 

Furnace  kilns  are  those  in  which  stoves  or  furnace-like  fire- 
places are  utilized  to  supply  the  heat,  the  furnace  or  stove  jutting 
into  the  kiln-room  or  being  built  in  a  pit  inside  the  kiln  structure. 
In  this  type  metal  smoke  flues  may  or  may  not  be  utilized  to  sup- 
ply a  portion  of  the  heat  in  which  they  are  zig-zagged  back  and 
forth  or  coiled  in  the  kiln-house  before  venting  to  the  outside  air. 
Obviously,  this  type  of  kiln  is  very  hazardous,  owing  to  the  possi- 
bility of  live  sparks  or  heated  jets  of  air  escaping  from  cracks  or 
crevices  in  the  top  plate  or  sides  of  the  furnace  or  stove  or  in  the 
smoke  flues  from  them,  not  to  mention  the  direct  exposure  of  the 
stock  to  be  dried  or  portions  of  the  structure  by  the  stoves,  furnaces 
or  flues,  through  accident  or  poor  arrangement. 

The  open-fire  and  smoke  processes  are  crude  methods  in  which 
the  stock  to  be  dried  is  piled  or  stacked  around  and  over  an  open 
fire  built  in  a  pit  in  the  ground,  the  stack  being  enclosed  by  common 
boards  laid  against  it  and  standing  on  end  or  built  as  a  sort  of 
fence.  The  dangers  of  this  method  of  drying  are  obvious,  the 
flames,  sparks  and  smoke  passing  freely  through  the  piled  lumber 
and  providing  ripe  conditions  for  the  destruction  of  the  edifice,  if  so 
flimsy  an  affair  may  be  dignified  with  the  term.~  This  type  of  drier 
has  fallen  into  disuse  largely,  being  found  at  present  mainly  in 
Southern  States. 

Steam-heated  kilns  may  be  subdivided  into  what  is  known  as 
natural  draft  and  blower  systems.  Natural  draft  kilns  are  the 


68  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

familiar  ones  encountered  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  wherein  live 
or  exhaust  steam-pipes  are  supported  from  above,  arranged  in  coils 
about  the  sides  of  the  room,  sometimes  placed  vertically  in  the 
center,  or,  most  frequently,  built  as  a  gridiron  under  the  stock. 
Practically,  the  only  hazard  of  this  type  is  what  is  known  as  the 
steam-pipe  hazard,  although  what  appears  yet  to  be  merely  a  theory 
has  been  advanced,  that  the  banking  up  of  hot  air  and  the  subse- 
quent admission  of  cold  air  into  such  kilns  could  produce  a  fire. 
The  steam-pipe  hazard,  however,  is  quite  apt  to  be^in  its  element  in 
such  kilns,  especially  where  they  are  frame,  inasmuch  as  the  interior 
becomes  in  time  desiccated  and  splinters,  short  lengths  of  wood, 
dust  and  pitch  from  the  dried  stock  may  accumulate  upon  the  pipes. 

In  the  blower  type  of  kilns,  the  steam-pipes  supplying  the  heat 
are  located  generally  in  large  iron  boxes,  open  at  one  end  for  the 
admission  of  air,  which  is  drawn  from  the  coils  and  blown  on  to 
the  kiln-room  by  means  of  fans.  The  blower  and  coils  used  are  the 
familiar  hot-air  heating  apparatus,  found  so  often  in  use  in  con- 
nection with  the  heating  of  churches,  halls,  schools  and  factory 
buildings,  the  hot  air  in  such  cases  being  delivered  to  the  desired 
points  through  metal  flues.  In  addition  to  the  steam-pipe  hazard, 
the  blowers  or  fans  in  this  system  of  drying  have  the  usual  engine 
or  electric  motor  hazard  accompanying  them,  as  well  as  bearings 
hazards  of  their  own.  The  forced  draft  itself  is  not  negligible  as 
a  hazard  when  a  fire  has  once  started,  and,  in  addition,  hot-air 
drafts  have  a  peculiar  charring  effect  upon  wood,  causing  it  to  ignite 
at  an  alarmingly  low  temperature.  It  is  even  stated  that  warm-air 
drafts,  especially  in  the  form  of  jets  such  as  might  issue  from  the 
crevices  in  poor  joints,  will  ignite  wood  at  ordinary  atmospheric 
temperatures.  The  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  is  not  at  hand, 
notwithstanding  the  fact. that  it  seems  to  have  occurred  frequently. 
It  is  just  as  well,  however,  to  bear  the  possibility  of  fires  occurring 
from  this  source  in  mind  in  the  arrangement  of  kilns.  The  steam- 
coils  and. blowers  for  kilns  are  sometimes  located  in  the  engine  or 
boiler-house,  but  are  most  frequently  found  in  a  small  addition  to 
the  main  kiln  structure.  In  many  instances  the  fan-room  is  crowded, 
dirty  and  oily,  so  that  fires  starting  at  the  bearings  have  a  good 
chance  to  spread  and  are  immediately  conveyed  to  the  interior  of 
the  kiln.  Not  frequently  it  happens  that  the  iron  box  enclosing  the 
steam-coils  rests  upon  wooden  supports.  The  practice  should  be 
discouraged,  since  the  iron  enclosure  is  at  practically  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  coils  themselves,  and  might  cause  trouble  in  time. 
To  minimize  the  danger  from  the  forced  drafts  in  case  of  fire,  it  is 
possible  to  arrange  flap-check  valves  in  the  main  conduit  to  the  kiln, 
so  that  one  will  fall  into  place  across  the  conduit,  shutting  off  the 
draft  from  the  kiln,  while  at  the  same  time  another  opens  at  a 
point  outside  the  kiln  to  relieve  the  bank-up  pressure  ensuing.  One 
objection  to  the  blower  system,  which  can  be  overcome  effectually 
only  by  care  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  apparatus,  is  the  fact  that 
an  induced  draft  is  set  up  and  may  draw  in  upon  the  coils  not  only 
foreign  inflammable  materials,  but  transient  sparks  from  locomo- 
tives, boiler  stacks,  boiler  furnaces  or  exposure  fires  while  the  fan 
is  in  operation. 

While  it  would  seem  that  the  blower  system  is  much  safer  than 
any  other  in  connection  with  the  drying  of  lumber,  it  appears  that 
such  is  not  the  case,  and  that  natural  draft  kilns  have  greater 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  69 

immunity  from  fires  than  any  other  kind.  The  longevity  of  any 
kind  of  frame  kiln,  however,  seems  to  be  limited  to  five  or  six 
years,  on  the  average,  and  this  fact  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in 
considering  dry-kilns  as  internal  or  external  exposures. 

There  seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  why  dry-kilns  should  not  be 
made  entirely  incombustible,  except,  of  course,  as  far  as  their  con- 
tents are  concerned,  so  that  wisdom  would  dictate  that  any  lumber 
dry-kiln,  whether  of  the  natural-draft  or  blower  system,  when  inside 
or  exposing  a  main  building,  should  be  absolutely  fireproof  as 
regards  the  material  of  its  own  construction.  Automatic  sprinklers 
in  kilns  are  desirable,  but  owing  to  the  manner  in  which  lumber  is 
piled  in  kilns  these  cannot  operate  to  the  best  advantage.  Steam- 
jets,  however,  in  view  of  the  confined  nature  of  the  space  to  be 
protected,  should  be  valuable  in  the  extinguishment  of  kiln  fires. 

Malt  Kilns. — For  curing  sprouted  barley  in  making  malt.  Of  two 
general  types.:  in  one,  the  heat  is  from  a  coke  or  hard  coal  fire  in 
a  central  furnace  without  a  stack,  the  heat  and  gases  rising  through 
the  grain  as  it  lies  upon  perforated  iron  floors ;  in  the  other,  the 
fires  are  located  on  either  side  of  the  kiln-room,  the  heat  passing 
up  flues  in  the  walls  and  entering  the  space  between  a  slanting 
iron  ceiling  and  the  perforated  floor,  there  generally,  in  all  types, 
being  more  than  one  of  the  latter.  The  fires  of  central-fire  kilns 
are  hooded,  the  sprouts  abraded  sliding  into  bins  beside  the  fur- 
naces from  which  they  are  removed  and  sold  as  feed.  Hopper  kilns 
have  either  wooden,  brick  or  iron-lined  hoppers  under  the  first 
perforated  floor,  or  else  the  entire  hopper  is  brick,  the  arches  form- 
ing it  being  back  to«  back,  as  it  were,  instead  of  groined.  The  roof 
of  the  whole  kiln-house  is  generally  sheathed  on  the  under  side 
on  account  of  the  humid,  chemical-laden  air  rising.  Fans  in  towers 
provide  forced  drafts,  and  the  bearings  of  these  add  a  hazard. 
Preferably,  malt  kilns  should  be  cut  off,  as  there  is  some  danger 
of  the  sprouts  igniting,  but  as  they  are  generally  fireproof,  the 
hazard  is  slight.  Steam-pipes  are  sometimes  installed  in  addition 
to  the  furnaces. 

Oat-Meal  Kilns. — See  "  Grain-driers."  Generally  of  the  pan 
type. 

Oilcloth  Driers.— Similar  to  Butterworth  driers  (q.  v.)  in  ar- 
rangement, but  more  hazardous  owing  to  the  inflammable  nature  of 
the  stock  to  be  dried.  Explosive  vapors  are  also  given  off,  and  no 
open  lights  should  be  near.  -  Also  danger  from  static  electricity 
generated  by  the  moving  oilcloth. 

Paper  Calendering. — The  drying  end  of  paper  engines  consists 
of  numerous  can  driers.  Ordinary  steam-pipe  hazard.  Pipes  some- 
times in  contact  with  floor,  but  this  is  nearly  always  wet.  No  in- 
stances known  where  engine  was  clogged  long  enough  for  the  paper 
to  ignite  from  the  cans. 

Patent  Leather  Enamel  Ovens. — First  for  drying  the  prelimin- 
ary coat  applied  to  the  leather,  consisting  of  boiled  oil,  lampblack, 
umber,  etc.,  and  then  for  baking  the  coat  of  varnish  which  is  finally 
applied  after  the  first  coat  has  been  pumiced.  These  ovens  or  dry- 
rooms  are  of,  large  area  and  frame,  with  numerous  small  detachable 
doors  or  covers  provided  on  the  front,  so  that  a  few  of  the  stretch- 
ing frames  may  be  entered  or  removed  at  a  time  without  disturbing 


70  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

the  others  or  admitting  too  much  cold  air.  Steam-pipes  along  the 
bottom  supply  the  heat,  which  varies  from  120  to  150  degrees.  A 
tarry  or  pitch-like  accumulation  forms  on  the  inside,  being  a  con- 
densation of  the  vapors  which  emanate  during  the  baking.  As  in 
japan 'ovens,  no  open  lights  should  be  allowed  near. 

Pepsin  Driers. — Small  dry-rooms,  generally  frame,  and  contain- 
ing wooden  racks  to  carry  the  trays  holding  the  cloth  aprons  or 
glass  plates  upon  which  the  pepsin  is  spread.  All  odor  of  gasolene 
used  in  dissolving  the  pepsin  has  dissipated  before  the  pepsin  reaches 
the  dry-room,  which  involves  only  the  ordinary  hazards  of  frame 
steam-heated  rooms. 

Pottery  Dry-Rooms. — These  are  the  "  green  "  room,  the  biscuit- 
ware  room,  the  sagger  dry-rooms  and  the  mould  dry-rooms.  The 
green  dry-room  is  for  setting  or  drying  the  freshly  turned  or 
moulded  ware  preparatory  to  firing ;  the  biscuit-room  is  for  drying 
the  silicious  coating  which  when  burned  in  the  gloss  kiln  provides 
the  glaze,  and  the  mould-rooms  for  drying  newly-made  plaster  of 
paris  moulds.  All  of  these-  are  large  rooms  containing  frame  steam- 
heated  compartments,  with  wooden  shelves  and  racks  for  the  ware. 
The  hazard  is  slight,  as  the  clay  dust  forms  a  sort  of  protection. 
Sagger  driers  are  frequently  similar  to  brick  pan-driers  (q.  v.),on 
a  small  scale,  and  are  for  giving  a  preliminary  drying  to  the  saggers 
before  they  are  burned,  saggers  being  the  containing  vessels  for 
the  pottery  to  be  fired  and  protecting  the  latter.  They  are  made  of 
"grog"  (broken  pottery)  and  some  new  clay. 

Pottery  Kilns. — These  are  of  three  general  kinds — biscuit,  gloss 
or  glost,  and  china  kilns. 

Biscuit  kilns  are  tapering  or  conical-shaped  furnaces,  substan- 
tially built  of  brick  and  bound  with  iron,  used  for  drying  or  baking 
the  ware  from  the  green  rooms.  In  modern  potteries  an  effort  is 
made  to  cut  the  kiln-house  or  shed  off  from  the  main  plant,  and 
this  is  advisable,  although  the  absence  of  such  cut-offs  should  not  be 
prohibitive.  The  ordinary  furnace  hazard  is,  largely,  the  danger  in 
connection  with  biscuit  kilns.  While  actual  contact  of  woodwork 
with  the  kiln  is  usually  avoided,  the  kilns  are  so  thick  that  this  haz- 
ard is  not  serious.  It  may  become  so,  however,  if  cracks  or  fissures 
should  form  in  the  walls  of  the  kiln.  A  small  danger  is  the  prox- 
imity of  peep-holes,  blocked  with  loose  bricks  ordinarily,  to  desic- 
cated beams,  which  should  be  tinned  near  the  peep-hole,  as  work- 
men sometimes  neglect  to  replace  the  brick,  and  the  sudden  rush 
of  heat  from  them,  also,  may  start  the  wood  smouldering  without 
being  discovered.  A  more  serious  danger  arises  from  the  opening 
of  the  charging  door  before  the  kiln  has  become  cool  after  a  "  run." 
This  is  done  in  some  sections,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is 
claimed  to  be  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  ware  and  apt  to 
crack  a  large  portion  of  it.  The  dried  woodwork  above  is  some- 
times instantly  fired,  as  well  as  subject  to  ignition  from  smoulder- 
ing. Coal  or  coke  fires  are  generally  used. 

Gloss  kilns  are  similar  to  biscuit  kilns,  and  practically  the  same 
remarks  apply  to  them.  After  the  biscuit  ware  is  "  dipped,"  the 
glaze  or  gloss  is  burned  on.  In  some  ware  decoration  precedes  the 
glossing,  but  this  precedence  is  of  little  significance  from  an  insur- 
ance standpoint. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  71 

China  kilns  are  smaller,  usually,  for  the  finer  and  more  delicate 
decorated  ware.  They  are  generally  fire-brick  furnaces  bound  with 
iron,  and  involve  the  ordinary  furnace  hazards.  Used  also  for 
burning  "  stilts.' 

Sand-Driers. — Where  clean  sharp  sand  is  needed,  as  in  street-car 
work  for  use  on  the  tracks,  it  must  be  dried.  Driers  of  various 
patterns  are  used.  The  most  common  form,  and  an  entirely  accept- 
able one,  consists  of  a  large  stove,  surrounded  by  an  iron  drum  or 
hopper,  into  which  the  damp  sand  is  shoveled  at  the  top,  and  from 
which  it  trickles  at  the  bottom  as  it  dries.  This  drier  should  be  set 
on  a  cement  or  brick  platform  well  away  from  woodwork,  and  its 
flues  pass  to  a  good  brick  chimney.  Inasmuch  as  the  dry  sand  issu- 
ing is  hot  enough  to  be  dangerous,  not  only  the  floor  underneath 
the  drier  but  the  dried  sand-bin  should  be  entirely  incombustible. 

Some  driers  consist  of  a  gridiron  of  steam-pipes  close  together, 
or  of  a  perforated  pan  over  steam-pipes,  with  a  space  underneath 
for  the  dried  sand.  This  type  is  also  acceptable  if  the  enclosing 
walls  of  the  drier  are  fireproof,  but  wooden  partitions  too  frequently 
form  these  walls  and  are  dangerous. 

One  form  of  drier  is  a  tunnel  or  low  furnace,  with  an  iron  plate 
top  upon  which  the  sand  is  piled,  one  end  of  the  tunnel  leading  to 
a  flue  and  the  other  containing  the  grate  for  a  coal  or  coke  fire, 
unless  gas  flames  are  used,  in  which  case  no  grate  or  chimney 
obtains.  This  form  is  'crude  and  uneconomical,  since  the  whole 
mass  of  sand  must  be  heated  sufficiently  to  expel  the  moisture 
before  any  sand  is  removed.  There  is  no  particular  objection  to  it 
otherwise,  except  that  the  walls  of  the  furnace  may  become  cracked, 
but  precautions  as  to  surroundings  make  this  objection  minor. 

Shellac-Driers  (or  lacquer-driers). — Generally  small  wooden  or 
iron  ovens  for  drying  shellacked  or  lacquered  ware  or  parts.  Simi- 
lar to  japan  ovens  of  the  same  type  (q.  v.).  Sometimes  mere  boxes 
containing  steam-pipes  or  gas-jets.  Latter  type  dangerous,  as  in- 
flammable vapors  are  given  off.  Larger  driers  of  this  sort  are  used 
in  lantern  works  and  correspond  to  can  dry-rooms  in  stamping 
works. 

Shoddy  Rubber-Driers. — Old  rubber,  after  it  has  been  washed 
and  ground,  is  dried  in  screen-bottomed  trays  over  steam-pipes,  gen- 
erally in  frame  rooms.  Hot  air  sometimes  used.  A  hazard  of  rubber 
boot  and  shoe  factories  or  other  rubber  factories  using  mixed  stock. 

Slashers. — Machines  for  sizing  and  drying  the  warp  in  carpet 
factories,  ordinary  can-driers  being  used. 

Smoke-Houses. — Sausage  smoke-houses  nowadays  are  built  near 
tho  sausage  department,  and  are  entirely  of  iron  or  brick  or  com- 
binations of  these.  Ordinarily,  they  are  two  stories  in  height  and 
appear  in  practice  on  the  walls  outside,  the  sausage  department,  rest- 
ing upon  iron  brackets.  Frequently,  they  occupy  a  part  of  the  ham 
smoke-house  sections,  which  may  be  partitioned  off  for  the  purpose. 
In  some  cases  an  entire  ham  or  bacon  smoke-house  is  used  for 
smoking  sausages,  but  large  plants  nearly  always  have  sections 
especially  constructed  for  each  purpose.  The  two  stories  referred 
to  are  used  as  a  fire-room  below  and  a  hanging-room  above,  the 
smoke  being  furnished  by  slow  log  fires  in  the  lower  room.  The 
sausages  are  suspended  upon  hooks  on  iron  frames  on  trolleys  or 


72  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

mounted  as  trucks.  An  iron  grating  on  iron  supports  furnishes  the 
floor  of  the  upper  story,  and  proper  ventilators,  extending  above 
the  roof  of  the  house,  take  off  surplus  smoke.  Iron  fire-doors 
cover  the  openings  to  each  section,  the  sills  of  these  being  prefer- 
ably a  few  inches  above  the  floor  upon  which  the  wood  tires  are 
built.  As  an  additional  safeguard,  the  floor  of  the  sausage  depart- 
ment in  front  of  the  entrance  to  the  sections  is  concrete  or  brick, 
and  ample  clearance  is  provided  above  the  fire-doors  to  a'ny  wood- 
work. Wooden  gratings  inside  and  wooden  hanging-rails  are  unde- 
sirable as  being  ignitible  and  furnishing  fuel  in  an  interior  already 
lined  with  a  tarry  soot,  although  they  are  not  prohibitive  if  the 
smoke-houses  are  properly  constructed  in  other  respects. 

Ham  and  bacon  smoke-houses  are  generally  built  from  the  ground 
and  are  equivalent  to  from  one  to  six  stories  in  height,  with  para- 
peted brick  walls,  earth  or  cement  floors,  and  generally  timber  roofs. 
The  division  walls  between  the  section  should  be  blank  and  all  use- 
less openings  avoided.  Necessary  openings  should  have  good  iron 
doors  covering  the  apertures  adequately.  Although  most  smoke- 
houses have  wooden  roofs,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  real 
necessity  for  this  construction,  and  modern1  packers  are  building  the 
roofs  entirely  of  iron  or  brick  and  iron.  Heretofore,  also,  the  grat- 
ings and  rails  from  which  to  hang  the  stocl^have  been  wooden,  but 
these  are  being  discarded  for  iron  gratings  aJnd  steel  rails.  Instead, 
also,  of  hanging  each  ham  or  strip  of  bacon  upon  a  rail  or  hook  on 
the  4  x  45  formerly  used,  iron  arbors  or  frames  carrying  a  num- 
ber of  pieces  are  now  mounted  on  trucks  or  suspended  from  a 
trolley  and  run  into  the  smoke-houses.  In  the  latter  instance  the 
fire-doors  should  be  built  so  as  to  be  tight-fitting  at  the  rails,  or 
else  the  rail  openings  should  be  provided  with  automatic  flaps  or 
slides.  An  excellent  device  for  this  purpose  consists  of  a  slide 
pushed  into  place,  as  the  door  is  closed  by  a  rod  attached  to  the 
door  near  the  hinge  side.  A  great  deal  of  leverage  is  obtained  in 
this  way,  insuring  reliability  of  action. 

The  sills  on  the  lowest  doors  of  smoke-houses  should  be  a  foot  or 
more  above  the  firing-floor  in  the  bottom  to  prevent  an  overflow 
of  grease  in  case  the  contents  burn  out.  It  is  well,  but  not  essen- 
tial, to  have  an  iron  hood  over  the  wood  fires  to  prevent  grease 
from  dripping  on  the  fires  and  causing  them  to  flare  up.  The  low- 
est grating,  however,  is  nowadays  placed  high  above  the  fires,  so 
that  accidents  from  this  source  are  rare.  Oak  logs  are  generally 
used  to  feed  the  fires,  although  other  woods  are  used  occasionally, 
and  when  wood  is  scarce,  corn-cobs  are  sometimes  utilized. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  smoke-houses  are  not  dangerous, 
and  fires  in  them  burn  out  harmlessly,  but  the  very  high  ones  when 
full  of  stock  and  on  fire  may  damage  the  ham-house  adjoining,  as 
a  result  of  the  meat  falling  in  bulk,  causing  the  fire-doors  to  bulge 
out  and  thus  allow  the  fire  to  communicate  with  any  woodwork 
near.  Where  strings  and  wooden  hanging-rails  and  no  gratings 
obtain,  the  danger  from  this  source  is  greatest.  It  is  not  at  all 
a  supposititious  danger,  as  an  accident  resulting  in  considerable  loss 
has  actually  occurred  from  meat  falling  and  bulging  out  the  fire- 
doors.  Iron  floor  gratings  at  the  ham-house  floor  levels,  by  limit- 
ing the  amount  of  meat  which  could  accumulate  at  one  point,  reduce 
this  hazard  very  materially.  W7here  such  gratings  are  provided  and 
iron  arbors  and  hanging-rails  as  well,  it  is  practically  eliminated. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  73 

In  examining  smoke-houses,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
floor  beams  or  headers  do  not  lie  too  close  to  the  tops  of  the  doors, 
as  they  may  be  ignited  by  a  fire  inside.  Preferably,  there  should 
be  a  clearance  of  several  feet  over  the  tops  of  the  doors  to  any 
floor  joists  or  woodwork.  The  best  construction,  and  one  which 
may  be  regarded  as  standard  at  the  present  time,  is  that  in  which 
the  smoke-houses  themselves  are  brick  and  iron,  as  already  described, 
and  set  in  or  adjoining  a  filling  or  handling  section  of  fireproof 
construction,  cut  off  from  the  ham-house  by  fire-doors.  The  filling 
hallways  are  now  generally  joisted  and  are  frequently  not  cut  off 
from  the  ham-house.  While  the  standard  construction  advised  is 
rather  more  expensive,  the  security  and  convenience  of  arrangement 
will  more  than  offset  the  difference  in  cost. 

Snuff-Driers. — In  snuff  factories,  for  drying  the  tobacco  from 
which  the  snuff  is  made.  They  should  be  of  brick,  and  the  convey- 
ors on  which  the  tobacco  passes  through  the  kiln  should  be  entirely 
of  metal.  No  inflammable  material  should  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  kiln,  which  should  also  be  cut  off  from  the  factory. 
Preferable  methods  of  heating  are  steam-coils  and  hot  air.  Dust 
accumulations  within  the  kiln  should  be  carefully  guarded  against, 
as,  at  the  temperature  used,  explosions  are  imminent. 

Soap  Dry-Rooms. — Bar  and  cake  soap  in  the  factory  are  dried 
atmospherically,  as  a  rule,  with  the  assistance  of  a  fan.  Sometimes 
steam-coils  are  placed  in  the  rooms  or  the  air  is  drawn  through 
coils  before  it  passes  to  the  dry-rooms,  which  are  long,  low,  frame, 
tunnel-like  compartments.  Chipped  soap  is  dried  on  trays  on  racks 
over  steam-pipes,  or  in  rooms  heated  by  hot  air  circulated  by  a  fan. 

Sole-Driers. — In  shoe  factories.  Generally  shallow  wooden  or 
metal  boxes  or  trays,  with  steam-pipes  or 'gas-jets  under  the  sheet- 
metal  or  wire  screen  bottom. 

Starch  or  Crusting-Kilns. — Block  starch,  in  starch  works  is 
baked  or  dried  in  frame  compartments,  heated  by  steam-pipes  under 
the  wooden  racks  supporting  the  trays  carrying  the  starch.  Sturte- 
vant  or  similar  apparatus  is  also  used.  These  rooms  are  numerous 
and  sometimes  extend  through  several  stories,  and,  as  they  are  also 
dried  out,  form  a  bad  feature.  More  modern  factories  are  using 
fire-proof  oven-like  kilns. 

Stock-Driers. — In  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  for  washed  stock.  Of 
various  types.  A  familiar  form  consists  of  a  bin,  generally  of  wood, 
with  a  gauze  wire  bottom.  The  stock  is  piled  on  the  wire  bottom 
and  heat  from  steam-coils  in  the  hollow  space  underneath  is  forced 
up  through  the  stock  by  a  fan.  Sometimes  the  heat  is  from  coils 
beyond  the  fan,  and  often  from  combinations  of  the  two  systems. 
Occasionally,  frame  or  fireproof  buildings,  with  one  or  more  grated 
floors,  are  built  for  the  purpose,  the  same  sources  of  heat  being 
used.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  pipes  free  from  wood  and 
stock  accumulations. 

Tenter  Frames. — In  dye  works  and  bleacheries.  Cloth  is  engaged 
at  its  edges  by  tenter  hooks  which  then  spread  apart  on  a  frame  to 
stretch  the  cloth.  In  some  cases  the  cloth  remains  stationary  on  a 
long  frame,  and  a  car  containing  a  charcoal  fire  is  passed  under  it. 


74  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

In  others  the  cloth  passes  ove"r  and  between  steam-coils  until  it  is 
dried.     First  method  antiquated  and  dangerous. 

Tobacco  Drying. — This  is  done  in  dry-rooms  and  rotary  driers. 
The  dry-rooms  are  for  leaf  tobacco  and  generally  wooden,  possibly 
metal-lined.  Steam-pipes  or  hot  air  are  used  for  heating.  Par- 
ticular care  should  be  taken  to  keep  pipes  free  and  bearings  of  fan 
clean.  The  rotary  driers  are  for  fine-cut  tobacco  and  are  similar 
to  feed-driers  (q.  v.).  If  direct-heated  they  are  very  hazardous, 
and  should  be  in  roomy,  fireproof  surroundings. 

Tube  Driers. — In  knitting  mills,  for  drying  the  long,  continuous 
knitted  pieces,  afterward  cut  up  for  undershirt  bodies.  One  end 
of  the  tube-like  cloth  is  placed  over  the  mouth  of  a  metal  flue  or 
tube  through  which  hot  air  from  steam-coils  is  blown,  the  goods 
ballooning  out  and  drying.  Coil  and  fan  hazard.  Trouble  might 
be  caused  by  burning  particles  from  coils  or  fan  being  blown  into 
cloth  when  dry. 

Varnish  Dry-Rooms. — For  facilitating  the  setting  of  varnish 
applied  to  articles,  and  are  generally  frame  rooms  heated  by  steam. 
Except  that  an  inflammable  vapor  may  accumulate  and  explode 
upon  the  entrance  of  open  lights,  the  hazard  is  that  of  steam-pipes 
and  dry  interiors.  Stoves,  if  used,  are  dangerous,  and  should  be 
discouraged,  except  under  the  most  careful  regulations.  A  gentle 
heat  is  used  ordinarily.  These  rooms  occur  in  coffin  works  and  light 
wagon  body  and  carriage  factories;  sometimes  in  other  risks  of  a 
similar  nature. 

White  Lead  Dry  Pans. — In  white  lead  factories  the  stock  is 
settled  in  shallow  iron  pans  and  dried,  sometimes  over  steam-pipes 
and  again  by  steam  in  the  hollow  bottoms.  Ordinary  steam-pipe 
hazard,  unless  the  pans,  as  occurs  occasionally,  are  enclosed  in 
wooden  partitions  which  add  the  hazard  of  desiccated  wood. 

Wool-Driers. — In  woolen  mills,  as  mentioned,  and  in  wool  pul- 
leries.  See  "  Stock-Driers." 

Yeast-Driers. — The  moulded  cakes  are  dried  in  small  frame, 
steam-heated  rooms,  being  set  in  pans  on  racks. 

Kettles 

The  principal  features  in  connection  with  these  are  the  manner 
of  heating,  the  nature  of  their  contents  and  chances  of  it  causing 
trouble,  and  the  fact  that  the  kettle  is  closed  and  used  under 
pressure  or  open.  To  save  repetition  and  description  in  each  case, 
it  may  be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  direct  flames,  espe- 
cially other  than  gas,  are  not  so  easily  regulated  and  result  in  boil- 
ing over  or  excessive  ebullition  of  a  sputtering  sort,  so  that,  even  if 
boiling  over  does  not  ensue,  the  surroundings  may  be  spattered. 

Brewing  Kettles. — Generally  copper  and  enclosed,  but  not  used 
under  pressure.  Formerly  set  on  brick  furnaces  with  coke  or  coal 
fires,  but  nearly  always  nowadays  heated  by  steam. 

Cookers. — Used  in.  distilleries,  breweries,  linseed-oil  mills,  cotton- 
seed-oil mills,  cereal  food  plants,  etc.  In  distilleries  they  are  cylin- 
drical iron  tanks,  on  iron  legs,  with  wooden  platforms  on  top  of 
them  for  cooking  the  mash.  Subject  to  rapid  variations  of  tern- 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  75 

perature,  as  the  mash  is  cooled  rapidly  after  being  cooked.  Some 
danger  of  explosion  on  this  account.  In  breweries,  for  practically 
the  same  purpose  and  similar  apparatus.  In  linseed  and  cotton-seed 
oil  mills  they  are  for  cooking  the  ground  seed  or  meal  to  start  the 
exudation  of  the  oil,  and  are  a  worse  hazard.  They  are  iron,  steam- 
heated  receptacles  containing  stirring  paddles ;  no  wooden  enclosure 
should  be  allowed  about  them,  as  these  become  oily  and  act  as 
catch-alls  for  stray  meal,  etc.,  causing  numerous  fires.  Cookers 
for  grain,  etc.,  involve  steam-pipe  hazard  only. 

Digesters. — In  paper  and  strawboard  mills,  for  digesting  wood, 
rags  or  straw.  Cylindrical  or  spherical  rotating  iron  vessels  in 
which  the  raw  stock  and  chemicals  are  mixed  with  steam  under 
pressure.  Steam-pipe  and  explosion  hazard. 

Doublers. — Redistilling  apparatus.     See  "  Stills." 

Dye  Tubs. — In  dye  works.  Wooden  or  copper  vats  almost  invari- 
ably heated  by  steam  nowadays.  Surroundings  wet  and  hazard 
negligible. 

Fried  Cake  or  Cruller  Kettles. — In  bakeries  and  sometimes  in 
dwellings.  Shallow  kettles  or  pans  containing  melted  lard,  into 
which  the  dough  is  dropped  and  fried.  Generally  heated  by  direct 
fire  and  a  bad  hazard.  Surroundings  generally  greasy,  as  the  boil- 
ing and  bubbling  lard  sputters  over  neighboring  walls,  partitions 
and  floor.  Should  be  in  fireproof  surroundings  if  used  regularly. 

Glue  and  Paste-Pots. — These  would  appear  to  be  comparatively 
innocent  as  hazards.  They  are  prolific  sources  of  fire,  however, 
especially  as  frequently  heated  and  arranged.  About  the  most 
hazardous  heating  device  is  an  oil  stove.  Frequently  small  stoves, 
which  are  little  more  than  lamps  with  tin  chimneys  surmounted 
by  rests  for  the  pots,  are  used,  being  carried  from  place  to  place 
and  allowed  to  rest  en  benches,  boxes,  shelves,  etc.  They  are  top- 
heavy,  unstable  and  easily  upset.  Next  in  hazardousness  is  the 
small  regulation  iron  base  oil  stove.  It  is  not  so  easily  upset, 
although  far  from  immune  from  such  accidents.  In  both  types 
over-heating  of  the  oil  in  the  base,  explosions  and  boiling  over  of 
the  glue  on  to  the  flames,  are  ever-present  dangers,  in  addition  to 
the  direct  exposure  of  inflammable  materials,  such  as  patterns, 
shavings,  shelving,  benches,  etc.  Both  kinds  should  be  prohibited 
unless  well  enclosed  in  metal  boxes  having  only  one  side  open  and 
set  in  trays  with  sand  under  the  stove. 

Gas-jets  are  less  objectionable,  but  carry  with  them  the  objection 
to  open  lights,  use  of  matches,  direct  exposure  to  inflammable 
materials,  etc.  Very  often  otherwise  arranged  glue-pots  are  found 
in  a  recess  below  a  bench  so  disposed  as  to  endanger  the  under  side 
or  supports  of  the  bench.  Particular  pains  should  be  taken  in  exam- 
ining such  devices  to  see  that  the  flames  or  heat  from  them  does 
not  lap  around  the  bottom  or  sides-  of  the  pot  in  such  a  way  as  to 
expose  woodwork  or  heat  up  the  enclosing  metal  case,  so  that  it  will 
expose  woodwork.  Gasolene  torches  are  sometimes  used  and  should 
be  absolutely  prohibited. 

Steam-heated  pots  are  the  safest,  all  things  considered,  the  only 
danger  being  that  in  the  steam-pipes  leading  to  the  bath  of  heater, 
as  a  rule.  Ordinary  warming-coils,  caul-boxes  and  dry-boxes  are 


76  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

often  utilized  for  heating  the  pots,  but  without  increase  of  hazard. 
An  excellent  type  of  heater  is  a  small  hollow  iron  disc,  heated  by 
steam,  and  resting  on  iron  supports.  The  surroundings  of  such 
"heaters  are  easily  kept  clean,  whereas  the  battery  type  of  jacketed 
heater  has  a  tendency  to  become  dirty. 

Hot  Water  Kettles. — In  various  risks,  such  as  breweries,  dye 
works,  plating  works,  etc.  Method  of  heating  most  important 
feature. 

Licorice  Kettles. — In  tobacco  factories.  Steam-jacketed  iron  or 
copper;  sometimes  stove-heated.  Used  for  melting  .and  preparing 
licorice  in  flavoring  tobacco.  Rum  and  alcohol  are  sometimes  added 
in  flavoring,  being  especially  significant  if  the  kettle  be  direct- 
heated. 

Lye  Kettles. — In  soap  factories  and  chemical  works.  Generally 
iron  and  steam-heated,  containing  strong  lye  water. 

Mash- Tubs. — Steam-heated  iron  vats  for  preparing  mash.  Gen- 
erally contain  stirring  paddles. 

Mixing  Kettles. — No  particular  type.  For  various  purposes,  in 
chewing  gum  mixing,  varnish  mixing,  pharmaceutical  works,  making 
stuffing  grease,  etc. 

Oil-boiling  Kettles. — In  linseed-oil,  varnish,  patent-leather  and 
cheap  paint-mixing  works  principally.  Generally  iron  or  copper 
kettles  set  on  low  brick  furnaces,  and  using  coal,  coke,  wood,  gas, 
etc.,  as  fuel.  Great  danger  of  boiling  over  and  should  be  in  fire- 
proof surroundings.  They  are  generally  built  on  hearths,  with 
hoods  and  flues  above. 

Oil-warming  Pots. — In  tanneries  oil  at  tables  is  warmed  in 
shallow  kettles  or  pots  generally  by  steam,  but  sometimes  by  oil 
lamps,  jets,  etc.,  in  which  case  they  are  dangerous. 

Pharmaceutical  Kettles. — This  heading  includes  the  various  cop- 
per or  iron,  steam  or  direct-heated  kettles  used  in  pharmaceutical 
works  for  making  elixirs,  extracts,  infusions,  decoctions,  syrups, 
porous  plasters,  etc.  They  are  mostly  for  melting  or  boiling. 
Steam-heated  ones  a  mild  hazard;  those  direct-heated  may  be  seri- 
ous, depending  upon  substance  heated  and  environment. 

Pitch-Pots  and  Kettles. — In  breweries,  for  melting  pitch  to  line 
kegs  with.  See  "  Tar  and  Asphalt  Kettles  "  and  "  Pitching  Appa- 
ratus." 

Process  Kettles. — In  canning  factories.  Really  cooking  kettles. 
Sometimes  enclosed  entirely  with  covers.  Steam-heated  nowadays 
and  a  mild  hazard. 

Rendering  Tanks. — These  are  large,  vertical  iron  tanks,  4  to  6 
feet  in  diameter,  generally  steam-heated  and  extending  from  the 
first  to  the  top  story  of  the  rendering  house.  They  are  made  of 
riveted  boiler  iron  and  are  provided  with  trapped  openings  for  the 
admission  of  offal.  When  they  are  steam-heated  the  danger  from 
them  is  small,  being  an  ordinary  steam-pipe  hazard;  and  the  clear- 
ance of  the  tanks  and  pipes  to  them  is  practically  all  that  needs  to  be 
considered,  as  gasolene  is  not  used  in  rendering  tanks  in  packing 
houses.  If  heated  by  direct  fires,  however,  which  is  seldom  done 


A  I  A\  I'FAC  TURING    HAZARDS  77 

in  any  but  small  plants,  they  may  become  very  hazardous.  Their 
manner  of  heating  is  then  important,  as  well  as  the  usual  features 
of  clearance.  1  he  charging  floor  is  always  more  or  less  oily  and 
greasy,  although  many  well-regulated  plants  reduce  this  objection 
to  a  minimum  by  care. 

Rosin  Kettles. — For  melting  rosin  in  varnish  works,  in  pipe 
bending,  etc.  Apt  to  boil  over;  if  direct-heated,  a  bad  hazard,  and 
should  be  set  in  fireproof  surroundings  if  inside. 

Salt-Pans. — Huge  iron  kettles  for  evaporating  saline  water. 
Steam  or  direct-heated.  Generally  in  light  frame  structures,  which 
become  thoroughly  desiccated  and  the  floors  of  which  are  apt  to  be 
in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  pan  or  kettle. 

Soap  Vats  or  Boilers. — Huge  iron  or  wooden,  generally  the 
former,  vats  or  tanks  used  in  the  final  boiling  operation  of  soap- 
making.  Generally  steam-heated  and  a  mild  hazard.  Sometimes 
direct-heated,  the  furnace  hazard  then  being  important.  Surround- 
ings generally  slopped  with  soap  stock,  giving  an  appearance  of 
hazardousness  which  does  not  exist. 

Steamers. — In  a  variety  of  risks  for  varying  purposes,  but  gen- 
erally involving  the  same  principle.  For  steaming  logs  in  turned 
veneer  works,  articles  to  be  bent  in  wood-workers,  bottled  beer 
in  breweries,  etc.  Generally  a  tight  chamber  to  which  steam  is 
admitted.  Steam-pipe  hazard  only. 

Stills. — In  various  classes  of  risks,  for  driving  off  volatile  and 
condensable  matter,  such  as  alcohol,  gin,  rum,  naphtha,  water, 
pyroligneous  acid,  etc.  Generally  a  closed  vessel,  with  an  outlet 
conduit  at  the  top  to  a  worm  or  condenser  of  some  sort,  the  vapors 
passing  over  and  being  cooled  to  liquefy  them.  In  all  stills  where 
inflammable  vapors  are  given  off,  direct  heat  is  dangerous  in  addition 
to  the  usual  furnace  hazards,  as  leaks  and  explosions  may  occur. 

Stuffirfg  Grease  Kettles. — For  *  mixing  and  preparing  stuffing 
grease  (neatsfoot-oil  and  tallow,  largely)  in  tanneries.  Generally 
open  iron,  steam-heated  kettles,  the  surroundings  being  greasy,  as 
a  ruk.  If  direct  heat  be  used,  they  are  a  bad  hazard  inside.  Table 
grease,  or  excess  grease  scraped  from  the  leather  in  setting,  is 
reclaimed,  as  well  as  that  from  greasy  scraps,  in  similar  or  the 
same  kettles. 

Sugar  Kettles. — Specifically,  those  used  for  boiling  sugar  and 
glucose  in  candy  factories.  Generally  steam-heated  and  copper. 
Direct-heated  kettles  for  the  purpose  are  called  candy  furnaces 
(q.v.). 

Syrup  Kettles. — Practically  the  same  as  the  above.  Used  mainly 
in  making  syrup  from  sugar,  in  making  extracts,  elixirs,  etc.,  and 
in  reducing  syrups  to  sugar. 

Tar  and  Asphalt  Kettles. — Both  portable  and  stationary.  Used 
in  roofing  houses,  paving  streets,  caulking  decks  and  heavy  floors, 
making  electrical  insulation,  etc.  Generally  direct-heated  and  apt 
to  boil  over.  Should  be  used  only  in  fireproof  surroundings. 

Varnish  Kettles. — Specifically,  the  last  mixing  and  boiling  kettle 
in  varnish  making.  Direct-heated,  being,  as  a  rule,  mounted  on 


78  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

trucks  so  that  they  may  be  quickly  withdrawn  from  over  the  fire- 
place^ the  operation  being  critical  as  to  ultimate  quality.  Used,  as  a 
rule,  in  huge  brick  hearths  in  fireproof  surroundings.  Prohibitive 
inside  main  buildings. 

Vacuum  Pans. — A  type  of  evaporating  or  boiling  apparatus,  util- 
izing the  principle  that  substances  in  a  vacuum  boil  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  ordinarily.  Closed  copper  or  iron  kettles,  air  being 
exhausted  after  the  stock  is  admitted.  Pans  of  the  sort  may  be 
single,  double  or  multiple  effects.  Principal  uses  are  in  making 
beef  extract,  malt  extracts,  "  stic,"  glue,  sugar,  glucose,  beet  sugar, 
condensed  milk,  bark  extract,  etc.  Steam-heated  and  a  mild  hazard. 

Wax-Pots. — For  melting  sealing-wax  used  in  setting  bicycle  tires, 
beeswax  and  cobblers'  wax  in  shoe  factories,  stearine  and  paraffine 
in  candle  making,  and  packing  sausage  for  export,  pattern  makers' 
wax,  etc.  In  shoe  factories  wax-pots  are  now  on  the  machines  and 
steam-heated  or  warmed  by  small  gas-jets,  but  formerly  they  were 
variously  heated  and  detached.  If  direct  heat  be  used  in  any  case, 
fireproof  surroundings  are  necessary  to  prevent  loss  in  case  of 
upsets,  boiling  over,  etc. 

Miscellaneous 

Acids. — The  principal  hazardous  acids  of  commerce,  with  their 
predominant  characteristics,  are  as  follows : 

PICRIC. — Commercially  in  yellow  prisms  or  crystals.  Fuses  at  246 
degrees  F.  Explodes  at  600  degrees  and  highly  dangerous  when 
steam  or  water  is  dashed  on  it.  Soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  gaso- 
lene. Used  as  a  hop  substitute  in  making  beer  and  in  dyeing  silk 
and  wool;  also  in  making  explosives  and  in  solution  in  gasolene 
for  use  in  gasolene  engines,  gasolene  absorbing  five  per  cent  of  it. 
Explodes  easily  when  mixed  with  red  lead  or  other  oxides,  such 
as  iron  rust.  Sodium  salt  of  picric  acid,  sometimes  sold  as  picric 
acid,  is  very  explosive  and  dangerous.  Ammonium  and  potassium 
picrate  are  also  very  explosive  when  heated  or  struck. 

SULPHURIC,  OR  OIL  OF  VITRIOL. — Colorless  when  pure,  but  light 
brown  or  yellow  in  its  cheap  commercial  forms.  Heavy  and  oily. 
Kept  ordinarily  in  carboys.  Most  widely  used  of  all  acids  in  arts 
and  manufactures.  Absorbs  water  so  rapidly,  with  the  evolution 
of  heat,  that  the  sudden  addition  of  water  will  cause  an  explosion. 
Chars  many  substances  by  deoxidizing  them,  this  property  render- 
ing it  dangerous.  Poured  on  sugar,  it  inflames.  It  attacks  all  ordi- 
nary metals  but  lead,  corrodes  all  cloths  and  most  combustibles, 
and  reacts  upon  a  great  many  chemicals.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
handled  and  stored  with  care  to  prevent  spilling  or  breakage  of  the 
carboys. 

NITRIC,  OR  AQUA  FORTIS. — A  colorless,  corrosive  liquid,  kept  ordi- 
narily in  carboys.  Used  widely  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 
Attacks  all  metals  except  gold,  platinum  and  aluminum.  Sets  fire 
readily  to  dry  packing  materials,  such  as  straw,  sawdust,  paper, 
etc.,  and  nitrates  produced  by  its  action  are  also  likely  to  oxidize 
and  set  fire  to  combustibles  mixed  with  them.  It  also  sets  fire  to 
wood  in  'bulk  if  allowed  to  soak  into  it.  In  contact  with  phos- 
phorus, charcoal  and  many  other  substances  in  common  use,  it 
inflames.  Steel,  iron  or  brass  filings  on  floors,  mixed  with  it,  cause 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  79 

it  to  give  off  deadly  fumes  which,  together  with  the  evaporating 
acid,  render  it  extremely  dangerous  for  firemen  or  workmen.  It 
should  be  handled  and  stored  with  great  care. 

ACETIC. — Practically  the  same  as  vinegar.  Boils  at  about  240 
degrees  F.,  giving  off  a  vapor  which  burns  like  that  of  alcohol, 
otherwise  practically  non-hazardous  as  ordinarily  found  and  used. 

HYDROFLUORIC. — Colorless  liquid,  fuming  strongly  in  the  air,  with 
a  pungent  irritating  odor.  Boils  at  sixty-seven  degrees  F.  Cor- 
rodes glass  rapidly  and  kept  ordinarily  in  gutta  percha  bottles. 
Combines  with  sulphuric  and  phosphoric  anhydrides  with  great 
evolution  of  heat;  likewise  with  water. 

HYDROCHLORIC  OR  MURIATIC.— This  has  a  suffocating  odor  and  very 
strong  attraction  for  water,  otherwise  it  is  comparatively  harmless. 
Commonly,  it  has  a  bright  yellow  color,  and  is  stored  in  carboys. 

Bale  Openers. — Cotton  bales  should  not  be  opened  with  an  axe, 
as  it  may  strike  fire  on  the  bale-ties  and  ignite  the  cotton.  The 
spark  may  smoulder  for  hours  and  break  out  after  the  stock  has 
been  carried  to  the  mill.  A  duck-bill  wrench  should  be  used,  this 
to  have  one  edge  beveled  to  prevent  a  broken  bit  of  the  bale-tie 
from  remaining  in  the  bale. 

Banana  Ripening. — In  connection  with  wholesale  fruit-houses 
green  bananas  are  ripened  by  artificial  heat,  generally  from  open 
gas-jets  or  crowns  along  the  floor.  Inasmuch  as  considerable  pack- 
ing-straw is  about,  as  a  rule,  this  is  a  dangerous  practice,  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  burners  are  properly  shielded. 

Bark  Mills. — Generally  in  connection  with  tanneries.  For  grind- 
ing the  bark  used  in  the  leach-tubs  in  preparing  the  tanning  liquor. 
Of  two  general  kinds,  one  being  like  a  vertical  corn-sheller  and  the 
other  a  chipper,  in  which  radial  blades  on  the  side  of  a  wheel  cut 
up  the  bark.  Both  kinds  have  dusty  surroundings  and  explosions 
can  occur.  Shafting  hazard  also  considerable,  and  if  belt-and- 
bucket  elevators  are  used  to  convey  away  the  bark  these  should 
have  self-cleaning  heads.  Wooden  conveyors  generally  remove  the 
bark.  Bark  mill-house  should  be  cut  off. 

Batch  Warmers. — For  warming  candy  batches  in  making  stick 
and  other  candy  shaped  by  hand.  They  are  variously  built.  Some- 
times a  steam  slab  or  table,  with  a  coil  set  vertically  on  top ;  again 
a  direct-heated  plate,  the  low  wall  of  jets  or  low  furnace  (char- 
coal) set  on  top.  Arrangement -of  heating  device  and  clearance  at 
tables  important. 

Bending. — Bending  is  done  in  various  ways,  some  of  them  in- 
volving hazardous  processes  in  the  actual  bending,  and  others  not. 
In  many  instances — in  the  case  of  shovel,  post-hole  digger,  wheel- 
barrow, plow  and  corn-planter  handles,  felloes,  etc. — the  object  is 
steamed  and  bent  and  then  set  in  regular  dry-rooms  while  still  in 
the  frames  holding  them  to  the  desired  shape.  There  exists  here 
the  steam-pipe  hazard  in  connection  with  the  steaming-vat,  as  well 
as  the  dry-room  hazard.  In  other  cases  steam-heated  frames  are 
used  to  expel  the  moisture  from  the  bent  stock  and  set  the  latter 
to  the  desired  form.  Such  apparatus  is  used  where  buckling  or 
other  warping  than  that  designed  is  to  be  especially  avoided,  and 
we  have  only  the  steam-pipe  hazard. 


8o  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

A  different  type  of  bender  from  the  above  is  what  is  known  as  a 
panel-bender,  used  for  curving  or  warping  pieces,  generally  with  the 
grain  running  parallel  with  the  cylindrical  surface  and  depending 
upon  heating  one  side  only  of  the  work.  Coach  door  or  body  panels, 
guitar  sides  and  pieces  of  similar  description  are  bent  in  this  way. 
Curved  plates,  cylinders,  etc.,  of  iron  serve  as  forms  upon  which 
to  lay  the  work,  being  variously  heated  by  gas  or  gasolene  flames, 
small  fires  or  steam. 

Benzine. — Highly  volatile  and  inflammable  colorless  liquid.  Fumes 
heavier  than  air  and  apt  to  accumulate  in  partly  empty  vessels  or 
fall  to  floor  and  hang  together  until  they  reach  an  open  flame. 
Such  fumes  have  traveled  100  feet  to  a  flame  and  flashed  back  to 
the  vessel.  Benzine  vapor  and  air  mixed  are  very  explosive.  Ben- 
zine is  used  mainly  for  cleaning,  especially  greasy  or  oily  surfaces. 

Bleaching,  Sulphur. — In  various  risks — hop-kilns,  malt-kilns, 
broom  factories,  rattan  works,  etc.  Generally  by  burning  sulphur 
in  an  iron  or  stone  pot  in  a  tight  room.  As  sulphur  boils  over 
readily  when  burning,  the  pots  should  be  of  ample  capacity  and 
preferably  on  fireproof  floor. 

Board  Scrapings. — In  cutting  upper  leather,  principally  in  shoe 
factories,  the  cutting  boards  are  coated  with  linseed-oil  to  prevent 
their  surfaces  from  chipping  too  easily.  These  boards  have  to  be 
planed  every  week  or  two  to  level  the  surface  up,  and  the  process  is 
called  "  scraping."  The  refuse  is  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion 
and  should  be  removed  separately. 

Branding. — In  breweries,  distilleries  and  other  risks  using  bar- 
reled, boxed  or  kegged  goods;  in  packing  houses,  on  hams  and 
bacons.  Irons  with  imprints,  letters  or  marks  are  selt-heated  or 
heated  in  forges,  stoves  or  salamanders.  Self-heated  irons  are  sta- 
tionary or  portable,  the  former  being  set  on  tables  and  heated  from 
the  under  side.  Rests  should  be  provided  for  portable  irons.  Clear- 
ance and  method  of  heating  important. 

Breechings. — See  "  Boilers." 

Brush  Machines. — Cloth-cleaning  machines  in  textile  mills.  Dust 
and  shaftings  hazard. 

Burring. — Polishing  by  means  of  cotton  wheels  and  rouge.  Con- 
siderable dust,  and  fly  or  lint  raised.  Shafting  becomes  clogged, 
flashing  of  refuse  is  imminent  and  spontaneous  combustion  may 
take  place  in  refuse  accumulations  on  account  of  the  stearine  used 
as  a  binder  in  the  rouge. 

Bunsen  Burners. — A  type  of  gas-burner  in  which  air  is  admitted 
back  of  the  burner  to  increase  the  heat.  -Used  in  various  apparatus. 
Specifically,  a  small  tube  burner,  with  a  heavy  base  to  keep  it  from 
upsetting,  used  in  laboratories,  jewelry  repair  work,  tube  and  vial 
works,  etc.  Rubber  tubing  to  them  rots  or  becomes  loosened,  and 
may  cause  trouble. 

Candles.— Hazard  of  these  arises  from  their  habit  of  softening 
and  falling  over,  of  burning  down  and  upsetting.  Too  frequently 
stuck  on  woodwork  and  left  to  burn  alone. 

Carbureters. — See  "  Gas-stacks  and  Retorts."  Carbureters  for 
enriching  gas  or  making  gasolene  gas  are  variously-built  chambers, 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  81 

usually  made  to  expose  a  large  surface  of  gasolene  to  air  passing 
over  it.     They  should  never  be  inside,  but  outside  and  well  removed. 

Cartridge  Filling. — Hazard  due  to  presence  of  powder  loose  and 
chances  of  detonation  or  ignition  accidentally.  Should  be  done  in 
roomy,  fireproof  surroundings. 

Carpet  Sewing. — Where  electrical  machines  are  used,  the  usual 
small  electrical  motor  hazard  is  present. 

Catch-basins. — The  waste  products  of  gas-making  are  drained  to 
tanks  let  into  the  ground,  the  top  being  flush  with  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Through  derangement  of  the  apparatus  and  other 
causes,  volatile  by-products  sometimes  escape  into  the  catch-basin, 
and  may  be  ignited  by  stray  sparks  falling  through  open  covers, 
and  as  the  sides  of  the  catch-basin  are  usually  coated  with  tar, 
a  smart  fire  results  from  the  woodwork,  the  tar  and  the  lighter 
by-products.  The  catch-basin  should,  therefore,  be  so  located  as 
not  to  expose  adjacent  property. 

Celluloid. — Made  by  treating  pure  cotton  or  tissue  paper  with 
nitric  acid  and  mixing  the  product,  called  pyroxylin,  with  camphor, 
coloring  matter,  alcohol,  and  sometimes  oil.  Highly  combustible, 
taking  fire  without  flame  at  about  300  degrees  F.  Used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  ivory,  bone  and  shell.  It  can  be  cemented,  a  cement 
consisting  of  a  solution  of  pyroxylin  in  alcohol  and  ether  being 
used.  The  cement  is  equally  dangerous. 

Chemicals. — These  are  too  numerous  and  have  too  many  charac- 
teristics to  be  treated  in  detail  here.  The  more  common,  therefore, 
will  be  treated  briefly: 

Acetone. — A  colorless  liquid  with  a  sweetish  odor,  and  very  in- 
flammable. 

Acetylene. — A  colorless  gas  with  a  garlicky  smell.  Produced 
commercially  by  treating  calcium  carbide  with  water.  Used  as  an 
illuminant  and  to  supply  heat.  The  gas  in  air  forms  explosive  mix- 
tures, the  percentage  varying  from  3  to  82. 

Alcohol. — A  volatile,  colorless  liquid,  burning  in  air  with  a 
bluish,  almost  invisible  flame.  Its  vapors  form  explosive  mixtures 
with  air. 

Ammonia. — A  gas  consisting  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  Dis- 
solved in  water,  it  is  known  as  ammonia  water,  ammonia  liquor, 
aqua  ammonia,  etc.  It  decomposes  into  its  elements  at  900  degrees 
F.,  but  is  not  combustible  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  not 
explosive,  but  when  liquid  ammonia  is  stored  in  drums,  with  insuf- 
ficient space  left  to  allow  it  to  expand,  the  drums  may  burst  on 
warm  days.  Saturated  with  oil,  it  will  explode  if  lighted. ' 

Calcium  Carbide. — A  grayish  crystalline  solid.  In  contact  with 
water  it  forms  acetylene,  and  should  be  kept  in  tight,  fireproof 
boxes. 

Camphor. — Very  inflammable,  burning  with  a  bright,  smoky 
flame. 

Carbon  Bisulphide. — An  extremely  inflammable  liquid,  colorless 
when  pure.  It  ignites  at  a  very  low  temperature  and  may  be 


8z  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION' 

exploded  by  shock.     One  of  the  most  dangerous   substances  used 
in  the  arts. 

Chlorate  of  Potash.— A  salt  rich  in  oxygen  which  is  weakly  held 
in  combination,  making  the  compound  dangerous.  When  heated,  it 
decomposes,  with  the  evolution  of  more  heat,  into  potassium  chloride 
and  oxygen.  If  mixed  with  combustibles,  therefore,  and  ignited, 
the  oxygen  liberated  causes  rapid  combustion.  If  melted  and 
brought  in  contact  with  coal  gas,  it  burns  spontaneously.  It  forms 
dangerous  combinations  with  many  other  substances,  and  the  kegs 
in  which  it  is  stored  should  be  kept  outside. 

Coal. — Soft  coal  is  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion  under  cer- 
tain conditions  not  definitely  known,  and  should  not  be  stored  in 
quantity  where  it  exposes  woodwork. 

Collodion. — A  solution  of  gun  cotton  in  ether  and  alcohol. 

Ether. — An  extremely  volatile,  colorless  liquid.  Its  vapors  are 
heavier  than  air  and  very  inflammable.  The  cans  containing  it 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place. 

Fusel-Oil. — A  mixture  of  alcohols,  amyl  alcohol  being  its  chief 
constituent.  An  oily  liquid  slightly  yellow  in  color  and  very  in- 
flammable. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — A  very  poisonous  gas.  Inflammable. 
Mixed  with  air  in  certain  proportions,  it  explodes.  Used  for  killing 
weevils  in  mills  and  elevators. 

Hydrogen.— A  colorless,  tasteless,  odorless  gas,  the  lightest'  of  all 
known  substances.  It  burns  in  contact  with  oxygen,  and  in  air 
forms  explosive  mixtures,  the  percentage  varying  from  5  to  80. 
Commercially,  kept  in  cylinders. 

Lampblack. — A  form  of  carbon  consisting  mainly  of  the  soot 
from  the  smoky  flames  produced  by  burning  in  an  insufficient  supply 
of  air  highly  carbonaceous  substances.  It  is  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion  and  should  be  kept  in  metal  receptacles. 

Lead  Nitrate* — When  mixed  with  organic  matter  and  rubbed  or 
subjected  to  friction,  it  may  cause  ignition. 

Marsh  Gas  or  Methane. — A  hydrocarbon  produced  when  vege- 
table matter  decays  in  the  presence  of  moisture.  Sometimes  con- 
fined in  layers  of  coal.  Inflammable  and  forms  explosive  mixtures 
with  air.  / 

Oxygen. — A  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas,  the  basis  of  com- 
bustion. It  enters  into  combination  readily  with  numerous  sub- 
stances, the  combination  evolving  heat.  Kept  commercially  in 
cylinders. 

Phosphorus. — Generally  in  the  form  of  yellow  or  whitish  sticks. 
It  inflames  at  in  degrees  F.,  and  should  be  kept  under  water.  The 
flame  of  phosphorus,  however,  does  not  generally  ignite  solid  sub- 
stances, although  it  sets  fire  readily  to  paraffine,  sulphur  or  wax, 
and  in  contact  with  chlorate  of  potash  it  may  cause  a  violent 
explosion. 

Rosin  Spirit. — A  colorless  or  slightly  yellow  liquid,  with  a  low 
flash-point,  very  volatile  and  inflammable.  It  absorbs  oxygen  from 
the  air  with  the  production  of  heat. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  •  83 

Saltpeter  or  Nitre. — Many  similar  characteristics  to  chlorate  of 
potash,  being  rich  in  oxygen  weakly  held  in  combination.  One 
volume  of  nitre  represents  3000  of  air  in  its  power  for  supporting 
combustion.  Fires  in  the  bags  in  which  it  has  been  kept  burn 
fiercely,  therefore,  and  can  occur  spontaneously.  In  contact  with 
hot  coals  it  deflagrates  violently. 

Sodium  and  Barium  Peroxide.— Bleaching  powders  of  a  highly 
dangerous  nature.  Mixed  with  wood  dust  and  struck,  they  explode, 
Either  should  not  be  scattered  on  the  floor,  as  the  contact  of  a 
heel  with  it  would  cause  a  fire. 

Sulphur. — Comparatively  harmless  alone.  It  burns  freely,  but 
does  not  ignite  at  less  than  goo  degrees  F.  Its  vapor  explodes 
spontaneously  when  mixed  with  air.  It  may  be  detonated  when 
mixed  with  chlorate  of  potash,  and  is  ignited  by  phosphorus  flames. 

Compounding  and  Laboratory  Work.— This  involves,  besides 
the  use  of  retorts,  Bunsen  burners,  small  ovens,  etc.,  the  mixing  of 
chemicals  which  may  inflame,  detonate  or  explode.  Compounding 
in  wholesale  drug  stores,  as  generally  found,  is  a  misnomer,  being 
mechanical  mixing  of  substances  which  do  not  unite  chemically. 
The  closet  or -hod  used  to  carry  off  noxious  fumes  should  be  fire- 
proof and  not  frame,  as  generally  happens. 

Dipping. — Reference  is  made  to  the  rapid  process  of  immersing 
the  object  in  a  bath  of  oil,  paint  or  varnish,  and  then  withdrawing 
it  and  allowing  the  coating  to  dry.  Where  benzine,  cut  paint  or 
varnish  is  used,  the  hazard  is  obviously  most  serious.  Ordinarily, 
the  dipped  articles  are  stacked  or  hung  over  a  trough  draining  back 
to  the  dipping-tank.  The  latter  should  be  iron  and  provided  with 
a  cover  which  may  be  let  down  to  smother  flames  in  the  trough. 
The  hazard  of  dipping  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  inflammable 
coating,  the  spattering  of  this  around,  the  vapor  or  fumes  from  it, 
and  the  chances  of  ignition  by  lights  or  static  electricity,  not  to 
mention  the  presence  of  newly-dipped  stock  in  quantity. 

Dust  Hazard. — Briefly,  this  is  due  to  the  rapid  ignition  of  dust 
particles  suspended,  in  air,  the  ignition  being  so  rapid  as  to  amount 
to  an  explosion.  The  dust  of  any  substances  which  will  burn  or 
oxidize  will  explode  when  properly  mixed  with  air.  Dust  also  clogs 
bearings,  causing  them  to  heat,  and  many  dusts  settling  and  becom- 
ing oily  may  ignite  spontaneously. 

Egg-Candling. — Generally  in  commission  houses,  packing  houses 
and  other  risks  handling  eggs  in  quantity.  Candling  consists  in 
holding  the  eggs  before  a  light,  formerly  f-rom  candles,  to  ascer- 
tain if  they  are  addled  or  not.  Oil-lamps,  gas-jets,  incandescent 
lights  and  daylight  are  also  used.  Jets,  candles  and  oil-lamps  are 
very  dangerous,  owing  to  crowded  nature  of  candling  compartments 
and  presence  of  so  much  inflammable  material. 

Electrical  Hazards. — In  brief,  electrical  hazards  are  due  to  heat- 
ing of  conductors  or  parts,  to  arcs  and  to  leaks.  Heating  is  caused 
by  overloading  which  itself  may  be  due  to  short-circuits,  poor  joints, 
poor  contacts,  lightning,  crosses  with  currents  of  higher  voltage, 
too  many  lights  or  motors  on  a  line  or  to  intention,  as  in  electric 
heaters.  It  is  also  caused  by  induction,  as  in  choke  coils  and  mag- 
nets which  are  rapidly  magnetized  and  demagnetized.  Arcs  are  the 


84  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

jumping  of  current  across  an  air  space,  being  caused  when  a  cir- 
cuit is  broken  by  accident  or  design.  Arcs  may  be  produced  by 
leaks  which  gradually  become  severe  enough  for  a  sudden  rush  of 
current,  by  switches,  by  short-circuits,  by  burn-outs,  etc.  Leaks 
are  due  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  insulation  through  one  cause 
or  another,  and  may  lead  to  heating  or  arcs. 

There  are  also  in  connection  with  electrical  apparatus  numerous 
dangers  of  a  mechanical  or  physical  rather  than  electrical  nature, 
such  as  the  breaking  of  lamp  globes  in  inflammable  vapors,  the 
fracture  and  sputtering  of  arc-light  carbons,  the  ignition  of  mate- 
rials, by  contact  with  incandescent  lamp  bulbs,  etc. 

Electro-plating. — This  is  done  by  first  washing  the  piece  to  be 
plated  with  concentrated  lye  or  benzine  and  lime  water,  to  remove 
any  grease,  and  by  rewashing  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to  neutral- 
ize the  previous  wash.  The  "  work "  or  part  to  be  plated  is  then 
attached  to  the  negative  pole,  and  a  nickel,  copper,  silver  or  gold 
slab  or  plate,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  positive  pole  of  a  low 
potential  dynamo,  after  which  both  are  immersed  in  a  bath  of 
copper  sulphate  or  other  electrolyte.  The  current  being  turned  on 
removes  molecular  particles  of  the  slab  or  metal  to  be  transferred 
and  deposits  it  on  the  surface  of  the  "work."  Plating  dynamos 
employ  a  difference  of  potential  of  from  two  to  four  volts.  The 
bus  wires  are  almost  invariably  bare  and  often  run  on  wooden  sup- 
ports, but  there  is  no  danger  of  leakage  with  the  low  voltage  used. 
There  is,  however,  some  little  hazard  in  connection  with  these 
dynamos  and  wires.  Pieces  of  metal  laid  or  dropped  across  the 
bus  wires,  terminals  or  brushes  would  be  instantly  fused,  and  if 
the  molten  metal  fell  into  inflammable  material  trouble  might 
ensue.  This  is  really  about  the  only  considerable  danger  in  con- 
nection with  the  dynamo  and  its  appurtenances,  and  it  is  generally 
remote.  Electro-plating,  however,  involves  the  use  of  materials 
and  incidental  processes  which  are  more  or  less  hazardous^ — i.  e., 
lacquers,  lacquer-drying  ovens  and  buffing. 

Electro-typing. — A  matrix,  consisting  of  graphite  and  wax,  is 
made  by  pressing  into  (he  surface  of  the  composition  type  forms  or 
cuts.  The  type  metal  is  then  deposited  upon  the  matrix  as  in  the 
case  of  electro-plating  (q.  v.).  Wax-heating  pots  are  an  accom- 
panying hazard. 

Embossers. — Machines  for  pressing  patterns  or  wood  in  imita- 
tion of  carving,  or  designs  on  leather  or  book  covers.  Heated  to 
give  permanence  to  the  designs  which  could  otherwise  lose  their 
sharpness  of  outline  and  contour.  Method  of  heating  the  most 
important  feature.  Gas  generally  used ;  occasionally  live  steam. 
Apt  to  be  used  in  the  midst  of  inflammable  materials. 

Engines. — In  all  types  of  engines  there  is  present  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  the  grease  hazard.  In  fly-wheel  engines  there  is  the 
danger  of  the  wheel  bursting  and  causing  damage  from  which  fire 
may  ensue.  Gas  engines  may  have  flame  igniters,  which  should  be 
well  away  from  inflammable  materials ;  the  muffler  and  exhaust 
should  be  clear  also,  and  the  exhaust  should  extend  to  the  outside 
air  and  never  enter  flues  or  stacks  unless  the  latter  are  large.  Gaso- 
lene engines  should  never  have  flame  igniters  if  they  are  inside, 
and  the  supply  should  be  outside  underground  and  never  gravitate 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  85 

to  the  engine,  otherwise  the  remarks  on  gas  engines   apply.     The 
live  steam  and  exhaust  pipes  of  steam  engines  should  be  free. 

Etching  and  Pyrography. — In  etching  by  gas  flames,  such  as 
that  done  on  bamboo,  the  jets  should  have  proper  rests  or  racks 
when  not  in  use,  and  the  rubber  tubing  should  be  kept  in  repair. 
The  surroundings  should  be  neat  also,  in  case  the  jets  are  dropped 
accidentally.  Somewhat  similar  remarks  are  true  of  gas-heated 
tools,  and  the  heating  devices  should  be  watched.  The  wires  leading 
to  electric  gravers  should  be  properly  insulated  and  protected  against 
wear  and  injury,  and  adequate  rests  provided  for  the  instruments 
when  they  are  not  in  use.  Particular  care  should  be  taken  with 
the  gasolene  bulb  apparatus  used  by  artists  and  amateurs. 

Explosives. — Gunpowder,  a  mixture  of  saltpetre,  sulphur  and 
charcoal,  ignitible  by  flame  or  by  heat  varying  from  554  degrees  for 
black,  to  579  degrees,  F.,  for  brown,  prismatic  powder. 

Gunco'tton  consists  of  purified  cotton  treated  with  a  -mixture  of 
i  part  strong  nitric  and  3  parts  sulphuric  acid,  resembling  ordinary 
cotton  in  appearance.  It  can  be  exploded  by  percussion,  flame  and 
the  shock  produced  by  fulminate  of  mercury. 

Nitroglycerine  is  made  by  the  action  of  strong  sulphuric  and 
nitric  acids  upon  glycerine.  It  is  an  oily,  colorless  liquid  and  poison- 
ous. It  explodes  at  356  to  392  degrees  F.  It  is  easily  exploded  by 
shock  and  extremely  dangerous  to  handle. 

Dynamite  is  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerine  and  some  absorbent,  as 
silicious  earth,  magnesia  alba,  mica  powder  and  charcoal. 

Blasting  gelatine  is  made  by  dissolving  guncotton  in  nine  times 
its  weight  of  nitroglycerine. 

There  are  many  other  explosives,  but  the  above  are  those  appear- 
ing commercially  in  this  country. 

Feather  Renovators. — Apparatus  for  dusting,  steaming  and  clean- 
ing feathers.  Steam-pipe  and  dust  hazard.  The  impression  obtains 
that  feathers  will  not  burn,  but  the  down  near  the  quill  will  flash 
and  make  a  quick,  intense  fire. 

Finishing. — The  term  finishing  generally  includes  filling,  rubbing 
and  the  final  finishing,  and  is  frequently  extended  to  include  var- 
nishing as  well.  Varnishing,  however,  has  been  treated  elsewhere, 
embodying  somewhat  different  hazards.  The  first  operation  in  fin- 
ishing is  filling,  which  consists  of  filling  or  plugging  the  pores  of  the 
wood  so  that  it  will  present  a  smooth  surface  and  not  absorb  too 
much  varnish.  Fillers  are  made  of  various  combinations  of  silex, 
silver  white,  corn  starch,  whiting,  plaster  of  Paris,  raw  and  boiled 
linseed  oil,  turpentine,  japan  and  benzine.  Sundry  pigments  are 
used  to  color  fillers,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  final  finish 
desired.  The  principal  among  these  are  raw  and  burnt  umber,  raw 
and  burnt  Italian  sienna,  Vandyke  brown,  drop  or  ivory  black  and 
pink.  Both  turpentine  and  benzine  ground  japans  are  used. 
Fillers  are  generally  in  paste  form  and  are  thinned  down  for  appli- 
cation, turpentine,  naphtha  or  refined  linseed-oil  being  used.  No 
more  linseed-oil  is  used  than  necessary  to  form  a  binder,  as  it  pre- 
vents .the  filler  from  drying  or  setting  rapidly.  Excess  filler  is 
rubbed  off  with  curled  moss,  excelsior,  shavings,  soft  sawdust,  tow 
and  waste,  as  the  case  may  be.  Flax  or  hemp  tow  is  used  in  finer, 
and  the  other  substances  in  cheaper  grades  of  work. 


86  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Shellacking  follows  filling  for  the  purpose-  of  sealing  the  pore 
depressions.  This  is  sometimes  done  with  ordinary  alcohol  shellac, 
but  may  be  accomplished  with  other  substances,  the  operation,  how- 
ever, being  known  as  shellacking  irrespective  of  the  materials  used. 
When  this  is  dried,  the  varnish  coats  are  applied  and  the  various 
rubbings  follow. 

Rubbing  is  done  with  either  water  or  rubbing  oil,  the  latter  being 
a  petroleum  product  resembling  machine  oil  and  not  dangerous. 
Linseed-oil  can  be  used,  but  is  much  more  expensive  and  not  so 
satisfactory,  being  more  gummy  than  rubbing  oil.  It  is  also  more 
hazardous.  Pulverized  pumice  or  rotten  stone  is  used  to  hasten 
the  cutting  action  of  the  rubbing  process.  In  the  final  rubbings  of 
fine  finishes  water  or  the  hands  alone  are  used.  Ordinarily,  the 
rubbing  oils  and  pumice  or  rotten  stone  are  applied  and  rubbed  in 
with  rags,  old  silk  cloths  or  handkerchiefs,  chamois  skins,  or  rub- 
bing felt.  After  the  rubbing  is  done,  a  damp,  .soft  wood  sawdust  is 
generally  used  to  clean  off  with,  being  sprinkled  over  the  surface 
and  removed  with  cotton  waste  or  soft  cotton  wadding. 

The  hazardous  features  of  filling,  rubbing  and  finishing  arise  from 
the  use  of  finely  subdivided  waste  and  materials  in  conjunction  with 
oils  which  absorb  oxygen  freely  and  from  the  use  of  volatile  liquids. 
Linseed-oil  is  especially  subject  to  spontaneous  heating,  and  the 
hazardous  nature  of  the  other  oils  and  liquids  has  been  pointed 
out  under  "  Painting."  Flemish  finishes  are  thinned  with  amyl- 
alcohol,  the  substance  so  frequently  used  in  cutting  lacquers  and 
very  volatile.  It  should  be  treated  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
naphtha.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  .  to  add  that  standard  waste- 
cans  should  be  provided  for  the  rags  and  materials  used  in  all 
filling  and  finishing  operations,  except,  of  course,  where  water  rub- 
bing only  is  done.  By-ways  and  corners,  bench  drawers  and  closets 
should  be  kept  free  from  accumulations  of  any  of  the  materials 
saturated  to  any  degree. 

Filling. — See  "  Finishing." 

Flash  Lights. — For  photographic  and  pyrotechnic  purposes.  Pow- 
ders similar  to  explosives,  and  similar  precautions  should  be  taken 
in  handling  and  storing  them. 

Flasks. — The  wooden  or  iron  boxes  used  in  moulding  in  foundries. 
Those  of  wood  should  'not  be  stored  inside  so  as  to  expose  build- 
ings, as  they  become  charred  and  may  harbor  smouldering  sparks. 
They  are  also  a  prey  to  transient  sparks. 

Fuel-Oil  System. — These  should  be  installed  in  accordance  with 
the  underwriters'  requirements.  In  general,  there  are  gravity, 
pumping,  intermediate  tank,  auxiliary  standpipe  and  air-pressure 
systems.  In  gravity  systems  the  oil  flows  to  the  burners  by  gravity 
from  the  main  supply  tanks;  in  pumping  it  is  forced  to  the  burners 
by  small  pumps,  the  supply  tanks  being  below  the  burners ;  in  inter- 
mediate tank  systems  the  oil  is  forced  to  small  elevated  tanks ;  in 
auxiliary  standpipe  systems  the  oil  is  pumped  from  tanks  below  the 
burners  to  standpipes,  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  tall  enough  to 
give  the  desired  pressure,  with  overflow  pipes  at  their  tops  draining 
to  the  supply  tanks ;  in  the  air-pressure  systems  various  procedures 
occur,  the  general  plan  being  to  pump  air  upon  the  surface  of  the 
oil  in  a  closed  tank,  the  pressure  forcing  the  oil  out  to  the  burners. 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  87 

An  intermediate  tank  system  of  one  firm  is  unique  in  that  it  has  a 
small  tank  filled  by  a  ball-float  arrangement,  the  burners  being  a 
few  inches  above  the  "oil  level  maintained  and  provided  with  two 
nozzles,  one  for  air  or  steam  and  one  for  oil  in  the  center  of  the 
other.  The  air  or  steam,  being  forced  out  past  the  orifice  of  the  oil, 
produces  a  partial  vacuum  which  allows  the  oil  to  rise  to  the  nozzle 
where  it  is  sprayed  by  the  air  or  steam,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  chief  desideratum  in  all  acceptable  systems  is  that  the  oil  does 
not  gravitate  to  the  burners  from  any  considerable  supply.  The 
piping  should  also  be  tight  and  be  self-draining,  with  convenient 
valves.  The  supply  tanks  should  be  underground  and  well  removed. 

Gasometers.— In  gas  plants  the  gas  is  stored  in  huge  water- 
sealed  iron  tanks.  It  is  possible  to  explode  them  by  lightning  stroke 
or  exposure  to  fire,  and  a  case  is  known  where  a  high  wind  tipped 
a  gasometer  over  so  that  it  was  unsealed  and  the  escaping  gas 
ignited.  Ordinarily,  such  burning  does  not  amount  to  an  explosion, 
but  it  is  possible  for  the  burning  gas  in  an  injured  gasometer  to 
so  thin  out  by  escaping  that  incoming  air  will  produce  an  explosive 
mixture.  Small  gasometers  for  acetylene  gas  machines,  and  the  like, 
should  not  be  allowed  inside. 

Gasolene  Devices. — These  are  too  numerous  for  specific  mention. 
The  principal  are  venders'  torches,  lamps,  plumbers'  soldering-iron 
heaters,  blow-torches  or  paint  removers,  stoves,  portable  lead-melt- 
ing pots,  pyropen  apparatus,  branding  apparatus,  etc.  All  are  dan- 
gerous and  only  such  appliances  should  be  used  as  are  approved  by 
Underwriters'  Laboratories.  Paint  removers,  venders'  torches  and 
non-safety  gasolene  stoves  are  particularly  hazardous. 

Gas  Purifiers. — In  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas.  They 
are  shallow  pans  with  false  bottoms,  the  upper  bottom  being  per- 
forated. They  are  filled  with  iron  filings,  rusted,  and  sawdust,  which 
removes  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gases  present 
in  the  gas,  the  result  being  obtained  by  placing  an  iron  water-sealed 
cover  over  the  pan  and  passing  the  impure  gas  down  through  the 
iron  oxide  and  sawdust  from  a  pipe  which  usually  enters  from  below 
to  a  point  near  the  top  of  the  purifier. 

The  danger  in  a  purifier  is  that  of  explosion,  which  may  result, 
when  the  cover  is  removed,  from  an  open  light.  It  is  necessary  to 
admit  air  to  the  cover  to  remove  it  because  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  on  the  outside  when  the  purifier  is  cut  off  at  the  center 
seal;  and  an  explosive  mixture  of  the  gas  and  air  may  be  formed 
which,  if  ignited,  may  wreck  the  building.  Obviously,  only  natural 
light  or  securely  enclosed  lights  shining  through  a  pane  in  a  window 
should  be  permitted 

Gas  Stoves. — These  are  of  various  patterns.  The  flat,  single  or 
multiple  burner  type  in  common  use  has  short  legs  to  raise  it  from 
the  table  or  floor  on  which  it  rests,  but  these  legs  do  not  give  suffi- 
cient clearance,  and  if  the  stove  rests  on  wood  it  should  have  pro- 
tection under  it.  Rubber  hose  should  not  be  allowed  for  connecting 
any  gas  stove,  as  it  rots  or  becomes  loose.  The  permissible  hose 
is  braided  and  stiffened  by  an  inside  coil  of  wire  to  prevent  it  from 
kinking  or  being  crushed  temporarily  and  thus  shutting  off  the  gas 
long  enough  to  put  out  some  burners  and  not  others,  making  explo- 
sions imminent.  The  gas  stoves  and  radiators  in  use  should  espe- 


88  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

cially  not  have  soft  rubber  tubing  and  should  not  expose  woodwork, 
curtains,  etc. 

Gilding. — In  picture-frame  and  moulding  works.  Gold  and  silver 
leaf  are  put  on  by  first  oiling  the  surface  and  blowing  the  leaf 
against  it,  after  which  brushes  and  rags  press  it  to  the  contour  of 
the  work.  The  rags  and  refuse  are  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. 

Grain  Elevators. — The  belt-and-bucket  type  of  elevator  is  almost 
invariably  used.  The  legs  of  these  are  so  many  flues  for  the  spread 
of  fire.  The  heads  and  boots  are  also  apt  to  become  clogged  by 
dust,  and  in  order  to  prevent  this  inclined  strut-boards  (pieces  in 
the  head  of  the  elevator  under  the  pulley)  are  provided,  making  the 
head  self-cleaning.  Dust  accumulations  in  the  boots  may  be  removed 
by  slides.  Hoppers  venting  into  the  legs  are  sometimes  substituted 
for  the  strut-boards,  their  sloping  sides  making  them  self-cleaning. 
Occasionally  weighted  and  hinged  strut-boards  are  used,  the  idea 
being  to  have  them  open  when  the  weight  of  the  dust  overbalances 
that  which  keeps  the  boards  in  place.  These  are  not  reliable,  how- 
ever, and  are  rare.  Some  elevator  heads  are  not  enclosed  under- 
neath, and  there  is  no  danger  from  the  strut-board,  but  such  ele- 
vators permit  a  great  deal  of  dust  to  escape  into  the  building.  Still 
other  elevators  have  both  legs  in  one,  and  no  strut-board  is  neces- 
sary, evidently.  Where  chain  and  bucket  elevators  are  used  there 
is  little  danger  from  the  strut-board,  as  the  pulley  is  like  a  huge 
sprocket  and  will  not  permit  the  dust  to  bank  up.  Marine  legs  come 
properly  under  the  head  of  elevators,  but  are  not  so  dangerous, 
being  tilted  so  often  as  to  -keep  clean.  However,  as  they  are  some- 
times placed,  they  facilitate  the  spread  of  fire  from  the  first  floor 
to  the  texas,  affording  direct  communication. 

Similar  elevators  are  used  for  various  other  purposes  and  the 
above  remarks  are  largely  applicable  to  them. 

Grinding. — Unless  thoroughly  wet  there  is  generally  danger  of 
the  fine  particles  abraded  heating  spontaneously  if  allowed  to  accu- 
mulate. Band-splitters  in  tanneries  and  similar  devices  should  be 
arranged  with  this  danger  in  view. 

Gun  Testing. — The  testing  range  should  preferably  be  fireproof, 
or  at  least  lined,  on  account  of  the  wads  and  chance  bits  of  flaked 
powder  starting  trouble. 

Hat  Presses. — This  includes  the  steam-heated  moulds  and  flange 
plates  used  in  hat  factories.  They  and  their  pipes  and  the  sand- 
bags for  flanging  should  be  kept  free  from  woodwork. 

Ice  Machines. — The  machines  themselves  have  only  the  ordinary 
engine  hazards,  except  that  they  compress  a  gas,  generally  ammo- 
nia, which  may  escape.  (See  "Ammonia.")  No  open  lights  should 
be  allowed  near  the  machines,  as  leaks,  breakage  of  the  gauge  or 
damage  to  the  cylinder  head  may  cause  an  explosion.  Ammonia 
becomes  assimilated  with  oil  under  pressure,  and  in  this  combination 
is  explosive. 

Incubators. — These  are  generally  wooden  or  glass  boxes  warmed 
by  oil  or  gasolene  lamps  or  stoves  placed,  as  a  rule,  at  one  end 
under  the  mouth  of  a  duct  leading  through  the  box.  They  should 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  89 

not  be  allowed  in  important  buildings,  being  subject  to  frequent  fires 
with  either  source  of  heat. 

Ironing  Machines. — In  steam  laundries,  for  ironing  cuffs,  collars, 
bodies,  linen,  etc.  Generally  rollers  heated  by  internal  gas  flames; 
a  few  are  steam-heated.  Clearance  and  neatness  of  surroundings 
and  connections  important.  Soft  rubber  tubing  should  be  discour- 
aged. 

Kit  Heaters. — For  heating  shoemakers'  dressing  tools.  In  ordi- 
nary cobbleries  a  rest  is  provided  on  top  of  the  chimney  of  an  oil 
lamp  or  stove;  in  factories  such  stoves  or  lamps  or  fixed  gas-jets 
are  used,  unless  the  tools  are  on  machines,  in  which  case  a  small 
jet  impinges  against  the  tool  as  it  operates.  Stoves  and  lamps  are 
easily  upset  and  are  trouble  breeders,  and  the  fixed  gas-jets,  being 
on  benches,  may  be  surrounded  by  inflammable  materials. 

Lime. — Unslaked,  this  should  be  stored  in  dry  places,  as  the  addi- 
tion of  water  causes  it  to  heat  violently  and  set  fire  to  the  contain- 
ing barrels  or  other  inflammables  near. 

Machinery. — While  we  naturally  associate  with  the  more  rapid 
moving  machinery  the  idea  of  greater  hazardousness,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  slower  moving  may  not  in  some  cases 
be  more  dangerous.  Great  speed,  of  course,  carries  with  it  a  ten- 
dency to  heating,  especially  as  the  rapid  rotation  of  the  parts  makes 
it  more  difficult  to  keep  the  bearings  in  oil,  other  things  being  equal ; 
but  slow,  cumbersome,  badly-aligned  or  heavily-loaded  shafts  may 
heat  up  to  an  even  worse  degree,  since  they  are  not  self-ventilating 
by  their  speed  and  have  more  mass  in  which  to  get  a  cumulative 
heat  effect.  In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  shafting  and  bearings 
of  machinery  heat  up  as  a  result  of  poor  alignment,  binding  or 
insufficient  oil,  any  one  of  which  defects  is  remediable.  Shaftings 
and  bearings  of  all  sorts  may  be  dangerous  in  other  respects  than 
as  to  heating  by  becoming  oily  and  accumulating  dust  or  inflam- 
mable fly  or  lint,  and  by  saturating  nearby  woodwork.  For  this 
reason  journals  should  never  be  placed  on  wooden  beams  nor  the 
sides  of  wooden  posts.  Several  makes  of  iron  drop  or  post  hangers 
are  on  the  market  and  are  excellent  in  obviating  the  objections 
pointed  out.  These  should  be  adjustable,  and,  if  self-oiling  and 
non-dripping,  are  ideal.  If  not  self-oiling,  drip-cups,  preferably 
of  cast-iron  and  fixed  substantially  under  the  journal-boxes,  should 
be  provided.  Tin  cups  or  pans  suspended  by  wires,  so  often  seen, 
are  no  more  than  makeshifts. 

It  is  impracticable  to  detail  the  hazardousness  of  every  variety  of 
machine  in  an  article  of  this  sort.  A  few  general  remarks  only  will 
be  made,  therefore. 

In  all  machines  grinding,  pulverizing,  or  otherwise  reducing  sub- 
stances to  smaller  particles  by  .a  breaking  operation,  considerable 
dust  is  raised  and  some  heat  is  produced  by  the  act  of  separating  the 
particles  from  the  main  mass.  If  the  substance  reduced  will  burn, 
its  dust  will  be  explosive,  and  there  is  always  the  danger  of  it  clog- 
ging bearings.  Many  such  dusts  in  accumulations  and  saturated 
with  oil  can  ignite  spontaneously.  Most  machines  performing  ope- 
rations of  the  sort  discussed  should  have  blowers  and  flues  to 
remove  the  dust  and  collectors  to  prevent  it  from  being  sent  over 
surrounding  property.  There  is  nearly  always  the  danger  of  foreign 
particles  or  parts  of  the  mechanism  striking  fire. 


9$  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  above  is  true  of  machines  altering  stock  by  cutting  and  pol- 
ishing operations,  while  those  doing  sorting  or  separating  operations 
raise  dust  mainly  by  a  species  of  jostling  and  involve  the  dust  and 
bearings  hazards  only. 

Picking  machines  have  already  been  mentioned.  Knitting  and 
weaving  machinery  involves  but  slight  hazard  as  machinery,  the 
principal  danger  being  the  possible  ignition  of  the  stock  in  addition 
to  the  bearings  hazard. 

Spinning  machinery  involves  the  hazard  of  numerous  small,  rap- 
idly-moving spindles  which  may  heat  at  their  bearings,  and  which 
are  often  in  concealed  carriages  or  frames,  as  well  as  considerable 
grease  hazard  at  the  driving  mechanism. 

Matches. — Match  heads  consist  of  various  combinations  of  glue, 
rosin,  phosphorus,  amorphous  phosphorus,  sulphur,  chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, saltpeter,  red  lead,  bichromate  of  potash,  nitrate  of  lead,  anti- 
mony sulphide,  fine  sand,  peroxide  of  manganese,  whiting  and  other 
substances.  The  bursting  and  separation  of  match  heads  from  the 
stems  is  confined  to  so-called  parlor  matches.  The  bursting  or  chip- 
ping off  of  the  heads  is  caused  by  improper  mixing  of  the  ingredi- 
ents entering  into  the  composition.  It  is  liable  to  happen  with  the 
matches  of  any  firm,  although,  as  a  general  statement,  it  is  true 
that  the  larger  factories  are  more  apt  to  have  competent  composition 
mixers,  and  their  matches  will  naturally  average  better  than  those 
of  the  small  concerns.  The  specific  cause  of  the  bursting  is  due  to 
the  liberation  too  freely  of  gases  in  the  mass  of  the  composition. 
While  this  is  a  scientific  fact,  it  affords  little  solace  to  underwriters, 
since  there  is  'no  way  of  telling  when  the  conditions  actually  obtain 
which  produce  the  bursting.  In  other  words,  we  cannot  tell  prac- 
tically until  we  use  a  match  whether  it  was  made  from  an  improperly 
mixed  batch  of  composition  or  not. 

The  separation  of  the  heads  bodily  from  the  stems  is  due  to  the 
formation  of  what  is  technically  known  as  a  "  teat."  When  the 
splint  with  the  fresh  globule  of  composition  is  allowed  to  hang  too 
long  in  one  position,  obviously  the  plastic  composition  will  sag 
before  it  dries.  This  sagging  forms  'a  conical-shaped  teat  or  else 
the  whole  globule  settles  so  that  it  does  not  engage  the  end  of  the 
splint  firmly.  When  the  match  is  struck,  therefore,  a  portion  of 
the  head  or  the  whole  head  may  be  broken  off,  and  the  fusing  of  the 
composition  proceeds  where  the  head  has  fallen.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  point  out  the  dangers  arising  from  this  defect.  The  remedy  for 
it  lies  in  improved  methods  of  drying  and  attention  to  the  setting 
qualities  of  the  composition,  If,  after  the  splints  are  dipped  inta  the 
composition,  they  are  immediately  reversed  and  later  reversed  again, 
and  so  on,  the  composition  will  dry  as  a  globule,  with  the  splint 
projecting  into  it  a  proper  distance.  This  expedient  is  resorted  to 
in  factories  where  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  appreciated  and  the 
reversals  are  made  by  machinery. 

Safety  matches  are  usually  made  with  the  oxydizing  agents  (ni- 
trates or  chlorates)  in  the  match-head  and  the  phosphorus  in  the 
rubber  of  the  box.  Owing  to  their  expensiveness  they  are  not  sold 
as  generally  as  the  cheaper  and  more  readily  made  parlor  matches. 
The  amorphous  form  of  phosphorus  is  used  in  them  and  this  is  not 
only  non-poisonous  but  not  subject  to  spontaneous  ignition.  >k>lr! 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  91 

Malt  Mills. — For  grinding  malt.  Generally  mills  of  the  roller 
type,  but  more  dangerous  than  those  in  flour  mills,  as  the  stock  is , 
apt  to  contain  more  flinty  and  metal  particles.  They  should  have  a 
device  to  keep  the  space  under  the  rolls  full  of  ground  stock,  so 
that  no  explosive  mixture  of  ground  malt  and  air  can  occur.  Mag- 
nets should  be  provided  in  the  feeds  to  catch  steel  and  iron  par- 
ticles, and  gravity  separators  are  advisable  to  arrest  non-metallic 
foreign  substances.  An  explosion  vent  to  the  outside  air  is  also 
desirable  to  take  up  the  force  of  an  explosion.  Preferably,  the  mill 
should  be  in  a  section  well  cut  off. 

Nitre  Bags. — Gunny-bags  in  which  nitre  is  obtained.  The  empty 
bags  always  have  adhering  to  them  particles  of  nitre  and  are  sub- 
ject to  spontaneous  combustion  in  heaps,  burning  fiercely. 

Napping  Machines. — Machines  for  removing  the  surplus  nap 
from  cloth  goods.  Owing  to  lint  brushed  off,  the  bearings  hazard  is 
increased,  and  if  the  nap  contains  cotton  it  flashes  readily. 

Oiling  Stock. — In  cotton  and  woolen  mills  the  stock  is  oiled 
before  it  goes  to  the  pickers  by  scattering  oil  over  the  stock  as  it 
lies  spread  out  on  the  floor.  The  latter  should  be  covered  with 
metal  or  be  of  brick  or  cement,  as  wooden  floors  become  saturated. 

Oiling  Woodwork. — This  generally  appears  upon  woodwork 
which  is  to  be  left  practically  with  its  natural  finish.  It  is  done  by 
rubbing  the  oil  on  with  rags,  applying  it  with  brushes  or  dipping  the 
object  into  a  vessel  of  oil.  Care  should  be  taken  with  the  rags  and 
overalls  or  old  clothes  of  the  workmen.  Considerable  oil  is  apt  to 
be  spattered  around,  and  adjacent  woodwork  should  be  metal-clad 
if  possible,  see  also  "  Painting." 

Oils. — These  are  a  hazard  in  that  they  furnish  fuel  for  a  fire,  and 
are,  in  many  cases,  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion  when  sub- 
divided on  waste,  clothing,  etc.  All  animal  and  vegetable  oils  are 
subject  to  spontaneous  heating  under  some  circumstances,  but  the 
admixture  with  them  of  mineral  oils  of  twenty  to  fifty  per  cent  pre- 
vents this  heating.  Experiments  have  shown  that  on  cotton-waste 
in  a  chamber  heated  to  130  to  170  degrees,  boiled  linseed-oil  ignited 
in  i  J4  hours,  raw  linseed-oil  in  4,  lard-oil  in  4,  colza-oil  in  6,  olive- 
oil  in  5,  sperm-oil  in  4  and  castor-oil  in  24.  See  also  "  Painting." 

Oily  Waste. — Oily  waste  is  a  hazard  in  that  it  is  inflammable 
and  may  ignite  spontaneously.  It  is  generally  used  with  mineral  oils 
in  connection  with  metal  workers  and  with  animal  or  vegetable 
oils  in  woodworkers.  The  mineral  oils  may  be  adulterated,  how- 
ever, and  it  is  always  well  to  keep  oily  waste  in  standard  cans. 

Painting. — Paints  consist  of  pigments  and  oils,  generally  turpen- 
tine, rosin  spirit,  rosin-oil,  linseed-oil  and  benzine.  In  many  cases 
the  various  prepared  ingredients  are  mixed  as  needed,  being  kept  on 
hand  for  the  purpose.  Of  the  solid  substances  used,  those  of  sig- 
nificance, owing  to  their  inherent  or  indirect  hazardousness,  are 
lamp-black,  the  chromes,  Prussian  blues,  vegetable  blacks  and  some- 
times red  lead.  These  are  all  more  or  less  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion,  or  inflammable  under  various  circumstances,  and  should 
be  kept  in  meta!  receptacles  or  in  a  safe  place.  Lamp-black  often 
contains  unburnt  oil,  accounting  for  its  liability  to  spontaneous 
heating  in  addition  to  the  natural  avidity  of  carbon  for  oxygen. 


92  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Even  where  it  does  not  contain  such  oil  the  accidental  addition  of 
oil  to  it  has  in  many  cases  promoted  dangerous  heating.  In  fact, 
oily  finger-marks  upon  the  paper  of  the  ordinary  commercial  pack- 
ages have  brought  about  undue  .activity  of  this  sort.  Many  of  the 
pigments  made  from  organic  substances  are  very  inflammable  when 
finely  subdivided  or  ground  with  an  oxidizing  substance  in  a  dry 
state,  so  that  it  is  advisable  not  to  have  open  lights  near  any  appar- 
atus apt  to  give  rise  to  dust  particles. 

.Turpentine,  so  general  in  painting,  is  very  inflammable,  flashing 
97-101  degrees  F.  Although  popularly  supposed  to  be  exempt  from 
danger  of  spontaneous  heating  on  waste,  it  absorbs  oxygen  rapidly 
enough  to  cause  fire  in  rags  saturated  with  it.  Rosin  spirit,  used  as 
an  adulterant  and  substitute  for  turpentine,  has  the  same  flash-point 
and  characteristics  as  that  oil.  The  characteristics  and  behavior 
of  benzine  are  well  known.  Linseed-oil,  particularly  boiled,  has 
great  avidity  for  oxygen,  and  is  especially  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion  in  conjunction  with  rags,  waste,  etc.  If  dissolved  in 
turpentine,  as  in  paints,  the  tendency  to  heating  is  magnified,  so  that 
painty  rags  are  even  more  dangerous  than  those  saturated  with  the 
oil  alone.  The  flash-point  of  linseed-oil  is  high,  however,  so  that 
there  is  little  danger  from  the  oil  at  ordinary  temperatures,  except 
that  from  spontaneous  heating  on  waste. 

In  estimating  the  painting  hazard,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
higher  grade  work  carries  with  it,  on  the  average,  more  skilled 
and,  consequently,  careful  labor.  In  coarse  work,  also,  there  is  not 
the  same  necessity  of  care  with  the  materials  used,  from  the  stand- 
point of  economy,  as  in  the  case  of  high-grade  work,  and  the  natural 
carelessness  of  the  laborers  is  enhanced  by  this  fact.  It  is  a  fact, 
also,  that  all  labor  is  unconsciously  affected  by  the  degrees  of  care 
essential  in  the  commercial  use  of  its  services,  and,  in  connection 
with  painting,  this  physico-moral  feature  is  probably  most  significant. 

Where  any  considerable  amount  of  oiling,  painting  or  dipping  is 
done,  iron  closets,  properly  raised  from  the  floor,  ventilated  and 
free  from  the  proximity  of  inflammables,  should  be  provided  for 
the  clothing  and  overalls  of  the  men.  Both  heavy  wire  grating  and 
sheet  or  corrugated  iron  closets  are  made  for  this  purpose,  each 
having  many  points  of  excellence.  Where  sprinklers  are  installed, 
the  grating  closets  are,  on  the  whole,  preferred  by  the  writer; 
otherwise,  the  solid-walled.  Wooden  closets  are  very  objectionable. 
Even  if  lined  with  tin  they  are  not  so  good,  and  cost  nearly  as 
much  as  the  iron.  The  practice  of  hanging  clothes  and  overalls 
on  wooden  partitions,  or  together  in  a  large  dressing-room,  should 
be  discouraged,  and  throwing  them  in  heaps  on  or  under  benches 
entirely  discountenanced.  Nor  should  wooden  receptacles  of  any 
kind  be  used  for  oily  waste,  wipes,  rags  for  cleaning  smeared  hands, 
etc. ;  iron  boxes  with  legs  about  3  inches  long  and  self-closing  lids 
are  the  best  and  safest. 

The  scope  of  this  article  is  too  limited  for  extended  comments 
upon  paint  and  oil  storage,  and  only  a  few  remarks  will  be.  made. 
Only  a  day's  supply  of  materials  should  be  permitted  inside  the 
main  buildings,  and  any  remaining  stock  should  be  removed  to  the 
storehouse  or  vault  at  the  close  of  a  day's  work.  Cans  containing 
volatile  oils,  such  as  turpentine  and  benzine,  should  not  be  allowed 
to  stand  around  without  stoppers,  especially  if  partly  empty,  as 
the  space  above  the  surface  allows  an  accumulation  of  the  fumes 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  93 

to  occur.  Painters  should  not  be  permitted  to  "  try  "  their  brushes 
all  over  the  walls  of  partitions  or  closets.  The  main  supply  room, 
if  inside,  should  be  fireproof  and  so  constructed  that  a  fire  could 
be  smothered  by  closing  the  doors  to  the  room.  It  is  best,  however, 
to  encourage  the  use  of  a  detached  building  for  the  storage  of  oils, 
paints,  varnishes,  etc.  Explosions  may  shatter  an  inside  vault  so 
that  it  would  not  confine  a  fire. 

Paint  Mills. — These  are  generally  buhr  stones  or  steel  mills  of 
similar  design.  They  may  heat  and  cause  trouble  by  igniting  the 
stock,  although  heating  is  guarded  against,  as  it  has  a  deleterious 
effect  upon  the  paint. 

Peanut  Roasters. — The  larger  ones  are  similar  to  coffee  roasters 
(q.  v.).  Venders'  roasters  are  small,  rotating  metal  cylinders,  gen- 
erally heated  by  a  gasoline  torch. 

Pickers. — These,  in  general,  are  devices  through  which  the  stock 
passes  and  is  torn  up  or  loosened  and  straightened  out  by  means 
of  rotating  toothed  cylinders.  They  are  of  various  designs,  for 
diverse  uses,  and  found  in  several  classes  of  risks.  The  main  haz- 
ard in  all  is  the  danger  of  striking  fire  on  foreign  particles  and 
igniting  the  stock.  Other  hazards  are  due  to  friction  at  the  bear- 
in-s  and  the  possible  escape  of  light,  fluffy  material,  these  hazards 
varying  in  seriousness  according  to  the  kind  of  machine  and  the 
stock  worked.  Regular  pickers  for  cotton  or  easily  inflammable 
goods  should  vent  to  fireproof  rooms  if  they  are  inside.  The  indi- 
vidual characteristics  and  degrees  of  hazard  in  pickers  are  too 
numerous  to  mention  here.  The  principal  pickers  or  machines  doing 
picking  operations  are  blowers  (hat  factories),  buhr,  cards,  devils 
(hat  factories),  dusters,  excelsior,  garnettes,  gins,  grabot  gins,  hair, 
lappers,  linters,  mixing,  openers,  rag,  waste  and  willowers. 

Pouncing. — An  operation  in  felt  and  wool  hat-making,  corre- 
sponding to  napping,  in  which  the  hat  body  is  placed  on  a  rotating 
block  and  smoothed  with  sandpaper.  Considerable  lint  arises,  clog- 
ging bearings  and  filling  cracks  and  corners.  Blowers  should  be 
provided  to  remove  it. 

Printing  Presses. — The  hazard  in  connection  with  these  is  due  to 
the  grease  and  oil  which  in  time  saturate  the  floor,  the  steam-pipes, 
sometimes  installed  under  them  to  regulate  the  consistency  6f  the 
ink,  the  rags  and  waste  used  in  cleaning,  the  possible  use  of  benzine 
in  washing  forms,  type,  rollers,  etc.,  and  the  making  of  rollers. 
The  floor  under  all  presses,  unless  brick  or  cement,  should  be  nretal- 
clad,  and  safety  waste  and  benzine  cans  provided.  In  newspaper 
work,  where  high  speed  rotary  presses  are  used,  to  reproduce  half- 
tones a  quick  drying  ink  is  used,  generally  thinned  with  benzole; 
the  vapors  liberated  make  this  process  very  hazardous.  Good  ven- 
tilation is  necessary  and  provision  must  be  made  to  take  care  of 
static  electricity  on  the  paper. 

Quick-aging. — Whiskey  is  aged  principally  by  tannic  acid  in  the 
staves  of  the  barrels.  It  is  hastened  sometimes  by  steam,  generally 
from  coils  around  the  rooms.  There  is  no  special  hazard  when  it 
is  done  this  way,  except  that  the  evaporation  is  hastened  and  there 
is  a  possible  chance  for  the  fumes  of  evaporation  to  accumulate 
and  result  in' fire  on  the  careless  entry  of  open  lights  into  the  room. 


94  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

There  are  methods,  however,  which  may  result  in  the  bursting  of 
the  barrels,  unless  extreme  care  is  exercised.  They  involve  the 
rapid  heating  of  the  whiskey,  usually  by  inserting  a  goose-neck 
steampipe  in  the  bunghole  of  the  barrel. 

Rolling  Mill  Rolls. — These  have  a  squeezing  effect  upon  the  hot 
metal,  causing  confined  gases  to  be  compressed  and  explode,  and 
throwing  scale  and  small  particles  sometimes  100  feet.  They  should 
have  good  clearance  to  woodwork  and  corners  containing  waste, 
overalls,  etc. 

Rubbing. — See  "  Finishing." 

Rubber-Cement. — Also  guttapercha-cement.  Cut  with  benzine 
and  should  be  used  from  safety-pots  only.  The  best  of  these  are 
similar  to  pneumatic  chicken  watering-troughs. 

Screw-cutting. — Where  "  soda  water  "  is  used,  screw-cutting  in- 
volves no  hazard.  Oil  is  frequently  pumped  over  the  work  or  run 
over  it  from  cans  or  small  tanks,  and  there  arises  the  so-called 
"  grease-hazard,"  oil  being  necessarily  scattered  on  the  floor  until 
it  becomes  saturated.  Heavy  mineral  oils  are  used  for  the  purpose, 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  saturated  rags  igniting  spontaneously. 

Setting. — In  •  tanneries.  Grease  is  worked  into  the  leather  by 
slickers  as  it  lies  stretched  upon  tables.  Excess  grease  should  not 
be  allowed  to  accumulate. 

Shafting. — See  "  Machinery." 

Shavings  Vaults. — Shavings  vaults  or  rooms  are  designed  to  re- 
duce hazard  and  do  so,  inasmuch  as  they  confine  shavings  and  dust 
to  certain  limits,  but  they  involve  hazards,  perhaps,  not  suspected 
at  first.  Not  the  least  of  these  is  that  of  explosions  which  occur 
in  the  dust-laden  air  of  partially  filled  vaults  when  an  open  light  or 
flame  is  introduced  in  any  way.  Dust  explosions  and  their  causes 
have  been  explained  elsewhere.  The  necessary  flame  or  spark  can 
be  furnished  in  various  ways — from  hand  torches  near  the  opening, 
lanterns,  coals  from  a  back-draft,  electrical  mishaps,  etc.,  and  shav- 
ings rooms  or  vaults  should  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  damage  main 
buildings  if  shattered  by  explosions  or  destroyed  by  fire.  If  inside, 
they  should  be  absolutely  fireproof  and  should  have  safety  vents 
to  the  outside  air.  It  may  be  well  to  add  that  these  vents  are  to 
relieve  the  force  of  an  explosion,  and  may  be  arranged  with  flap- 
checks,  so  as  to  remain  shut  against  the  mild  expansion  of  gas 
resulting  from  ordinary  burning  inside  the  vault,  so  as  to  smother 
an  ordinary  fire.  The  doors  to  vaults,  bins  or  rooms  should  not 
be  in  line  with  a  back-draft  from  the  boiler  furnaces  or  too  near 
the  latter  if  to  one  side,  and  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  close 
easily.  A  wall  of  the  bin,  room  or  vault  also  should  not  form  a 
part  of  the  boiler  setting,  owing  to  the  cracks  which  are  apt  to  form 
in  the  latter,  and  if  the  structure  adjoins  the  boiler  or  engine  rooms 
its  walls  toward  them  should  be  continued  through  the  roof  as  a 
parapet. 

Shellacking. — Hazard  is  due  to  the  presence  of  alcohol  which  is 
used  to  dissolve  the  shellac. 

Singeing. — In  bleacheries  and  cloth  works  the  nap  is  singed  off 
in  some  instances  by  gas  flames,  the  cloth  passing  rapidly  over  the 


MANUFACTURING  HAZARDS  95 

latter.  Rooms  in  which  this  is  done  should  be  cut  off,  as  the  in- 
terior is  dried  out  and  any  hitch  in  the  feeding  apparatus  would 
result  in  the  cloth  being  ignited.  Hats. are  singed  by  flaring  gas 
flames  after  being  pounced,  the  hazard  being  that  of  open  gas 
flames  only,  as.  a  rule.  The  same  is  true  of  pigs'  feet,  ear  and 
snout-singeing  in  packing  houses. 

Smoking. — The  hazard  of  smoking  is  due  to  careless  use  of 
matches  and  disposition  of  the  discarded  remains  of  a  pipe-bowl, 
cigar  or  cigarette,  as  well  as  to  the  ignition  of  inflammable  vapors. 

Squeezers. — For  welding  together  the  molten  particles  of  pud- 
dled iron.  Spark  and  scale  hazard  prominent. 

Static  Electricity. — Reference  is  made  only  to  such  as  is  gen- 
erated by  belts,  moving  machinery,  rubbing  of  brushes  against 
stock,  etc.  Small  sparks  frequently  jump  through  the  air  and  can 
ignite  inflammable  vapors  in  the  air  or  fine  lint  and  dust.  In  some 
cases  grounds  can  be  provided  to  reduce  the  static  charge,  but  in 
many  cases  the  development  of  static  electricity  is  difficult  to  fore- 
see and  prevent. 

Straw  and  Hay. — Used  for  feed,  bedding,  packing,  collar-stuf- 
fing, etc.  Hazard  due  to  its  ignitability  and  combustibility.  It 
should  riot  be  strewn  about  inside  of  buildings.  If  its  presence  be 
necessary  inside  buildings  it  should  be  stored  in  metal-lined  or  tile- 
walled  bins  with  doors.  Sometimes  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion. 

Transferring. — In  lithographing  establishments  the  designs  are 
transferred  from  paper  to  the  stone,  turpentine  and  rags  being  used 
in  the  cleaning  operations.  Such  rags  should  be  kept  in  standard 
cans. 

Trimming  and  Upholstering. — These  occur  in  carriage,  coffin 
and  furniture  factories  and  similar  risks,  and  the  hazard  is  due  to 
the  large  amount  of  tow,  excelsior,  moss,  hair,  cocoanut  fibre, 
shucks,  cotton,  etc.,  used,  as  well  as  the  presence  of  glue-pots  and 
flat-irons  occasionally.  Bins  should  be  provided  for  superfluous 
stock  at  night  and  a  regular  daily  sweeping  made.  Stove  heat  and 
oil  stoves  in  the  vicinity  are  dangerous. 

Trip  Hammers. — Spark  and  scale  hazard.  If  operated  by  steam, 
steam-pipe  hazard  also.  Some  trip  hammers  are  raised  by  friction 
belts,  and  a  small  hazard  exists  at  the  belt  and  pulley. 

Varnishing. — Varnish  is  usually  applied  with  brushes.  Cheap 
work  is  frequently  dipped.  There  is  little  hazard  in  the  actual 
application  of  varnish  with  brushes,  although  it  is  said  that  fric- 
tional  electricity  is  sometimes  generated  in  slapping  the  brushes 
around  and  sparks  have  ignited  the  fumes  or  vapor  from  the  in- 
gredients in  the  varnish.  The  real  hazard  lies  in  the  use  of  mate- 
rials of  an  inflammable  and  more  or  less  volatile  nature,  also  subject 
to  spontaneous  combustion  when  spread  thin  on  rags  or  waste.  In 
fact,  the  hazard  of  varnishes  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  their 
constituents,  boiled  Jinseed-oil  and  a  volatile  solvent,  except  that 
varnishes  containing  turpentine  and  linseed-oil  are  even  more  sub- 
ject to  spontaneous  heating. 


96  '  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Vulcanizers. — Generally  steam-heated  vessels,  chests,  cylinders 
or  arms.  Hazard  that  of  steam-pipes.  Smaller  vulcanizers  are 
sometimes  gas-heated. 

Zapon. — A  lacquer  cut  with  amyl-acetate  and  consequently  in- 
flammable and  explosive.  Similar  lacquers  pass  under  the  names 
lustrine,  brassoline,  opaline,  Egyptian  lacquer,  etc. 

Xylonite. — Practically  the  same  as  celluloid  (q.  v.).  Sometimes 
spelled  zylonite. 


•.'/*>H   bus  wr>:ijf- 


PLANNING    AND   ARRANGEMENT 
OF  HAZARDS 

The  Chicago  Board  of  Underwriters  recommends  the  safeguarding 
of  the  following  hazards  in  connection  with  the  construction  or 
alteration  of  buildings  for  the  specific  purposes  as  noted : 

Bake  Ovens. — The  following  specifications,  with  the  exception 
of  the  first,  are  for  ovens  located  in  combustible  buildings. 

Ovens  located  on  the  upper  floors  of  fireproof  buildings  should 
be  supported  on  special  foundations  provided  in  the  framing  of 
the  buildings.  The  wooden  top  flooring  (and  nailing  strips)  of  the 
firing  floor  should  be  removed  for  a  distance  of  twelve  inches  at 
the  sides  and  back  of  oven  and  not  less  than  six  feet  in  front  and 
replaced  with  concrete  placed  directly  on  the  floor  arches. 

Rotary  or  revolving  ovens  are  generally  built  on  special  founda- 
tions in  the  ground,  extend  up  to  the  second  floor  of  the  building 
and  have  the  firing  door  (through  which  fuel  is  fed)  on  the  first 
floor.  The  firing  floor  (from  which  fuel-is  fed)  should  have  joists, 
beams,  girders  and  flooring  removed  for  a  space  of  eight  feet  in 
front  of  the  ovens  and  the  space  filled  in  with  I-beams  and  tile 
or  brick  arches ;  it  may  also  be  necessary  to  provide  the  same  sort 
of  clearance  at  sides  and  back,  depending  upon  the  thickness  and 
condition  of  the  oven  walls.  The  charging  door  (through  which 
the  material  to  be  baked  is  fed)  is  usually  on  the  second  floor  and 
consists  of  a  long  horizontal  opening  extending  nearly  across  the 
face  of  the  oven,  and  about  18  inches  high;  a  metal  hood  with 
metal  vent  pipe  communicating  to  th-3  outside  air  should  be  pro- 
vided to  carry  off  the  heated  air  and  gases.  The  tops  of  these 
ovens  are  usually  constructed  of  brick  arches  and  should  be  covered 
with  sand  or  cinders.  When  the  walls  of  the  oven  are  extended 
to  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  a  dead  air  space  is  formed  between 
the  tops  of  the  ovens  and  the  ceiling  which  should  be  vented — 
this  may  be  accomplished  by  connecting  the  space  with  flues  in 
the  wall  of  the  building  and  placing  register  openings  in  the  front 
wall  of  the  oven  enclosure  to  provide  for  circulation ;  or  by  raising 
the  flooring  above  the  oven,  about  24  inches  above  the  main  floor 
line  and  placing  louvres  in  the  bulkhead  thus  formed,  which  will 
allow  the  hot  air  to  escape  into  the  room;  the  first  method  is 
preferable  and  safer. 

97 


98  FIRE  PREVENTION*  AND  PROTECTION 

The  ordinary  brick  ovens  as  found  2n  small  bakeries  are  generally 
built  on  the  ground  and  do  not  extend  through  the  floor.  The 
clearing  to  combustible  ceilings,  partitions,  etc.,  should  be  not  less 
than  18  to  24  inches  and  wooden  ceilings  should  be  kept  well  white- 
washed. The  floor  in  front  for  a  distance  of  8  to  10  feet  should 
be  incombustible. 

Portable  ovens  found  in  the  small  bakeries  are  built  in  skeleton 
style  on  'iron  legs  and  are  open  underneath,  the  fire-box  and  ash 
pit  extending  sometimes  to  within  10  inches  of  the  floor.  Although 
these  ovens  are  fairly  safe,  it  is  preferable  to  place  a  metal  sheet 
extending  underneath  and  6  feet  in  front  and  3  feet  at  sides  and 
back  of  the  fire-box  and  on  this  a  hyer  of  3-inch  hard  burned  hollow 
tile  or  4-inch  brick  on  edge. 

Ovens  of  the  "  Middleby "  type  (which  have  short  legs)  should, 
if  located  over  wooden  floors,  have  a  foundation  of  at  least  4-inch 
hard  burned  hollow  tile  with  continuous  air  ducts — this  is  to  provide 
for  circulation  of  air  through  the  tiles. 

Small  portable  gas  heated  ovens,  used  extensively  in  restaurants, 
boarding  houses,  private  bakeries,  etc.,  usually  have  walls  made 
double  of  metal  with  a  filling  or  mineral  wool.  They  set  close  to 
the  floor  and  should  have  a  foundation  varying  according  to  the 
size  of  burners  used,  but  at  least  equal  to  that  specified  in  the  last 
paragraph.  Care  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  exposed  combustible 
material. 

Inside  chimneys  used  in  connection  with  bake  ovens  should  have 
brick  walls  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  lined  with  flue  tiling;  the 
throat  area  should  be  sufficient  to  prevent  undue  heating.  Outside 
chimneys  (stacks)  may  be  of  metal  provided , they  are  self-support- 
ing and  have  ample  clearance  to  combustible  material. 

Boilers. — The  term,  low-pressure  boilers,  will  be  taken  under  this 
section  as  meaning  boilers  in  which  the  steam  pressure  does  not 
exceed  15  pounds;  high-pressure  boilers,  those  in :  which  the  steam 
pressure  exceeds  15  pounds. 

Combustible  ceilings  over  boilers  should  have  no  concealed  spaces 
and  should  be  protected  by  at  least  two  good  coats  of  whitewash 
or  fire-retardent  paint,  which  will  need  to  be  renewed  as  occasio'n 
demands,  This  means  that  wood  or  metal  sheathing,  plastering, 
etc.,  should  be  removed  and  the  ceiling  left  unfinished  so  as  to  be 
readily  accessible  for  inspection,  whatever  protection  is  necessary, 
aside  from  the  whitewash  or  paint  mentioned  above,  being  placed 
upon  the  boiler. 

Clearance,  ist — Between  boiler  and  fire-proof  ceiling  (concrete, 
brick  or  tile  arch,  etc.),  is  not  serious  enough  to  be  dealt  with  except 
in  special  cases.  26. — Between  the  unprotected  arch  or  breeching 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS         99 

(smoke  flue)  of  a  high-pressure  boiler  and  combustible  ceiling  or 
material  must  be  not  less  than  36  inches;  may  be  reduced  to  18 
inches  if  the  arch  or  breeching  is  covered  with  at  least  3  inches 
of  asbestos  cement,  or  its  equivalent — breeching  should  be  covered 
on  sides  as  well  as  on  top;  and  may  be  reduced  to  10  inches  in 
one-story  boiler  houses  if  the  arch  or  breeching  is  protected  with 
3  inches  of  asbestos  cement,  provided  there  is  ample  ventilation 
over  the  arch  or  breeching  to  the  outside  air.  3d — Between-  the 
unprotected  arch  or  breeching  of  a  low-pressure  boiler  and  com- 
bustible ceiling  or  material  must  not  be  less  than  24  inches;  may 
be  reduced  to  12  inches  if  the  arch  or  breeching  is  protected  by 
3  inches  of  asbestos  cement  or  its  equivalent — breeching  should  be 
covered  on  sides  as  well  as  on  top;  and  may  be  reduced  to  6 
inches  in  one-story  boiler  houses  if  the  arch  or  breeching  is  covered 
with  3  inches  of  asbestos  cement,  provided  there  is  ample  ventilation 
over  arch  or  breeching  to  the  outside  air. 

NOTE. — Breechings  which  have  been  in  use  for  some  years  may 
be  too  weak  to  carry  the  amount  of  asbestos  cement  called  for, 
in  which  case  some  lighter  material  may  be  specified  as  a  substitute. 

The  dome  of  a  boiler  is  simply  a  large  steam  holder  and  may 
be  treated  as  far  as  concerns  clearance,  with  large  steam  pipes, 
except  that  in  case  it  is  located  between  joists  or  is  otherwise 
pocketed,  it  should  have  at  least  a  3-inch  clearance  and  be  pro- 
tected with  2  inches  of  asbestos  cement  having  smooth  finish. 

Boilers  set  over  wooden  floors  should  be  arranged  as  follows :  On 
the  floor  place  a  sheet  iron  or  steel  plate,  not,  less  than  3-16  inch 
in  thickness,  extending  at  least  5  feet  in  front  of:  and  2  feet  on 
all  other  sides  of  boiler  or  boilers ;  plate  to  be  securely  riveted 
at  joints  and  turned  up  5  inches  at  edges  all  around;  on  top  of 
the  plate  place  at  •  least  5  inches  of  brick  set  in  cement  mortar; 
on  top  of  the  brick  cover  the  space  directly  under  the  boiler  with 
6-inch  hollow  fire-tile  covered  with  3-16  inch  steel  plate.  (See 
Chimneys,  Flues  and  Stacks.) 

Brass  Furnaces — Specifications  for  Mounting. — Should  pre- 
ferably be  located  only  in  high  one-story  buildings  (ceiling-  12  feet 
or  more  above  the  floor)  having  plain  brick  walls  and  incom- 
bustible floors.  All  furring  on  walls  and  the  underside  of  roofs 
for  a  distance  of  5  feet  each  side  of  furnaces  to  be  removed.  All 
wooden  ceiling  joists  in  immediate  vicinity  to  be  thoroughly  white- 
washed. 

If  necessary  to  locate  in  other  than  one-story  buildings,  place 
the  furnaces  on  the  top  floor  and  construct  the  foundation  for 
same  as  follows: 

Installation    Under   Low   Ceilings. — If    the    ceiling   is    less    than 


lt)b  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTEcxrcnsr 

12  feet  ifl  height,  the  wbbderi  flbor  .foists  should  be  cut  away  12 
inched  Widfer  each  side  than  the  space*  requited  for  the  fWftace- 
well  and  framed  in  with  12-inch  Steel  f-frearris,  properly  supported ; 
to  this  steel  framing  securely  support  an  iron  pan  (not  less  than 
24  inches  deep)  maintaining  a  36-inch  clearance  between  the  fur- 
naces and  the  combustible  floor  of  materials.  Grating  used  at  the 
floor  line  of  £ari  to  be  made  of  steel  or  iron  bars.  Ceiling  over 
above  setting  to  be  removed,  the  rdof  cut  away  18  inches  each 
way  be'yohd  the  line  of  furnaces  and  the  opening  thus  formed  fitted 
with  a  metal  ventilator. 

Stack. — To  be  constructed  of  metal  or  brick ;  if  of  brick,  to  be 
riot  less  than  8  inches  thick  and  lined  with  fire-tile;  if  of  metal, 
to  be  made  of  not  less  than  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge  steel  (must  be  not 
less  than  3-16  inch  thick  in  the  base  and  extending  to  a  point 
12  inches  above,  where  the  auxiliary  flue  connects),  properly  riveted 
and  lined  with  4  inches  of  fire-brick — lining  to  extend  Continuously 
from  the  furnace  tb  a  'point  at  least  24  inches  above  the  roof  boards. 
To  have  at  least  a  lo-irich  clearance  to  roof  boards  if  a  ventilated 
weather  shield  is  used,  otherwise  to  have  at  least  a  15-inch  clearance 
— a  separate  collar  or  fender  should  be  provided  below  the  roof 
boards,  arranged  to  shield  the  boards  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stack 
from  the  radiation  of  heat  and  cause  the  heat  to  pass  up  arid  around 
the  stack  through  the  ventilated  shield  above  the  roof.  Metal 
stacks  sho'uld  iiever  pass  through  floors. 

Casting  Floor. — Should  be  fireproof,  but  special  permission  may 
be  given  at  discretion  to  'use  a  wooden  floor  if  same  is  covered 
with  54-inch  asbestos  which  in  turn  is  covered  with  brick 'laid  flat 
or  on  edge  and  embedded  in  2  inches  of  sand.  A  special  platform 
should  be  provided  for  depositing  skimmings  from  the  ladle,  or 
on  which  to  place  hot  ladles.  This  platform  should  be  of  6-inch 
hollow  tile  or  its  equivalent  arid  should  be  'placed  on  the  above- 
described  casting  floor  unless  such  flbor  is  strictly  fireproof. 

Installation  Under  High  Ceilings.— T'f  the  Ceiling  is  12  feet 
or  more  in  height,  the  furnace  may  be  set  above  a  wooden  floor, 
provided  the  following  foundation  is  used: 

ist — Place  a  covering  of  J^-inch  asbestos  On  top  of  the  woode'n 
floor,  covering  the  entire  area  of  furnaces  and  exteriding  4  feet 
in  front  of  arid  3  feet  Tyeyorid  the  sides  arid  back  of  sariie. 

2d — On  1:6p  of  the  asbestbs  place  a  riie'tal  'pan  made  of  not  less 
than  No.  14  U.  S.  gauge  steel  with  4-inch  upturned  edges  (all 
joints  tb  be  securely  riveted). 

3d — Fill  the  pan  with  coriimon  brick  laid  on  edge  arid  slushed 
with  cement  mortar. 

4th — Support    each   'furnace    independently    by   parallel   "I-beams 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS       101 

which  should  be  laid  on  brick  and  terminate  about  6  inches  in  front 
of  and  about  6  inches  in  rear  of  the  turnace ;  bottom  of  furnace  to 
be  not  less  than  12  inches  above  the  brickwork. 

NOTE. — Either  12-inch  or  superimposed  6-inch  I-beams  may  be 
used  to  secure  the  necessary  height. 

Place  a  plate  (see  note  helovv)  of  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge  iron  or 
steel  6  inches  above  the  brickwork  and  covering  the  entire  area 
between  the  I-beams;  this  plate  to  be  supported  by  flanges  riveted 
to  the  webs  of  1 2-inch  I-beams  to  be.  supported  on  top  of  6-inch 
I-beams  and  riveted  to  both  upper  and  lower  beams.  The  space 
between  the  plate  just  mentioned  and  the  brickwork  may  be  left 
void,  or  ma}-  be  filled  by  a  layer  oi  double  air-cell  6-inch  hollow 
fire-tile  set  in  cement  mortar  and  well  slushed  at  sides  next  to 
I-beams,  or  may  be  filled  by  a  layer  of  6-inch  steel  rails  or  I-beams ; 
if  hollow  tile  is  used,  the  channels  in  the  tile  must  be  continuous, 
parallel  with  the  I-beams  supporting  the  furnace,  and  be  kept  open 
at  both  ends  at  all  times.  Ceiling  over  above  setting  to  be  removed, 
the  roof  cut  away  18  inches  each  way  beyond  the  line  of  furnaces 
and  the  opening  thus  formed  filled  with  a  metal  ventilator. 

NOTE. — The  plate  mentioned  above  is  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  space  below  filling  with  cinders  and,  where  tile  is 
used,  to  prevent  the  tile  being  broken  when  the  furnace  is  barred 
down.  Where  the  box-bottom  or  air-chamber  type  of  furnace  is 
installed,  the  height  of  the  chamber  may  be  figured  in  the  12-inch 
clearance  required  above  the  brick  foundation,  and  the  heavy  plate 
under  the  grate  may  be  omitted. 

The  flue  or  auxiliary  chimney  leading  to  the  main  stack,  if  near 
the  floor  line,  must  always  be  mounted  on  a  platform  similar  to 
the  one  just  described  for  the  furnace;  the  sides  and  top  of  this 
flue  to  be  of  8-inch  fire-brick  and  independent  of  the  building  walls 
(unlined  metal  flues  or  stacks  are  unsafe,  as  they  deteriorate 
rapidly,  due  to  the  intense  heat  resulting  from  the  white  hot 
metallic  clust  which  accumulates  in  the  flue)  ;  must  be  constructed 
so  that  the  air  channels  in  the  tile  foundation  of  furnaces  will  be 
unobstructed. 

Stack  to  be  of  brick  or  metal,  as  previously  described. 

Installation  on  an  Intermediate  Floor. — Where  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  install  furnaces  in  other  than  top  floors  or  one-story 
buildings,  the  following  rules  apply: 

ist — Foundation,  casting  floor  and  auxiliary  flue  to  be  constructed 
as  already  described,  according  to  the  height  of  ceiling. 

2d—  Stack,  if  in  wall,  to  be  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  lined 
with  fire-tile ;  if  of  iron  and  preferably  run  up  on  outside  of  wall 
between  window  bays  with  not  less  than  a  3-foot  clearance  to 


102  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

inflammable  material  and 'extending  at  least  8  feet  above  the  roof, 
to  be  not  less  than  No.  14  U.  S.  gauge  with  2-inch  brick  lining ; 
if  of  iron  run  through  floors,  to  be  not  less  than  No.  12  U.  S. 
gauge  lined  with  4-inch  fire-brick,  surrounded  by  a  6-inch  hollow 
fire-tile  stack,  extending  4  feet  above  the  roof  and  'Open  at  top  and 
bottom,  so  arranged  as  to  allow  a.  6-inch  clearance  between  the 
stack  and  tile ;  joists  to  be  headed  at  floor  openings  with  6-inch 
I-beams  carrying  the  tile. 

3d< — A  hood  of  sheet  metal,  not  less  than  No.  20  U.  S.  gauge 
at  sides,  and  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge  at  top,  to  be  placed  over  and 
extending  3  feet,  all  sides,  beyond  the  line  of  furnaces;  hood  to 
have  at  least  a  24-inch  clearance  to  ceiling  and-. to  be  connected' 
with  a  pipe  venting  outside  of  building  (if  possible)  to  carry  off 
the  heat. 

Converter  Type  Furnaces. — Converter  type  brass  furnaces  must 
be  installed  either  in  a  one-story  building  or'  upon  the  upper  floor 
of  a  building  more  than  one  story  in  height. 

Foundation. — To  be  of  dirt  or  other  incombustible  material  for 
a  radius  of  15  feet  about  the  f urn  ice.  Where  on  top  floor,  to  be 
constructed  as  follows:  Place  a  layer  of  ^4 -inch  asbestos,  on  top 
of  which  place  sheet  metal  of  not  less  than  No.  14  U.  S.  gauge; 
then  a  layer  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  (hard  burned  or  fire-tile  pre- 
ferred) slushed  with  cement  mortar — air  ducts  to  be  continuous ; 
on  top  of  the  tile  place  a  layer  of  2-inch  brick  laid  in  cement 
mortar — solid  brick  instead  of  hollow  tile  may  be  used  directly 
under  the  supports  for  furnace. 

Roof  over  space  used  for  furnace  should  be  removed  for  an  area 
20  feet  square  and  a  metal  ventilator  installed. 

Casting  floor  should  be  similar  to  that  required  for  other  furnaces. 

Fuel  oil  systems  should  be  installed  in  accordance  with  specifi- 
cations furnished  on  request. 

Buffing  Wheels. — Buffing  or  poli?hing  wheels,  emery  wheels, 
and  all  lint,  dust  and  shavings  producing  machines  should  always 
be  provided  with  blowers  preferably  venting  outside  of  buildings 
into  a  metal  dust  house,  tank  of  water  or  other  non-inflammable 
receptacle  which  would  prevent  the  refuse  collecting  inside  or  on 
roof  of  building  or  adjacent  buildings.  When  venting  into  a  fur- 
nace or  vault  inside  of  building,  an  automatic  damper  should  be 
provided  in  the  discharge  pipe. 

Candy  Furnaces. — Having  4-inch  legs  should  be  installed  as 
follows :  Place  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge  iron  on  the  floor,  covering 
the  space  necessary  for  furnaces  and  extending  4  feet  in  front 
of  and  2  feet  at  sides;  on  top  of  this  place  a  layer  of  common 
brick  laid  on  edge,  slushed  with  cement  mortar;  directly  under 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS       103 

the  furnaces  place  3-inch  hollow  tile  (hard  burned  or  fire-tile  pre- 
ferred). Furnace  legs  may  rest  on  brick  supports.  Chimney  for 
furnaces,  if  inside  the  building,  should  be  not  less  than  8  inches 
thick  and  lined  with  flue  tiling,  or  if  outside,  to  be  metal.  All 
walls  within  4  feet  of  furnaces  to  be  of  plain  brick.  If  ceiling  is 
less  than  14  feet  high,  a  metal  hood  constructed  of  not  less  than 
No.  16  U.  S.  gauge  steel  should  be  placed  over  furnace  and 
ventilated  to  outside  of  building. 

Iron  Stacks. — Outside  stacks  should  be  built  round  of  galvanized 
iron  (nor  less  than  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge),  properly  riveted  at  all 
joints  and  braced  about  every  10  feet  with  band  or  angle  iron  well 
fastened  to  building  wall.  They  should  extend  at  least  10  feet  above 
roofs  of  buildings  and  be  kept  at  least  4  inches  from  the  building 
wall. 

Inside  stacks  should  be  discouraged;  where  found  should  be  very 
well  built  and  protected.  They  should  be  constructed  of  not  less 
than  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge  steel  and  where  extending  through  roofs 
and  floors  should  be  enclosed  in  not  less  than  8  inches  of  brick 
or  6  inches  of  hollow  fire-tile,  maintaining  a  4-inch  air  space  between 
the  stack  and  enclosure  throughout. 

Stove  pipes  passing  through  closets,  blind  attics  (and  other  con- 
cealed spaces)  should  be  condemned. 

Stove  pipes  of  6-inch  or  less  diameter  passing  through  floors, 
partitions,  sides  of  buildings  and  roofs  are  dangerous  and  should 
be  removed.  If  allowed  to  remain,  they  should  be  protected  by 
double,  metal,  ventilated  thimbles  so  arranged  as  to  maintain  at 
least  a  4-inch  clearance  between  the  pipes  and  combustible  material ; 
thimbles  to  extend  at  least  3  inches  at  both  ends  beyond  the  sur- 
faces protected. 

Stove  pipes  and  smoke  pipes  from  hot-air  furnaces,  more  than 
6  inches  in  diameter,  should  be  kept  at  least  12  inches  from  com- 
bustible partitions,  walls,  etc.,  and  be  protected  by  double,  metal 
thimbles  or  equivalent. 

Pipes  mentioned  in  the  two  preceding  paragraphs  to  be  kept  at 
least  18  inches  below  combustible  ceilings,  or  else  the  ceilings  should 
be  protected  with  l/4 -inch  asbestos  (covered  with  metal)  or  its 
equivalent. 

Coffee  Roasters. — Should  be  located  on  the  top  floor  in  a  room 
having  not  less  than  8-inch  brick  or  6-inch  hollow  tile  walls  with 
single  standard  iron  doors  (not  less  than  No.  14  U.  S.  gauge) 
on  openings ;  ceiling  and  floor  to  be  brick,  concrete,  or  tile  arched, 
at  least  8  inches  thick,  sprung  between  iron  or  steel  I-beams; 
arches  to  be  open  finished  underneath.  Room  to  have  approved 
skylights  or  metal  ventilators. 


IO4  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

If  impossible  to  secure  the  foregoing  specified  floor  construction, 
the  following  may  be  acceptable :  Wooden  floor  to  be  protected 
by  a  layer  of  $4 -inch  asbestos  or  equivalent  covered  with  sheet 
metal,  on  top  of  which  are  placed  two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow 
tile  laid  at  right  angles  with  air  spaces  continuous  and  with  a  top 
covering  of  3-16  inch  plate  iron  or  steel.  Cooling  pans  to  be  metal 
and  provided  with  metal  blow  pipes.  Chutes  and  hoppers  to  floor 
below  should  be  metal. 

Core  Ovens.— Brick  ovens  should  have  at  least  a  3-foot  clear- 
ance overhead  and  a  12-inch  clearance  at  sides  to  combustible 
material;  metal  ovens  should  have  at  least  a  3-foot  clearance 
overhead  and  at  sides  to  combustible  material. 

Cupolas.— Should  have  ,at  least  a  36- inch  clearance  at  combustible 
charging  floor  and  roof  and  must  extend  10  feet  above  the  highest 
point  of  any  roof  within  a  radius  of  40  feet.  If  the  charging  floor 
is  less  than  8  feet  above  the  dump  floor,  the  former  should  be  of 
fireproof  construction. 

Cyclone  Dust  Collectors.— To  vent  outside,  or  to  a  dust  room 
having  outside  ventilation. 

Corn  Shelters. — To  have  dust  pipes  attached,  venting  outside  or 
to  boiler,  except  where  a  corn  cleaner  is  in  use,  in  which  case  may 
vent  to  the  latter. 

Drip  Pans* — Metal  drip  pans  'should  be  placed  under  all  machines 
using  oil  to  catch  oil  drippings,  metal  borings  and  shavings,  etc. 
The  contents  of  these  pans  should  be  removed  from  the  building 
each  night  in  metal  receptacles. 

Furnaces — Soft  Metal^-These  are  divided  into  several  classes: 
Babbitt  metal,  stereotyping  metal,  ciectrotyping  metal,  lead,  etc. 

Stereotyping  metal,  being  the  hardest  grade,  requires  a  hotter 
fire  and  -more  concentration  of  heat  under  the  kettle;  this  causes 
a  deflection  of  intense  heat  downward,  which  must  be  provided 
for.  A  preferable  foundation  for  this  class  of  furnace  is  to  remove 
all  wooden  joists,  beams  and  floors,  insert  steel  I-beams  with  either 
brick,  concrete,  or  tile  arches,  and  on  top  of  this  spread  3  inches 
ior  4  inches  of  concrete  and  cement. 

Electrotype  furnaces  usually  have  a  large  air  space  in  the  ash 
pit  and  rest  on  6-inch  legs,  the  metal  pot  not  requiring  tfie  depth 
•of  stereotyping  furnaces.  In  most  cases  a  plate  of  No.  10  or  No. 
12  U.  S.  gauge  steel  is  placed  upon  the  floor,  extending  in  front  of 
and  at  sides  as  circumstances  may  warrant.  Small  metal  furnaces 
sudh  as  are  used  in  metal  novelty  works  and  gasket  factories  are 
usually  set  on  10  or  12-inch  legs  with  a  protection  of  metal  cover- 
ing the  door  under  and  around  same;  a  metal  shield  midway  between 
the  bottom  of  furnace  and  floor  usually  afi'ords  ample  protection. 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS       105 

Furnaces  constructed  of  an  iron  pot  set  in  brick  require  special 
care  in  construction,  as  the  pot  when  filled  is  quite  heavy,  requiring 
walls  of  brick  to  be  so  constructed  that  they  will  not  break  down 
or  open  up  in  the  joints.  The  following  usually  makes  good  con- 
struction: On  top  of  floor  place  <heet  iron  (about  No.  12  U.  S. 
gauge)  ;  on  top  of  this  place  one  layer  of  4-inch  hollow  tile  laid 
in  cement  mortar;  on  top  of  the  tile  in  the  space  directly  under 
the  fire-box  place  a  layer  of  fire-brick  on  edge,  filling  balance  of 
space  with  common  brick.  Build  the  furnace  enclosure  wide  enough 
.to  permit  of  a  3-inch  air  space  between  inside  and  outside  walls. 
Bind  walls  of  furnace  by  3x3x^4 -inch  angle  iron  strapped  together 
at  top  and  bottom.  Construct  support  for  pot  of  5-inch  fire-brick 
laid  fat ;  this  forms  the  side  or  enclosure  of  the  fire  bed  and  ash 
pit;  the  4-inch  air  space  surrounds  this  enclosure.  Outside  shell 
to  be  constructed  of  not  less  than  8-irich  brick.  Top  covering  is 
usually  an  iron  plate  at  least  l/2  inch  in  thickness.  A  raised  wooden 
platform  may  be  constructed  along  side  of  furnace  to  permit  of  the 
dipping  out  of  metal. 

Grain  Bleachers — Construction.' — To  be  of  brick,  concrete  or 
other  fireproof  construction,  or,  if  of  cribbed  construction,  to  be 
protected  on  the  outside  by  brick,  concrete,  metal  or  other  incom- 
bustible material. 

Location. — To  be  set  at  least  25  feet  from  the  elevator,  or  from 
any  building  adjoining  or  communicating  with  elevator,  unless 
communications  are  protected  in  a  standard  manner. 

Spouts. — To  be  connected  to  the  elevator  above  and  below  by 
metal  spouts  properly  cut  off  by  two  automatic  valves  in  each  spout. 

L'oni'cyors. — All  conveyors  to  be  metal  screw  conveyors  in  metal 
box;  no  combustible  material  to  be  used  between  bleacher  and 
elevator. 

Furnace. — Sulphur  burning  furnace  to  be  set  at  least  25  feet 
distant  from  bleacher  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the  elevator; 
to  be  of  fireproof  construction ;  to  be  unenclosed,  except  it  be  an 
enclosure  of  fireproof  construction. 

NOTE. — When  necessary  to  set  furnace  closer  to  bleacher  than 
above  specified,  it  may  be  done  piovided  the  fume  pipe  is  not  less 
than  25  feet  in  length. 

Japan  or  Enameling  Ovens. — Japan  ovens  are  mostly  constructed 
of  metal,  except  in  large  plants  where  special  buildings  are  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  in  which  case  they  are  built  of  brick 
usually  outside  of  an  opening  through  iron  doors  into  room  where 
the  japan  dipping  is  done.  Steam,  gas  and  coal  fires  are  used  to 
heat  these  ovens.  Steam  heat  is  not  conducive  to  rapid  or  hard 
drying  and  is  being  dispensed  with,  except  in  the  smaller  plants. 


io6  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Gas  heat  is  used  by  placing  parallel  perforated  pipes  on  metal 
supports  about  4  to  6  inches  above  the  floor,  the  heated  air  passing 
up  to  the  top  and  down  the  sides  to  a  ventilator  which  extends 
to  the  outside  of  the  buildings.  Coal  fires  are  sometimes  built 
in  an  open  ditch  inside  of  the  oven  (this  applies  to  brick  ovens), 
and  others  have  a  stove  recessed  into  side  or  set  in  the  room. 
Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  thinner  used  in  japan  and  enaiiiel, 
the  vapor  thrown  off  in  the  process  of  drying  is  liable  to  ignition 
where  an  open  fire  is  used.  This  hazard  may  be  reduced  some- 
what where  good  ventilation  is  provided.  Foundation  under  large 
japan  or  enameling  ovens  should  be  not  less  than  6-inch  hard 
burned  hollow  tile  with  ducts  laid  continuous,  and  wooden  floor- 
ing should  be  covered  with  metal  between  front  of  oven  and  dip 
trough  to  prevent  floor  being  soaked  with  oil. 

Small  lacquering  ovens  are  usually  made  of  metal,  have  a  low 
temperature  and  are  mostly  steam  (a  few  are  gas)  heated ;  these 
are  usually  set  on  legs,  but  where  they  are  not,  it  is  well  to  place 
4-inch  hollow  fire-tile  under  same. 

Brick  japan  or  enameling  ovens  set  on  any  floor  above  the 
basement  should  have  foundations  of  brick  or  tile  arches  on  steel 
I-beams,  and  doors  to  same  should  be  not  less  than 'No.  14  U.  S. 
gauge.  In  plants  where  a  number  of  metal  japan  or  enameling 
ovens  are  used,  a  fireproof  room  should  be  provided  on  the  top 
floor  with  thin  glass  skylights  and  ventilator;  opening  to  room 
to  be  protected  by  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge  self-closing  doors.  This 
latter  plan  applies  to  nearly  all  large  plants  where  a  separate 
building  is  not  feasible. 

Packing  Material. — To  be  kept,  when  loose,  in  wooden,  metal, 
or  tin-lined  wooden  boxes  with  automatic  or  self-closing  covers. 

Pickers. — In  ordinary  buildings,  pickers  for  moss,  hair,  excelsior, 
etc.,  should  be  in  a  room  used  exclusively  for  this  purpose  and 
having  a  window  or  other  outside  ventilation.  Sides  and  top  of 
room  to  be  of  incombustible  material,  such  as  metal  lath  and 
plaster  on  metal  framing;  or  double  sheet  metal  with  hollow 
space  of  at  least  I  inch ;  tile  or  its  equivalent  may  also  be  used. 
Floors  to  be  made  of  2-inch  tile  or  cement,  or  their  equivalent, 
and  covered  with  sheet  metal.  The  only  communication  from  the 
room  to  the  building  to  have  a  good  self-closing  door  equivalent 
to  the  construction  of  the  sides  of  the  room  ;  any  openings  for  stock 
spouts,  etc.,  to  have  automatic  doors.  Automatic  sprinklers  to  be 
installed,  or  a  live  steam  jet  to  be  put  into  the  room  with  valve  on 
outside,  or  an  approved  chemical  fire  extinguisher  to  be  kept  just 
outside  of  door  leading  to  the  room  and  a  small  protected  hole 
provided  for  inserting  the  nozzle  of  the  extinguisher. 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS       107 

Paint  Mills  and  Printing  Presses. — To  be  set  on  metal-clad 
or  incombustible  floor;  surroundings  to  be  kept  neat.  (This  also 
applies  to  other  oil-bearing  machines.) 

Pressing  Irons  and  Heaters — Protection  Under  Same— Gas 
Irons — (a)  Where  possible  to  obtain,  especially  in  shops  using 
more  than  ten  irons,  iron  tables  should  be  provided. 

(b)  If  wooden  tables  are  used,  protect  same  with  J^-inch  sheet 
asbestos    covered   with   sheet   iron    (not    less   than    No.    16   U.    S. 
gauge),  both  extending  at  least  2  inches  beyond  all  sides  of  iron 
stands ;  iron  stands  having  not  less  than  3-inch  legs  to  set  on  top 
of   sheet  metal  and  to  be   securely   fastened  to  table,   but  not  to 
have  the  legs  extended  through  the  sheet  metal  or  asbestos. 

(c)  Gas,  air  blast,  pressing  irons  to  be  provided  with  iron  stands 
having  legs  not  less  than  3  inches  long. 

All  gas  supplies  to  pressing  irons  to  be  provided  with  shut-off 
valve,  or  valves  so  arranged  as  to  cut  off  the  entire  supply ;  valves 
to  be  closed  every  night. 

Gas  Plates. — If  used  over  wooden  tables,  should  set  on  3-inch 
hollow  tile,  have  at  least  an  8-inch  clearance  to  combustible  material 
at  sides  and  back  and  never  be  located  under  wooden  shelving. 

Electric. — (a)  Must  each  have  a  cut-out  and  an  indicating  switch. 

NOTE. — It  is  often  desirable  to  connect  in  multiple  with  the  heat- 
ers, an  incandescent  lamp  of  low  candle  power,  as  it  shows  at  a 
glance  whether  or  not  the  switch  is  open,  and  tends  to  prevent  its 
being  left  closed  through  oversight. 

(b)  The  base  of  iron  must  be  set  on  iron  or  other  incom- 
bustible stand  in  such  a  manner  as  to  maintain  a  3-inch  clearance 
between  bottom  of  iron  (when  in, place  on  base)  and  combustible 
material  beneath. 

Coal  or  Wood-Heated  Busheling  Stoves. — If  used  over  com- 
bustible floors,  should  be  set  on  4-inch  hollow  fire-tile  on  a  layer 
of  brick  (on  edge,  well  laid  in  cement ;  brick  to  extend  3  feet  in 
front  and  18  inches  at  sides  and  back  beyond  line  of  stoves). 

Ranges — Coal. — Coal  ranges  having  4-inch  legs,  warming  oven 
below  the  baking  oven  and  a  large  ash  pan  under  fire-box,  need 
little  attention,  except  as  to  surroundings — the  floor  may  be  pro- 
tected with  a  zinc  board  or  sheet  zinc  extending  14  to  18  inches 
in  front  and  4  inches  at  sides  and  back.  Where  the  range  is  set 
closer  than  18  inches  to  a  furred  wall,  the  furring,  wooden  lath 
and  plaster,  etc.,  should  be  removed  for  a  distance  of  12  inches 
each  side,  and  6  feet  above  top  line  of  range.  If  stud  or  wooden 
partition  at  back,  a  wall  of  3-inch  hollow  tile  should  be  constructed 
between  range  and  partition ;  tile  ducts  to  be  continuous  and  open 
top  and  bottom;  sides,  if  exposed  within  24  inches,  to  have  like 


io8  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

protection.  Where  a  coal  range  is  of  the  2-fire  or  3-fire,  etc.,  type, 
a  foundation  of  3-inch  or  4-inch  hard  burned  hollow  tile  should  be 
placed  on  top  of  zinc ;  ducts  to  run  the  short  way  of  range. 

Single  coal  ranges  without  warming  ovens  below,  over  wooden 
floors,  should  be  mounted  on  a  foundation  of  5-inch  hollow  tile 
on  metal ;  if  2-fire  or  3-fire,  etc.,  foundation  should  be  4-inch  brick 
laid  in  cement  mortar  covered  with  4-inch  hollow  tile,  brick  to 
extend  4  feet  in  front  of  range.  .  „,  . 

Gas. — Gas  stoves  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 

ist — Plate  or  single-burner.  Ordinarily  found  in  tailor  shops 
and  under  coffee  urns,  etc.  A  foundation  .of  3-inch  hollow  tile 
should  be  used  except  where  used  for  heating  small  irons,  when 
zinc  should  be  placed  on  top  of  board  foundation  and  sheet  iron 
plate  suspended  directly  under  burner  midway  between  top  of  stove 
and  table  or  support ;  or  further,  the  table  may  be  cut  away  directly 
under  the  burners. 

2d — Ordinary  house  stove.  Sometimes  used  in  small  restaurants 
and  usually  set  on  a  perforated  base  or  2-inch  legs.  This  class  of 
stove,  if  in  a  dwelling,  needs  only  zinc  under  it,  but  if  in  a  restau- 
rant, it  should  be  protected  with  &  foundation  of  3-inch  or  4-inch 
hard  burned  hollow  tile;  clearance  at  sides  and  back  to  be  the 
same  as  for  coal  stoves. 

3d— Gas  ranges.  This  type  is  usually  found  in  the  large  restau- 
rants and  hotels.  The  foundation  generally  required  for  this  class 
is :  A  sheet  of  metal,  preferably  not  less  than  No.  16  U.  S,  gauge, 
over  space  for  range  and  extending  4  feet  in  front  and  12  inches 
at  sides  of  same  (edges  may  or  may  not  be  turned  up  2  inches  to 
form  a  pan)  ;  on  top  of  the  metai,  a  foundation  of  4-inch  brick  laid 
on  edge  and  pointed  up  with  cement  and  mortar — this  brick  founda- 
tion to  extend  from  wall  to  4  feet  in  front  and  12  inches  at  sides 
of  range;  on  top  of  brick  and  directly  under  range,  a  foundation 
of  4-inch  hard  burned  fire-tile;  ducts  to  extend  the  short  way  of 
range.  Clearance  from  partition  and  combustible  material,  the  same 
as  for  coal  stoves. 

Rendering  Kettles. — Fire  heated  rendering  kettles,  oil  boiling 
kettles,  etc.,  should  set  on  an  hioombusUble  floor;  if  set  on  legs 
over  a  wooden  floor,  the  floor  should  be  protected  by  at  least  one 
layer  of  brick  dished  toward  the  center,  well  set  in  cement,  covered 
with  2  inches  of  cement  and  extending  3  feet  on  all  sides. 

The  safest  form  of  kettle  is  one  set  in  brick  walls,  so  arranged 
that  in  case  it  boils  over  the  contents  cannot  reach  the  fire  or 
flames;  such  a  kettle  is  fired  from  the  outside. 

A  supply  of  wet  burlap  bags  provides  a  good  means  of  smother- 
ing oil  or  grease  fires.  Covers  provided  with  long  handles  should 


PLANNING  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  HAZARDS       109 

be  kept  hanging  on  the  wall  nearly,  convenient  for  use  in  case  the 
kettle  catches  fire. 

Soldering  Iron  Heaters. — If  charcoal  or  gas  pots  are  used  over 
wood,  they  should  be  set  on  at  least  3-inch  hollow  tile  or  on  sheet 
metal  and  asbestos  with-  a  3-inch  hollow  space  below. 

If  electric  heaters  are  used,  to  be  arranged  so  as  to  provide 
protection  equally  as  good  as  required  for  electric  pressing  irons. 

Gasoline  plumbers'  ^pots  should  be  free  from  leaks;  gasoline  to 
be  well  cared  for. 

Stoves. — Ordinary  coal  or  wood  heating  stoves  set  on  wooden 
floors,  should  have  sheet  metal  underneath  and  extending  at  least 
18  inches  in  front.  Protecting  metal  screens  should  be  used  where 
inflammable  material  is  liable  to  come  in  contact  with  stoves. 

Gasoline  stoves  to  be  of  approved  type. 


ELECTRICITY 

With  the  first  introduction  of  electricity  into  every-day  use  for 
lighting  and  power,  few  safeguards  were  provided  and  little  care 
taken  with  the  installations.  As  a  result  many  fires  occurred  and 
it  became  recognized  as  a  distinct  hazard  and  in  many  cases  its 
use  was  prohibited  in  an  insurance  policy  or  an  increase  made  in 
the  premium  charged.  For  some  years  the  insurance  interest,  in 
connection  with  manufacturers,  contractors  and  the  various  elec- 
trical societies,  have  drawn  up,  with  revision  every  two  years,  a 
set  of  rules  covering  the  installation  of  electric  wiring  and  ap- 
paratus and  the  construction  of  fittings.  These  rules  are  known 
as  the  National  Electrical  Code,  and  are  accepted  as  standard  by 
practically  all  city  electrical  bureaus,  as  well  as  the  underwriters. 
The  code  consists  of  a  pamphlet  of  about  200  pages  and  is  there- 
fore not  printed  herein;  copies  can  be  obtained  by  applying  to  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  76  William  Street,  New 
York  City. 

For  the  inspector  or  the  electrician,  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  code  is  necessary.  For  the  owner  of  the  building  no  general 
rules  can  be  given,  except  that  all  repairs,  changes  and  renewals 
be  made  by  a  skilled  electrician  and  every  installation  looked  over 
by  a  properly  qualified  inspector  after  all  changes. 

For  the  owner  or  architect,  it  is  recommended  that  a  clause 
be  inserted  in  any  contract  "  that  all  electric  wiring  and  fixtures 
be  installed  in  accordance  with  the  National  Electrical  Code,"  and 
that  during  and  after  the  installation,  a  careful  inspection  be 
had  by  an  electrical  inspector  of  the  municipality  or  the  insurance 
board  having  jurisdiction. 

Electrical  Fittings. — In  the  foreword  of  the  code,  it  is  stated  that 
the  portion  of  the  rules  relating  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
appliances  is  but  a  partial  outline  of  requirements.  A  device 
which  fulfills  the  conditions  ^outlinedMand  no  more,  will  not  neces- 
sarily be  acceptable.  All  appliances  should  be  submitted  to  the 
Underwriters'  Laboratories  for  examination  and  report  before 
being  introduced  for  use.  A  list  of  electrical  fittings  is  issued  by 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  covering  devices  and 
materials  which  have  been  examined  and  are  suitable  for  the  use 
intended.  This  list  is  revised  semi-annually. 

no 


ELECTRICITY  1 1 1 

/ 

It  is  best  for  an  owner  or  architect  to  specify  that  all  material 
and  fittings  bear  the  Underwriters'  label  and  that  this  requirement 
be  religiously  lived  up  to.  Much  of  the  material  installed  several 
years  ago  would  not  to-day  pass  the  approval  of  the  Laboratories, 
and  the  natural  deterioration  of  insulation  and  working  parts  also 
makes  an  old  equipment  sub-standard.  For  this  reason,  where  a 
competent  electrician  is  not  employed  to  keep  the  system  up,  a 
complete  reinspection  at  least  every  -two  years  should  be  obtained 
from  the  municipal  or  the  Underwriters'  inspector. 

Avoid  Short  Circuits.— In  all  electric  work,  conductors,  how- 
ever well  insulated,  should  always  be  treated  as  bare,  to  the  end 
that  under  no  conditions,  existing  or  likely  to  exist,  can  a  ground 
or  short  circuit  occur,  and  so  that  all  leakage  from  conductor  to  con- 
ductor, or  between  conductor  and  ground,  may  be  reduced  to  the 
minimum. 

In  all  wiring  special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the"  mechanical 
execution  of  the  work.  Careful  and  neat  running,  connecting, 
soldering,  taping  of  conductors,  and  securing  and  attaching  of 
fittings,  are  specially  conducive  to  security  and  efficiency,  and  are. 
strongly  advised. 

Installations  Should  be  Accessible. — In  laying  out  an  installa- 
tion, except  for  constant  current  systems,  every  reasonable  effort 
should  be  made  to  secure  distribution  centers  located  in  easily 
accessible  places,  at  which  points  the  cutouts  and  switches'  con- 
trolling the  several  branch  circuits  can  be  grouped  for  convenience 
and  safety  of  operation.  The  load  should  be  divided  as  evenly  as 
possible  among  the  branches,  and  all  complicated  and  unnecessary 
wiring  avoided. 

The  use  of  wire-ways  for  rendering  concealed  wiring  perma- 
nently accessible  is  most  heartily  endorsed  and  recommended ;  and 
this  method  of  accessible  concealed  construction  is  advised  for 
general  use. 

Architects  are  urged,  when  drawing  plans  and  specifications,  to 
make  provision  for  the  channeling  and  pocketing  of  buildings  for 
electric  light  or  power  wires,  and  also  for  telephone,  district  mes- 
senger and  other  signaling  system  wiring. 

Although  not  obligatory  by  the  code,  it  is  best  to  make  any- 
extensive  installation  entirely  in  conduit.  In  many  of  the  codes 
adopted  by  municipalities,  it  is  required  that  all  wiring  in  certain 
classes  of  buildings  or  within  the  fire  limits  be  entirely  in  conduit. 


'>!  : 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PROTECTION  AGAINST 
LIGHTNING* 

Protection  against  lightning  is  usually  advisable  on  country  buildings,  on 
isolated  buildings,  and  on  all  buildings  wherever  located  having  elevated 
features  such  as  tall  chimneys,  steeples,  high  peaked  or  gable  roofs  and  flag 
poles. 

Since  the  amount  of  protection  which  any  building  should  have  will 
depend  upon  its  location,  construction,  nature  of  its  occupancy,  and  the 
value  of  the  building  as  compared  with  the  expense  necessary  to  provide 
the  protection,  definite  rules  cannot  be  laid  down  for  the  installation  of 
lightning  conductors,  but  the  following  general  suggestions  should,  if  carried 
out,  give  under  most  conditions,  reasonable  protection. 

The  ordinary  condition  causing  a  lightning  discharge  is  a  cloud  charged 
with  electricity  at  a  greatly  different  potential  from  that  of  the  earth.  The 
difference  of  potential  is  finally  sufficient  to  "  break  dtown  "  the  stratum  of 
air  between  earth  and  cloud,  and  an  electrical  discharge  takes  place.  The 
resistance  of  the  air  stratum  being  generally  less  between  cloud  and  tops  of 
buildings  and  other  structures  than  between  cloud  and  earth,  such  high 
points  take  the  discharge,  and  unless  some  less  resistive  path  is  provided 
from  these  points  to  the  ground  than  the  structure  to  be  protected,  the 
lightning  will  follow  the  next  best  course  to  earth,  generally  causing  damage 
to  the  structure  and  frequently  starting  a  fire. 

It  is  also  of  importance  to  note  that  the  discharge  leaves  a  column  of 
heated  air  between  earth  and  cloud.  This  hot  air  column  may  be  blown 
in  one  or  another  direction  and  very  likely  become  the  path  of  a  second 
discharge,  since  it  has  less  resistance  than  the  surrounding  cooler  air.  This 
may  account  for  lightning  striking  a  structure  below  the  high  points. 

It  is  therefore  desirable  to  so  locate  the  conductors  forming  the  lightning 
protection  that  the  lightning  will  strike  these  and  be  carried  to  eart'h  instead 
of  tearing  through  the  structure  on  its  way  to  the  ground.  Such  an  arrange- 
men  of  conductors  suggests  an  enclosing  cage  with  the  bars  of  course  con" 
siderably  separated.  The  idea  of  protection  is  therefore  a  metallic  cage  with 
air  terminal  projections  at  the  high  points  of  the  structure  and  the  whole 
protecting  cage  thoroughly  grounded.  Just  what  material  is  employed  is 
not  of  great  importance  provided  it  has  good  electrical  carrying  capacity,  is 
strong,  can  be  bent  and  jointed  readily,  and  is  not  liable  to  be  seriously 
affected  by  corrosion.  Undoubtedly  copper  in  tape  form  or  ordinary  gal- 
vanized iron  pipe  best  meets  these  conditions. 

Just  how  far  apart  the  conductors  should  be  will  depend  very  considerably 
upon  conditions,  and  no  general  rule  can  be  given  for  the  number  of  square 
feet  of  ground  area  protected  by  one  rod  which  will  safely  cover  ;>11  .cases. 
Since  in  addition  to  the  high  points  the  most  exposed  parts  of  a  structure 
are  the  outposts  and  projections,  extra  protection  is  needed  here,  while  a 
much  wider  spacing  of  rods  might  be  sufficient  along  the  sides  of  the  structure. 

In  general,  all-metal  buildings,  metal  chimneys  or  stacks,  need  only  to 
be  grounded. 

*  Issued  by  the  National   Board  of   Fire   Underwriters,    1913. 

112 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PROTECTION  AGAINST  LIGHTNING     113 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  APPLYING  TO  ALL 
STRUCTURES 

NOTE. — Either  copper  or  iron  is  satisfactory  for  conductors.  One  advan- 
tage of  iron  over  copper  is  its  higher  fusing  point,  but  iron  should  not  be 
used  in  locations  difficult  of  access  where  corrosion  is  likely  or  possible, 
owing  to  the  necessity  of  frequent  painting  to  guard  against  such  corrosion. 

a.  CONDUCTORS. — -i.    Conductors    when    made    of   copper   to    be   sbft-drawn   in 
the  form  of  either  tape  or  stranded  cable.    Except  as  noted  below,  the  conductor 
in    each    case    to    weigh    not    less    than    six    ounces    per    foot.      Where    cable 
form   is   used,   no   single   copper   wire   to  be  less   than   No.    12    B.   &   S.   gauge, 
while   if  tape   form   the  thickness  to  be  not   less  than   3/32   inch. 

With  copper  conductors  having  a  total  weight  of  six  ounces  per  foot, 
and  the  above  dimensions,  the  cable  will  contain  19  No.  12  wires  and  the 
tape  will  be  one  inch  wide  by  3/32  ioch  thick. 

When  used  on  residences,  barns,  stables,  stores  and  similar  buildings  where 
the  maximum  height  of  any  point  does  not  exceed  60  feet,  and  where  corrosion 
is  not  liable  to  occur  to  any  extent,  copper  cable  to  weigh  not  less  than 
three  ounces  per  foot,  no  single  wire  being  less  than  .046  diameter. 

2.  Conductors   when   made   of  iron  to   be  in   the    form   of   either   heavy   tape 
or    pipe.      The    tape    conductor    to    weig-h    not    less    than    i  ^4    pounds    per    foot 
and  to  be  not  less  than  3/32  inch  thick.     If  pipe  is  used  the  standard  weight 
of    %-inch    pipe    would    be    satisfactory.      Iron    used    in    any    form    should    be 
thoroughly    galvanized    to    prevent    corrosion,    and    may    also    be    painted    if 
desired. 

Heavy  tape  is  specified  to  guard  against  the  use  of  a  thin  sheet  which 
would  be  more  easily  destroyed  by  corrosion.  Pipe  is  specified  as  an  alterna- 
tive for  the  tape  as  it  is  cheaper,  is  readily  .obtainable,  and  can  be  easily 
installed  using  the  ordinary  pipe  fittings.  The  fittings  should,  of  course,  be 
galvanized  as  well  as  the  pipe,  and  all  pipe  ends  and  unused  outlets  on  fittings 
should  be  tightly  plugged  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  moisture  inside 
the  pipes. 

3.  Conductors   to    have   as    few   joints    as  possible,    these   to   be    mechanically 
and  electrically  secured  and  to  be   protected   from  corrosion. 

It  is  essential  that  the  conductors  be  continuous  and,  therefore,  the  fewer 
the  joints  and  the  better  these  are  protected  from  corrosion,  the  less  chance 
of  crippling  the  protection  due  to  a  break  in  the  conductors. 

4.  Conductors   never   to   be   insulated  but  to   be   fastened   securely  in   place, 
suitable   allowance   being  made    for  expansion,   by   clamps   of  same   material   as 
conductor,  the  vertical  rods  being  carried  a   sufficient   distance   from   the  wall 
to    avoid    sharp    bends    around    projecting    masonry    or    brick    work.      In    all 
cases    as   straight    a    run    as    possible    should    be   provided    and    the    conductors 
should    incline    downward.     The    conductors    should    never    be     run     through 
iron    pipes. 

Sharp  bends  and  loops  in  an  upward  direction  are  liable  to  cause  the  light- 
ning discharge  to  leave  the  conductors  at  these  points,  and  as  these  side 
flashes  may  be  dangerous,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  conductors  should 
run  as  straight  as  possible.  Since  the  effect  of  the  lightning  discharge  in 
the  conductors  is  practically  the  same  as  that  produced  by  an  alternating 
current,  it  is  obvious  that  the  conductors  should  not  be  run  through  iron 
pipes  which  would  tend  to  choke  back  the  discharge  due  to  induction  in 
the  pipe. 

5.  Conductors   to   be   run  as   far  as  practicable   from   interior  piping. 

If  the  conductors'  are  run  too  near  the  interior  pipe  system,  there  is  a 
chance  that  the  discharge  may  jump  from  the  conductors  to  the  pipe,  and 
in  doing  so,  start  a  fire.  The  best  way  to  avoid  this  is  evidently  to  keep 
the  two  systems  as  far  apart  as  practicable. 

b.  AIR   TERMINALS. — To   be   solid,   not   less  than    %-inch   in   diameter   except 
on    residences,    barns,    stables,    stores    and    similar    buildings    where    they    may 
be   of  tubing  not    less   than    %-inch   in   diameter    with   wall    thickness    not   less 
than    .031    inch.      Terminals    to    extend    not    less    than    18    inches    above    tbe 
point   protected. 


H4  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  distance  of  18  -inches  specified  is  the  minimum  for  smaller  buildings. 
On  larger  buildings  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  rods  longer. 

c.  CONNECTIONS    TO    METAL    WORK    OF    STRUCTURES. — i.    All    exterior    metal 
work,   such   as  metal   roofs,   gutters,   ventilators,    railings,   chimney   hoods,   etc., 
to   be   connected    with    the    lightning   rod   system    below    the    line   of   the    metal 
work   itself  or  to   be  separately  grounded   by   regular  conductors. 

Unless  all  such  metal  work  is  well  grounded  the  discharge  is  liable  to 
jump  from  this  part  to  other  conducting  parts  and  possibly  set  fire  to  inter- 
vening combustible  material. 

2.  All  interior  masses  of  metal  such  as  girders,  beams,  water  piping  and 
any  structural  iron  or  steel,  though  under  no  consideration  gas  piping,  to 
be  securely  connected  to  the  system  at  their  highest  and  lowest  points,  the 
connecting  bonds  being  the  regular  conductor. 

This  suggestion  is  made  for  the  same  reasons  as  that  regarding  ekterior 
metal  work.  (See  Section  c-g  preceding.) 

The  electrical  resistance  of  pipe  joints  may  occasionally  be  sufficient  to 
permit  a  high  voltage  current  melting  the  pipe  at  that  point,  which  would 
be  especially  dangerous  in  case  of  gas  pipes,  for  the  arc  would  probably 
at  the  same  time  ignite  the  escaping  gas.  The  same  result  might  be  obtained 
by  arcing  between  the  gas  pipe  and  other  conductors  which  might  be  carrying 
a  lightning  discharge.  It  is  therefore  best  not  to  connect  gas  piping  to  the 
lightning  rod  system,  as  this  might  be  the  means  of  leading  the  discharge 
on  to  these  pipes  where  otherwise  they  might  not  be  affected. 

It,  however,  would  be  advisable  to  securely  bond  around  the  gas  meter 
the  iron  pipe  on  both  sides  of  the  meter,  being  careful  to  make  secure  elec- 
trical connections  between  the  pipe  and  the  bond. 

NOTE. — A  permanent  and  reliable  ground  is  absolutely  essential,  and  by 
far  the  best  ground  can  usually  be  secured  by  connection  to  underground 
metallic  water  piping.  When  this  is  impracticable,  ground  plates,  driven 
pipes,  or  the  equivalent  are  recommended. 

d.  GROUNDING. — i.  Connection  to  piping  to  be  made  preferably  by  .soldering 
the  conductor  into  a  brass  plug  and  forcibly  screwing  the   plug  into  the  pipe 
fitting,    or,    when    the    pipes    are    cast    iron,    into    a   hole   tapped    into    the    pipe 
itself;    or,    by    sweating    the    conductor    into    a    lug    attached    to    an    approved 
clamp    and    firmly    bolting   the    clamp    to    the    pipe    after    the    rust    and    Scales 
have   been   removed. 

In  the  case  of  a  farm  building  having  a  well  outside  and  a  pump  suction 
pipe  running  to  the  building,  a  reasonably  good  ground  may  be  obtained  by 
connecting  the  conductor  to  the  pipe,  provided  the  pipe  at  some  point  is  in 
earth  below  permanent  moisture  level. 

The  idea  is  to  get  as  good  and  permanent  connection  to  the  underground 
piping  as  possible,  and  one  that  will  best  withstand  the  effects  of  corrosion. 
It  is  desirable  to  connect  to  two  or  more  lengths  of  pipe  in  order  to  guard 
against  crippling  the  protection  by  injury  to  or  deterioration  of  a  single 
connection. 

2.  Connection   to  ground  plates  to  be   made  by  riveting  and   soldering,   and 
the  connection  to  be  thoroughly  protected  against  corrosion  by  painting.     The 
ground    plates   to   be    of  copper   and    not   less   than    No.    16    Stubb   gage    about 
3    feet    square    and    buried    below    the    permanent    moisture    level    with    about 
two    feet    of    crushed    coke    or    charcoal    above    and    below   it. 

A  heavy  iron  casting  having  a  superficial  area  of  at  least  12  square  feet 
could  be  used  in  place  of  the  plate.  The  conductor  should  be  connected  to 
the  casting  by  riveting  and  soldering,  and  the  casting  buried  the  same  as 
the  ground  plate  above  described. 

3.  Connection    to    driven   pipe   to    be   made   by  soldering   the   conductor   into 
a   brass    plug   and    forcibly   screwing   the    plyg   into    a    coupling   on    the    upper 
end   of   the    pipe.      The   lower    end   of    the    pipe    to    be    well    below    permanent 
moisture   level. 

A  ground  plate  or  a  driven  pipe  properly  put  into  the  ground  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  satisfactory  alternative  for  the  underground  water  pipe 
system,  but  is  not  advised  where  the  pipe  system  ground  is  available. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PROTECTION   AGAINST  LIGHTNING     115 

TALL  CHIMNEYS,  STACKS,  STEEPLES  AND  SIMILAR 
STRUCTURES 

a.  Two    or    more    main    lightning    rods    equally    spaced    about    the    structure 
to    be    provided,    extending    from    the    top    by    the    most  direct    course    to    the 
ground. 

The  proper  number  of  rods  in  any  given  case  will  vary  somewhat  with 
the  conditions.  For  example,  a  flag  pole  would  not  require  more  than  one 
rod,  while  chimneys  150  feet  -or  more  high  should  have  one  rod  for  each 
50  feet  of  height.  The  higher  the  chimney  the  greater  the  cross  sectional 
area  at  any  given  distance  from  the  ground,  and  the  additional  rods  are 
desired  in  order  not  to  expose  too  great  an  unprotected  vertical  area  to  a 
discharge. 

b.  To   have   a   band   of  copper   or   iron   not   smaller   than   the   lightning   rods 
around    the    top    with    air    terminals    securely    attached    thereto    extending    3 
feet    above    the    highest    point.      The    air    terminals    to    be    placed    at    intervals 
not    exceeding   4   to   6    feet   around   the   circumference    of   the    band. 

c  Additional  bands  to  be  provided  around  the  structure  at  or  near  the 
ground  line  and  at  intervals  of  25  to  50  feet,  all  such  bands  being  securely 
connected  to  the  lightning  rods. 

In  the  same  way  that  additional  vertical  rods  reduce  the  size  of  the  un- 
protected vertical  areas,  these  additional  bands  limit  these  areas  horizontally. 
The  bands  also  serve  to  connect  the  rods  together  at  frequent  intervals,  so 
that  an  accidental  break  in  one  rod  is  not  liable  to  be  as  serious  as  might 
otherwise  be  the  case.  In  other  words,  the  vertical  rods  are  thus  made  to 
connect  in  combination  rather  than  separately. 

STRUCTURES    OTHER   THAN   CHIMNEYS,   STEEPLES 

ETC. 

a.  Two    or    more    lightning    rods    should    be    provided    extending    from    the 
top    by   the    most    direct   course   to   the    ground,    so   spaced    that    they    will    not 
be   over   50    to    75    feet   apart. 

The  proper  number  of  rods  and  their  exact  spacing  will  depend  very 
largely  upon  the  conditions,  such  as  shape  of  structure,  the  exposure  with 
reference  to  both  severity  of  lightning  storms  and  direction  .from  which 
these  storms  usually  come.  In  general  the  most  exposed  parts  of  a  structure 
are  the  outposts  and  projections,  and  here  it  would  be  advisable  to  place  the 
rods  somewhat  nearer  together  than  along  the  sides  of  the  structure.  In 
general  it  would  "hot  be  advisable  to  carry  the  rods  through  the  center  of  a 
structure,  for  if  for  any  reason  it  becomes  broken  it  would  be  the  direct 
means  of  carrying  the  lightning  to  a  point  inside  the  structure  where  it 
would  be  almost  sure  to  set  fire. 

b.  Horizontal   conductors  to  be  provided   connecting  the  vertical   rods  along 
the    ridge   or   any   suitable   position    on   the    roof   and   at   or   near    the    ground. 

The  horizontal  bonding  of  the  vertical  conductors  is  desirable  for  much 
the  same  reasons  as  given  for  the  horizontal  bands  arounds  chimneys,  and 
these  horizontal  conductor*  serve  to  tie  the  system  together,  thus  carrying 
out  the  idea  of  a  protecting  cage.  It  is  considered  important  that  at  least 
the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  vertical  rods  be  thus  connected,  and  in 
general  intermediate  bonding  would  not  be  necessary  except  possibly  for  very 
high  structures. 

c.  The    upper    horizontal    conductor    should    be    provided    with    air    terminals 
at    intervals   of    20    to.  30    feet,   and   in   addition,   air   terminals   connected   with 
the  horizontal  conductor  to  be  provided  for  gables  or  other  projections  above 
the    top    of    the    main    structure.      Air    terminals    should    in    all    cases    extend 
well    above   roofs   or  chimneys   and   be   firmly   secured   in   an    upright   position. 

Air  terminals  assist  in  diverting  the  lightning  discharge  to  the  lightning 
rod  system,  and  therefore  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  them  placed;  at  fairly 
frequent  intervals. 

d.  Where    trees    stand    so    close    to    a    building  "that    branches    overhang    or 
approach    very    close    to    the    roof,    a    conductor    with    proper    earth    terminal 


Ji6  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

tt)  extend  along  the  trunk  of  each  of  several  such  trees  to  the  highest  branch 
top  fastened  by  a  band  around  the  branch  or  trunk,  would  probably  give  all 
necessary  protection  under  average  conditions.  It,  however,  would  be  ad- 
visable to  connect  these  rods  together  at  the  bottom  by  a  substantial  con- 
ductor laid  under  ground. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  protect  as  far  as  possible  this  underground  bond 
connection  against  corrosion.  Probably  well-galvanized  %-inch  iron  pipe,  or 
copper  in  tape  form,  would  best  serve  the  purpose. 

The  above  method  might  be  used  for  the  protection  of  tre.es  wherever 
located. 


PYROXYLIN    PLASTICS   OR   NITRO 
CELLULOSE 

What  is  Nitro-Ccllulose? — To  the  public  the  name  celluloid  is 
generally  thought  to  include  all  pyroxylin  plastics  and  even  in  official 
publications  of  the  British  Government,  the  general  term  of  celluloid 
is  used;  this  however  is  a  trade  name  of  the  product  of  a  single 
firm  and  for  this  reason  it  will  not  be  used  in  this  book. 

Commercial  pyroxylin  plastic  consists  essentially  of  gelatinised 
nitro-cellulose  and  camphor  in  proportions  usually  varying  from 
70  to  75  per  cent  of  the  former  and  30  to  25  per  cent  of  the  latter. 
The  proportion  of  nitro-cellulose  in  motion  picture  films  ranges 
from  80  to  90  per  cent.  In  addition  to  the  essential  constituents 
there  are  frequently  coloring  or  mineral  matters. 

Its  Properties. — The  plastic  possesses  properties  which  render  it 
suitable  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  It  is  hard,  tough,  and 
elastic,  and  under  the  influence  of  heat  it  is  capable  of  being 
moulded  into  shapes  which  it  retains  on  cooling.  It  is  unaffected 
by  water.  It  can  be  prepared  in  thin  transparent  .sheets,  and  by 
the  addition  of  suitable  coloring  matters  can  be  made  of  the  most 
varied  tints.  It  can  also  be  used  in  solution  with  alcohol  and  ether 
as  an  adhesive  lacquer  or  varnish,  when  a  very  durable  protective 
coating  is  obtained. 

Inflammability. — It  possesses  however  the  serious  defect  of  being 
highly  inflammable,  will  ignite  very  readily,  and  burns  with  great 
rapidity  and  fierceness.  Moreover,  in  certain  circumstances  it  may 
ignite  without  the  direct  application  of  flame.  The  ignition  of  a 
film  in  a  motion  picture  machine  is  a  familiar  occurrence,  and 
cases  have  been  recorded  of  the  ignition  of  articles  in  shop  win- 
dows by  the  accidental  focussing  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  them. 
As  other  examples  of  the  effect  of  radiant  heat,  mention  may  be 
made  of  cases  in  which  contact  with  electric  light  bulbs  and  steam 
radiators  has  caused  ignition. 

If  submitted  to  a  moderately  elevated  temperature  for  a  consid- 
erable time  it  suddenly  decomposes  with  the  evolution  of  con- 
siderable heat  and  the  emission  of  large  volumes  of  carbon 
monoxide  and  nitric  oxide,  both  of  which  are  highly  poisonous, 
and  of  gaseous  decomposition  products  of  camphor  and  a  small 
proportion  of  other  gases,  including  hydrocyanic  acid  (prussic 
acid).  The  fumes  are  very  inflammable  and,  when  mixed  with  a 

117 


n8  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

suitable  quantity  of  air,  are  highly  explosive.  The  quantity  of 
hydrocyanic  acid  in  the  fumes  is  small,  and  cannot  be  regarded 
as  a  serious  danger.  With  inferior  plastics  in  certain  circum- 
stances this  'decomposition  will  take  place  at,  or  even  below  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  (2121°  F.),  and  comparatively  few 
grades  can  withstand  a  temperature  of  300°  F.  At  this  tempera- 
ture ordinary  inflammable  substances  are  generally  unaffected. 
Although  there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  stability  to  heat 
in  different  makes  or  brands,  in  practice  this  is  not  sufficient  to 
justify  a 'distinction  being  drawn  between  them. 

Dangerous  Qualities. — One  of  the  peculiar  dangers  of  pyroxylin 
plastic  is  that,  in  itself,  it  contains  sufficient  oxygen  to  support 
its  own  combustion,  and  once  ignited  will  continue  to  burn  in  the 
absence  of  air,  although  without  flame.  For  this  reason  a  fire 
cannot  be  extinguished  by  excluding  air  in  the  same  manner  as 
an  ordinary  fire.  Chemical  fire  extinguishers,  therefore,  which 
depend  on  a  blanketing  by  gas,  are  of  little  use;  although  they 
may  extinguish  the  flame  they  will  not  stop  the  combustion.  Hav- 
ing regard  to  the  fact  that  two  of  the  three  conditions  necessary 
for  combustion  are  actually  present,  it  follows  that  the  only  way 
to  extinguish  burning  plastic  is  to  eliminate  the  third  essential 
condition  by  reducing  the  temperature  below  that  at  which  com- 
bustion can  be  maintained.  The  simplest  and  only  really  practical 
means  of  doing  this  is  by  the  application  of  water,  and  therefore 
all  places  in  which  pyroxylin  plastic  is  handled  or  stored,  a  com- 
plete automatic  sprinkler  system  is  very  necessary.  It  is'  true 
that,  under  certain  conditions,  it  will  burn  under  water  for  a 
short  time,  but  the  temperature  is  speedily  reduced  by  the  water 
below  that  which  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  combustion. 
If  sand  is  used,  although  the  flame  may  be  temporarily  extinguished, 
the  plastic  will  continue  decomposing  and  emitting  gases  which 
will  ignite  on  contact  with  flame. 

Extinction  of  Fire  Difficult. — Should  a  substantial  quantity  get 
alight,  the  extinction  of  the  fire  may  become  a  matter  of  extreme 
difficulty,  and  even  sprinklers  may  fail  to  save  the  building.  In 
tests  made  in  New  York,  50  pounds  of  pyroxylin  plastic  resulted 
in  flames  of  intense  heat  12  to  15  feet  in  extent.  A  fire  in  which 
a  large  quantity  is  involved  is  of  a  specially  dangerous  character 
owing  to  the  density  and  poisonous  nature  of  the  fumes,  which 
render  it  difficult  for  the  firemen  to  approach  the  seat  of  the  fire. 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  fife  spreads  renders  its  isolation1  an 
exceptionally  arduous  task.  When  well  alight,  great  jets  of  flame 
are  shot  out,  and  the  risk  to  adjacent  buildings,  even  if  they  are 
not  actually  adjoining,  is  thus  greater  than  with  an  ordinary  fire. 


PYROXYLIN  PLASTICS  OR  NITRO  CELLULOSE        119 

The  opinion  sometimes  expressed  that  pyroxylin  plastic  is  liable 
to  spontaneous  ignition  at  ordinary  temperatures  appear  erroneous 
nor  is  it  explosive  in  ordinary  circumstance.  There  has  been  how- 
ever, explosions  of  the  gases  evolved  from  decomposition,  and,  as 
is  the  case  of  many  other  substances,  the  dust  is  liable  to  cause 
explosion. 

Safer  Substitutes. — Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  neu- 
tralize the  inflammability  of  this  plastic,  but  so  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  reduce  the  inflammability 
to  any  great  extent  without  sacrificing  some  of  the  properties  on 
which  its  commercial  value  depends.  Greater  success  has  attended 
the  efforts  to  find  a  total  substitute,  several  of  which  are  on  the 
market.  The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  have  recently  approved 
three  makes  of  motion  picture  film,  all  of  which  are  acetate  cellu- 
lose compounds ;  these  by  test  were  shown  to  have  a  less  fire  hazard 
than  paper  or  pasteboard  of  equal  thickness. 

The  articles  most  likely  to  cause  accident  are  those  worn  on 
the  person,  such  as  combs,  hairpins,  cuffs,  and  collars;  and  it 
would  appear  from  the  list  of  accidents  of  which  there  are  records, 
that  the  majority  of  the  serious  accidents  which  have  Occurred 
have  been  due  to  the  ignition  of  articles  of  this  description.  In 
general  they  should  not  be  sold  without  some  clear  indication  of 
their  nature  being  given,  by  distinctly  marking  or  labeling  the 
articles  with  the  words  "  danger,  inflammable." 

Storage. — Accidents  in  stores,  both  wholesale  and  retail,  have 
been  very  rare,  and  the  danger  of  a  fire  arising  owing  to  the 
presence  of  such  articles  is  remote,  if  ordinary  precautions  are 
observed.  The  bulk  of  the  articles  are*  necessarily  kept  in  packages, 
and  the  main  stock  is  kept  in  the  drawers  or  shelves  of  the  shop 
or  in  a  stock  room.  However,  any  large  storage  of  pyroxylin 
plastic  is  a  very  distinct  hazard,  because  of  the  intense  heat,  rapid 
combustion  and  difficulty  in  extinguishing. 

Danger  in  Factories. — In  factories  the  greatest  danger  is  due 
to  the  creation  of  waste  and  the  large  amount  usually  out  on 
tables,  etc.,  waiting  to  be  worked  on.  Waste  should  not  be  allowed 
to  accumulate  on  the  floor,  but  should  be  collected  from  time  to 
time  (if  possible  as  it  is  created)  in  suitable  waste  cans,  kept 
partly  filled  with  water.  (For  description,  see  page  224.)  At  the 
end  of  the  day  it  should  be  removed  from  the  workrooms  and 
placed  in  metal  boxes  provided  with  lids  and  marked  "  Dangerous." 
It  should  not  be  stored  in  sacks.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  com- 
mercial value  now  attaches  to  waste,  greater  care  is  taken  for  its 
safe  preservation  than  was  formerly  the  case. 

Saws  .should   run   in   water  and  all  machines   which   produce  a 


I2O  'FiRE  PREVENTION  ANI>  PROTECTION 


should  be  provided  with  suction  collecting  systems,  —  discharg- 
ing into  water. 

The  amount  in  tfee  ^workrooms  should  be  Hmited  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  should  in  no  case  exceed  one  day's  requirements. 

AH  stock,  either  raw  or  in  process  of  manufacture,  should  be 
kept  in  small  self-closing  cans,  preferably  of  a  material  rather  tow 
in  conductivity,  such  as  mlolded  asbestos  board,  holding  not  over  25 
pounds,  and  finished  goods  should  be  removed  with  all  due  diligence. 

The  great  inflammaibility  of  pyroxylin  plastic  requires  extra 
safeguards  where  it  is  present  in  considerable  quantity.  In  the 
fires  that  have  occurred  where  it  is  being  worked,  usually  some 
one  is  seriously  burned  even  if  adequate  exit  facilities  are  pro- 
vided, To  prevent  the  spread  of  fire  from  one  work  bench  or 
machine  to  another  each  should  be  set  off  by  an  incombustible 
screen  or  partition  extending  about  2  feet  on  all  sides. 

The  work  people  should  be  instructed  as  to  the  steps  to  be  taken 
in  case  of  fire. 

Stnoking  and  Lights  Dangerous.  —  Smoking  and  the  introduction 
of  matches  into  the  workrooms  should  be  prohibited. 

Open  lights  and1  fires  are  a  source  of  danger,  and  the  require- 
ment that  all  lighting  be  from  incandescent  electric  fights  should 
be  strictly  adhered  to.  It  is  inadvisable  to  allow  plastic  to 
remain  in  contact  with  sources  of  heat.  The  use  of  sealing  wax 
and  soldering  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible;  if  such  opera- 
tions are  necessary,  they  should  be  performed  witji  all  the  precau- 
tions possible  to  prevent  conrtact  with  heated  tools  or  direct  flame. 

There  should  be  adequate  means  of  escape,  not  only  from  the 
room,  but  from  each  working  place  ;  gangways,  passages  and  stair- 
cases should  be  of  sufficient  breadth  and  be  kept  free  from  obstruc- 
tion ;  doors  should  open  outwards. 

Safeguards.  —  In  general  the  storage  and  handling  should  be  in 
one  story  buildings,  and  extensive  storage  should  be  prohibited 
inside  a  building.  Where  possible  only  small  vaults  or  special 
buildings  should  be  used  for  storage  and  these  should  be  well  away 
from-  other  buildings  or  adjacent  to  blank  wall's.  Substantial  roof 
houses  are  well  adapted  for  storage,  as  eliminating  the  exposure 
hazard. 

Very  extensive  vent  openings  are  necessary  to  prevent  excessive 
pressure  inside  the  place  of  stora.ge  in  case  pyroxylin  plastic  is 
ignited  or  decomposes,  and  such  vents  must  be  so  arranged  a's 
not  to  expose  other  property. 

In  general  storage  should  follow  the  regulations  covering  Nitro- 
Cellulose  Motion  Picture  Films  issued  by  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  which  are  as  follows:  ,  ni 


PYROXYLIN  PLASTICS  OR  NITRO  CELLULOSE    121 

STORAGE    OF    PYROXYLIN    PLASTIC    OR    NITRO- 
CELLULOSE PICTURE  FILMS* 

N'itro-cellulose  motion  picture  films  should  preferably  be  stored  in  a 
separate  building  or  vault,  not  exposing  other  property  or  occupancy;  if  a 
limited  quantity  is  permitted  in  a  building  with  other  occupancy,  or  in  an 
exposed  building,  it  must  be  in  standard  fireproof  vauks,  safes  or  cabinets. 

1.  FILM    REELS. — Each   reel   of    film   shall   be    k«pt    in    a    separate    metal    box 
with    tight-fitting    cover,    except    when    in    use. 

XOTE.— A  reel  ordinarily  contains  1,000  feet  of  film  i  11/32  inches  wide, 
and  weighs  about  5  pounds;  diameter  of  reel  is  approximately  10  inches. 

2.  VAULTS. — Where    the    maximum    degree    of    protection    for    valuable    films 
is    the    primary    consideration,    vaults    shall    be    constructed    according    to    re- 
quirements    for     Class    "A"    vaults.       This    type     of    vault     involves    massive 
construction   designed   to    resist   long   continued    fire,    impact   of    falling   bodies, 
and    attack    by    burglars    (in    so    far    as    this    feature    can    properly    he    incor- 
porated   in    these    specifications). 

\Yhere    the    primary    consideration    is    to    minimize    the    fire    hazard    in    a 
building   incident    to    the    films    therein,    vaults   shall   be   constructed    in    accord- 
ance   with   the    requirements    for   Class    "A,"    "  B  "   of   "  C  "   vaults. 
.  See    specifications    for   vaults,    page    458. 

Xo  one  vault  or  compartment  shall  exceed  in  size   750  cubic   feet. 

To  prevent  abnormally  high  temperature  within  thte  vault,  glass  windows 
and  skylights  should  be  avoided;  likewise  proximity  to  boiler  stacks  and 
similar  sources  of  heat. 

Automatic    sprinklers    should    be    installed    inside    each    vault. 

Vaults  not  exceeding  the  size  and  capacity  specified  below  for  safes  and 
cabinets  will  be  considered  satisfactory  if  of  equivalent  strength  and  insula- 
tion to  that  required  for  safes  and  cabinets. 

Editor's  Note. — In  a  test  made  of  a  vault  holding  approximately 
a  ton  of  film,  a  temperature  over  1000°  F.  was  obtained.  Although 
nearly  all  the  films  were  in  the  usual  metal  containers,  the  entire 
contents  of  the  vault  burned  in  less  than  3  minutes.  Flames  extended 
through  the  vent  opening  provided  for  a  distance  of  about  75 
feet.  From  this  and  from  actual  fires  it  is  evident  that  such  fires 
are  of  great  fierceness  and  require  a  good  class  of  construction. 
The  time  interval  before  the  contents  are  destroyed  is  so  short 
that  except  for  perfect  tightness,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas, 
there  is  little  need  for  especially  strong  or  thick  vaults.  The  low 
point  of  decomposition,  about  300°  F.,  requires  a  good  form  of 
container  to  prevent  ignition  from  an  outside  fire,  especially  if 
settlement  of  the  floors  or  a  stream  of  water  playing  on  the  vault 
may  result  in  cracked  walls.  Because  of  these  conditions,  it  is 
evident  that  a  lighter  form  of  vault  would  be  satisfactory  where 
the  vault  was  not  exposed ;  for  yard  vaults  or  vaults  on  roofs  of 
fireproof  buildings,  the  latter  of  which  should  be  a  very  acceptable 
location  in  city  plants,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  reason  why 
a  6-inch  tile  or  4-inch  concrete  wall  is  not  satisfactory. 

3.  SAFES.— Size    not    to   exceed    150    cubic    feet.      Safes   shall    have    an    angle 
iron    frame    at    least    %  x  %  x  2    inches    and    continuous    at    all    edges.       On 
safes    larger    than    40    inches    high,    30    inches    wide,    and    30    inches    deep,    an 
additional   stiffening  of   heavy   steel  at   least    Vt-inch   thick,   and   of    width   pro- 
portioned  to  size,  but   never  less  than   2   inches,   shall  be  used  at   top,   bottom 
and    sides.      Sheet    steel    plates    shall    be    not    less    than    No.    12    U.    S.    gauge 

*  As  adopted  by  the  Notional   Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 


122  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

for  the  outer  shell  and  not  less  than  No.  14  for  the  inner  shell.  Filling 
to  be  of  cement  concrete  or  its  .equivalent  not  less  than  5^  inches  thick, 
except  that  the  doors  may  have  at  least  4  inches  of  concrete  with  a  sealed 
air  space  for  the  lock  and  bolts.  Door  shall  have  stepped  sides  so  as  to  be 
smokeproof.  No  cast  iron  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  the'  safe,  except 
such  'parts  as  casters,  hinges  and  flanged  door  frames.  Other  containers 
of  no  mere  than  150  cubic  feet  capacity  and  approved  as  the  equivalent 
of  above  described  safes  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  thereof. 

4.  CABINETS.— Two    hundred    reels    of    film    weighing    not    more    than    one 
thousand    pounds    in    the    aggregate    may    be    stored    in    cabinets,    but    no    one 
cabinet   shall  contain  more  than   50   reels    (250  pounds).      When   two  or  more 
cabinets   are  used   they   shall   be    in   a   separate    room    with    outside   ventilation 
and    enclosed    by    fireproof    partitions    with    fire    doors    of    the    vertical    shaft 
type  at  communications.     There  shall  be  at  least    10   feet  clear  space  between 
cabinets    unless    an    incombustible    shield    is    provided    at    each    side    of    each 
cabinet    extending    2    feet    beyond    cabinet    in    all    directions,    in    which    case 
the    distance    between    cabinets   may    be    only   4    feet. 

Cabinets  shall  be  tightly  enclosed  and  may  be  made  of  suitably  stiffened 
sheet  iron  at  least  No.  18  U.  S.  gauge  in  thickness,  double  walled  with 
1^2  inch  of  air  space;  doors  shall  be  constructed  equivalent  to  walls  of  the 
cabinet,  shall  be  self-closing,  fit  closely  and  be  kept  locked. 

Other  containers  having  a  capacity  not  exceeding  50  reels  of  film  each  and 
approved  as  the  equivalent  of  the  cabinets  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  thereof. 

5.  PRESSURE  RELIEF  FOR  VAULTS,   SAFES  AND  CABINETS. — Each  container  for 
film    storage    shall    be    provided    with    a    pressure    relief    vent    opening    to    the 
outside    of    the    building,    directly    through    an    exterior    wall,    or    through    a 
separate    stack    with    walls    of    reinforced    concrete    or   brick    at    least    5    inches 
thick   and  shielded   at  top.      The   effective   sectional   area   of  the   opening  shall 
be  at  least  70  square  inches  for  each   100  reels   (500  pounds)   of  film  capacity. 
The  capacity  of  vaults   shall   be   rated  at  three   reels  per   foot   of  cubical  con- 
tents;  the  capacity  of  safes  and  cabinets,  or  small  vaults  without  aisle  space, 
shall    be    rated    at    six    reels    per    foot    of    cubical    contents.      Reels    shall    not 
be    placed    near    enough    to    vent    opening    to    reduce    its    effective    area.      A 
permanent     guard    shall     be     installed     to     prevent     films     from     being     forced 
against    the   vent   openings    of   small    containers.      In    fireproof   buildings    hori- 
zontal   ducts    may    be    permitted    to    connect    the    relief    openings    in    vault 
separately    to    the    outside    of    the    building,    provided    the    walls    are    made    of 
solid    masonry    at    least    5'  inches    thick    and    securely    supported.      A    riveted 
sheet    metal    pipe    of    at    least    No.    18    U.    S.    gage    in    thickness    may    be    per- 
mitted to  separately  connect  the  vent  opening  of  each  cabinet  to  the  outside 
of    the    building,    provided    the    pipe    is    covered    with    at    least     i     inch    of 
approved    heat    insulating    material.      Such    pipes    shall    not    be    nearer    than    9 
inches   to   combustible    material. 

Each  pressure  relief  vent  shall  be  protected  against  the  weather  by  thin 
glass  (i/i6-inch  thick)  painted  a  dark  color  or  by  other  incombustible  fragile 
material  in  a  sash  arranged  to  open  automatically  in  case  of  fire  by  the 
use  of  a  fusible  link  or  thermostat  placed  inside  the  film  container.  The 
effective  sectional  area  of  the  vent  opening  shall  correspond  with  the  actual 
area  of  the  glass.  No  pane  of  glass  to  be  smaller  than  200  square  inches. 
Muntins  to  be  constructed  as  lightly  as  possible  so  as  to  break  readily. 

A  light  wire  screen,  not  coarser  than  %-inch  mesh,  shall  also  be  placed 
over  each  vent  at  a  point  between  the  glass  sash  and  the  container,  so 
arranged  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  automatic  operation  of  the  sash. 

The  outlet  of  each  vent  shall  be  located  at  a  point  above  the  roof.  Ex- 
ception will  be  made  only  where  a  different  location  of  the  outlet  will  not 


PYROXYLIN  PLASTICS  OR  NITRO  CELLULOSE        123 

expose  other  property  in  the  same  or  adjacent  buildings,  and  then  only  by 
special  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

6.  VENTILATION  OF  VAULTS. — There  should  be  no  ventilation  of  vaults  other 
than  a  pressure  relief  opening,  discharging  directly  to  the  outside  of  the 
building.  Blower  systems  circulating  air  in  the  vault  are  objectionable,  even 
after  every  reasonable  safeguard  has  been  provided. 

Artificial  ventilation  of  vaults  is  sometimes  desired  in  factories  handling 
new  material  as  in  motion  picture  film  printing  establishments.  In  such 
cases  the  additional  fire  hazard  in  connection  with  the  ventilation  may  be 
somewhat  reduced  if  the  intake  and  discharge  openings  in  the  vault  connect 
directly  to  the  outside  of  the  building  through  wall  or  a  flue  with  masonry 
walls  at  least  4  inches  thick.  The  outlet  and  intake  openings  shall  not 
expose  or  be  exposed  by  other  property.  Only  suction  blowers  •  drawing 
air  away  from  vault  shall  be  used. 

HANDLING   OF   PYROXYLIN   PLASTIC   OR   NITRO- 
CELLULOSE   MOTION    PICTURE    FILMS* 

1.  PRINTING,   DEVELOPING,  EXAMINING,   REPAIRING  AND  EXCHANGE  ROOMS. — 
(a)     Shall    have    outside    ventilation    and    be    separated    from    each    other    and 
the   balance  of  the   building  by   tight   partitions  of   fire-resistive  material,   with 
fire    doors    of   the    corridor    type    at   communications,    partitions    and    transoms. 
Doors'  should  contain  no  glass  other  than  wired  glass. 

(b)  Such    rooms    to    be    used    neither    for    storage    nor    handling    of    com- 
bustible   materials,    other    than   the    films.      The    furnishings   should    be   of   fire- 
resistive    material. 

(c)  The  number  of  reels  of  films  not  in   special  rooms   exposed  in   a  single 
room   at   any   one  time   shall   be   limited   to   20. 

2.  SCRAP  AND  WASTE. — All  scrap  or  waste  shall  be  kept  under  water,  in  self- 
closing    standard    metal    waste    cans    or    their    equivalent,    and    removed    from 
the    building    at    least    once    each    day    to    a    safe    location;    such    waste    to    be 
kept   separate   from   paper   waste   or  other   rubbish. 

3.  CEMENT.— Any    compound    of    collodion    and    amyl    acetate    or    similarly 
inflammable   cements    inside    the    building   shall    be    limited   to    one    gallon,    not 
exceeding    the    quantity    required    each   day. 

4.  MOTION     PICTURE     MACHINES     AND     BOOTHS.— Shall     be     safeguarded     in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical  Code.     The  booth 
may   be   omitted  if   the   machines   are   in   a   separate   room  inclosed   by   incom- 
bustible   partitions   with   fire   doors   of   the   corridor   type   at   communications. 

5.  POWER. — Electric  motors,   if   used,   should   preferably   be   of  the   induction 
type  without  commutators,  or  if  of  the   Direct  Current  type  to  have  enclosed 
commutators.      All    switches,    rheostats,    or    other    current-controlling    devices 
must   be   enclosed   in   approved   dust-proof   and   fireproof   cabinets. 

6.  LIGHTING. — Shall     be     by    incandescent     electric     lights     only;     lamps,     if 
subject    to    mechanical    injury,    to    be    protected    by    approved    wire    guards. 
Entire    installation    shall    be    in    accordance    with    the    requirements    of    the 
National    Electrical    Code. 

7.  HEATING. — Only    hot    air,    hot    water    or    steam    heat    shall   be    used.      The 
heating   pipes   should   be   preferably    overhead   attached    to   the   ceiling.      Steam 
and    hot    water   pipes   or    radiators,    if   on    side  'walls,    shall   be   safeguarded   by 
the    use    of    sheet    metal    or    heavy    galvanized    wire    netting    with    not    over 
Vt-inch    mesh    held    firmly    in    place    at    least    one    inch    from    pipes;    or    by 
covering    space    between    back    of    benches    and    walls    with    heavy    galvanized 

*  As  adopted  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 


124  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

wire  netting,  with  not  Over  ^4-inch  mesh,  securely  stapled  to  bench  and 
wall,  but  sloping  so  that  it  may  not  be  used  as  a  shelf.  No  hot  air  nor 
other  floor  registers  shall  be  used,  nor  shall  any  register  be  less  than  6 
inches  above  the  floor. 

8.  SMOKING   AND   CARRYING   OF   MATCHES. — Shall:   be   strictly   prohibited. 

9.  PROTECTION. — All    buildings    in    which    there    is   a    total    of   more   than    50 
reels   of   films    (250    pounds),    shall   be   equipped    with    an    approved    >ystem    of 
automatic     sprinklers.       Each     room     shall     be     equipped     with     at     least     one 
approved    hand    fire    extinguisher.      At    least    one    pail    of   water   and    one    pail 
of  sand  shall  be  provided  for  each  vault,  safe  or  cabinet  in  use. 

MOTION  PICTURE  MACHINES  AND   THEATRES 

To  regulate  the  installation,  operation  and  maintenance  of  motion 
picture  machines  and  to  regulate  the  construction  and  arrangement 
of  picture  machine  booths  and  of  audience  rooms  in  which  motion 
picture  exhibitions  are  to  be  given,  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  issued  a  suggested  ordinance;,  except  for  the  sections 
covering  permits  and  enforcement,  this  ordinance  is  given  below : 

MATERIALS. — Motion  picture  machines  must  be  installed  in  an  enclosure 
constructed  entirely  of  fire-resistive  material,  which  may  include  only  brick, 
tile,  concrete,  galvanized  iron,  hard  asbestos  board,  asbestos  building  lumber, 
two  inches  of  solid  metal  lath  and  Portland  cement  plaster,  or  their  equivalent. 

LOCATION. — The  booth  must  not  be  placed  directly  over  an  exit,  and  in  all 
cases  must  be  securely  anchored  or  fastened  to  prevent  dislodgment  in  case 
of  panic.  A  separation  of  at  least  twelve  inches  must  be  maintained  between 
the  top  or  sides  of  metal  booths  and  any  inflammable  material.  The  enclosure 
must  be  not  less  than  seven  (7)  feet  in  height,  with  area  of  floor  space 
varying1  in  accordance  with  the  number  of  machines  or  devices  installed  in 
such  booths,  as  follows: 

i     Picture    machine 6  feet  x  8  feet 

1  Picture  machine  and   i   stereopticon 9  feet  x  8  feet 

2  Picture  machines  and    i    stereopticon 12  feet  x  8  feet 

BRICK,  TILE  OR  CONCRETE  BOOTHS. — Walls,  roof  and  floor  of  brick  or  tile 
shall  be  at  least  8  inches  thick;  if  of  reinforced  concrete,  they  may  be  only 
4  inches  thick.  \ 

METAL  OR  ASBESTOS  BOOTHS; — Frame  to  be  made  of  at  least  i^o-inch  by 
i^-inch  by  ^4-inch  angle  or  tee  irons,  as  follows: 

Four  outside  horizontal  members  at   top  and   bottom. 

Four  corner  uprights. 

Intermediate  uprights  on  sides  and  intermediate  members  on  roofs,  spaced 
at  least  every  two  feet. 

Doorway  to  be  two  feet  wide  by  at  least  five  feet  high,  with  an  angle  iron 
framing. 

All  joints  in  frame  to  be  made  with  j,J\ 6-inch  steel  plates,  to  which  each 
angle  iron  or  tee  iron  shall  be  riveted  or  bolted  by  the  use  of  at  least  two 
%-inch  bolts  or  rivets.  All  bolts  or  rivets  to  have  flat  heads,  said  heads 
always  to  be  placed  on  exterior  side  of  booth  and  properly  countersunk. 

COVERING  OF  BOOTH. — Sides  and  top  of  booth  and  main  or  entrance  door 
shall  be  covered  with  hard  asbestos  boards  or  asbestos  building  lumber,  of  at 
least  ^4-inch  thickness,  or  their  equivalent,  or  with  steel  or  galvanized  sheet 
irofi  of  not  less  than  No.  20  U.  S.  gauge.  The  asbestos,  or  its  equivalent, 
shall  be  so  cut  and  arranged  that  vertical  joints  between  boards  shall  always 


PYROXYLIN  PLASTICS  OR  NITRO  CELLULOSE         125 

come  over  an  angle  or  tee  iron,  to  which  it  shall  be  securely  fastened  by 
means  of  proper  bolts  and  nuts,  spaced  not  more  than  six  inches  apart.  The 
sheet  metal  shall  be  so  cut  and  arranged  that  joints  shall  always  come  over 
a  member,  be  overlapped  and  bolted  or  riveted  to  such  member;  bolts  or 
rivets  to  be  spaced  not  over  three  inches  on  centers. 

FLOORING. —  Floor  shall  be  made  of  two  parts,  an  upper  and  a  lower  floor. 
Lower  floor  may  be  made  of  wood,  %-inch  minimum  thickness,  supported 
on  lower  leg  of  horizontal  angle  irons.  Resting  on  this  floor  shall  be  a 
floor  made  of  hard  asbestos  board,  asbestos  building  lumber  of  %-inch 
minimum  thickness,  or  an  equally  good  non-combustible  material. 

OPENINGS. — There  shall  be  not  more  than  two  openings  in  the  broth  for 
each  machine— one  for  observation  by  the  operator  and  one  for  operation  of 
the  machine.  Opening  for  machine  shall  be  not  more  than  seventy-two 
square  inches.  Opening  for  operator  shall  be  not  more  than  four  inches 
wide  or  more  than  twelve  inches  high.  The  two  openings  for  each  machine 
shall  be  provided  with  gravity  doors,  constructed  of  metal  not  less  than  3/16- 
inch  in  thickness;  when  closed  they  shall  overlap  the  openings  at  least  two 
inches  on  all  sides,  and  be  arranged  to  slide,  without  binding,  in  properly 
constructed  grooves;  said  doors  to  be  held  open  normally  by  use  of  a  fine 
combustible  cord  fastened  to  a  fusible  link  which  melts  at  a  temperature 
of  160  degrees  F.,  the  whole  so  arranged  that  the  door  may  be  easily  released 
and  closed  by  hand. 

The  main  or  entrance  door  shall  be  hung  on  at  least  three  heavy  hinges 
and  arranged  to  close  against  a  substantial  metal  rabbet.  The  door  shall 
also  be  provided  with  a  substantial  spring  which  will  keep  it  closed  tightly. 

SHELVES. — All  shelves,  furniture  and  fixtures  within  the  booth  shall  be 
constructed  of  incombustible  material. 

VENTILATION. — Booths  shall  be  provided  with  a  ventilating  inlet  in  each  of 
three  sides;  to  be  fifteen  inches  long  and  three  inches  high,  the  lower  side 
to  be  not  more  than  three  inches  above  floor  level.  Inlets  shall  be  covered 
on  the  outside  by  a  wire  netting  of  not  greater  than  %-inch  mesh,  firmly 
secured  by  means  of  iron  strips  and  screws  or  rivets,  and  on  inside  by 
gravity  doors  arranged  to  slide  in  properly  constructed  grooves,  and  which, 
when  closed,  shall  overlap  ventilator  openings  at  least  two  inches  on  all 
sides;  doors  to  be  held  open  normally  by  use  of  a  fine  combustible  cord 
fastened  to  a  fusible  link  which  melts  at  a  temperature  of  160  degrees  F., 
so  arranged  that  the  doors  may  be  easily  released  and  closed  by  hand. 

Near  the  renter  of  the  top  of  the  booth  shall  be  a  circular  opening  of 
not  less  than  ten  inches  in  diameter,  the  upper  side  provided  with  an  iron 
flange,  securely  fastened  to  the  roof.  Securely  fastened  to  this  flange  shall 
be  a  metallic  vent  pipe  of  not  less  than  ten  inches  in  diameter,  leading  to  the 
outside  of  the  building  or  to  a  special  incombustible  vent  flue;  all  parts  of 
vent  pipe  to  be  at  least  six  inches  from  any  combustible  material. 

For  the  comfort  of  the  operator  it  is  important  to  provide  for  a  constant 
current  of  air  to  pass  outward  through  the  opening  or  vent  flue  at  the  rate 
of  not  less  than  thirty  cubic  feet  per  minute  when  the  booth  is  in  use. 

PORTABLE  BOOTHS. — Portable  booths  shall  not  be  used  where  a  permanent 
booth  has  been  or  is  installed,  but  only  for  the  temporary  one-night  exhibi- 
tion of  motion  pictures  in  places  of  assemblage,  such  as  halls  belonging  to 
commercial  organizations,  churches,  schools,  etc.,  where  it  is  deemed  im- 
practicable to  install  permanent  booths  made  in  accordance  with  the  above 
specifications. 

In  constructing  a  portable  booth  the  specifications  for  a  pertnanent  booth 
shall  be  followed,  with  the  exceptions  given  below: 

i.  Intermediate    uprights    may    be    spaced    every    four    feet. 


126  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

2.  Special    means    for    ventilation    need    not    be    provided    except    that    there 
shall   be   an   opening   for  ventilation  in  the   top   of   the   booth,   this   opening  to 
be    ten    inches    in    diameter    and    a    metal    sleeve    at    least    eighteen    inches    in 
height,  provided  with  a  ventilating  cap,  shall  be  attached  thereto. 

3.  The    booth    may    be    made    in    a    folding    type    so    constructed    that    when 
assembled    it    will    be    rigid   and   all   joints   tight   so    that   flames   may   not   pass 
through  them. 

4.  The    base    of    booth    shall    have    a   flange    extension    outward    on    all    four 
sides   provided   with   a   sufficient   number   of    holes,    through    which    booth    may 
be    fastened   to   floor. 

GENERAL  PROVISIONS. — The  motion  picture  machines  must  be  securely 
fastened  to  the  floor  to  prevent  accidental  overturning  or  moving  of  same. 

Shall  be  equipped  with  a  feed  reel  enclosed  in  a  metal  magazine  constructed 
of  20  U.  S.  gauge  metal,  with  a  slot  at  the  bottom  only  large  enough  for 
film  to  pass  out,  and  with  cover  so  arranged  that  this  slot  can  be  instantly 
closed.  No  solder  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  this  box.  Door  on  side 
shall  be  of  metal  and  provided  with  spring  hinges  and  latch,  which  will  keep 
door  closed  tightly. 

Shall  be  provided  also  with  a  take-up  reel  in  a  magazine,  similar  to  that 
used  to  enclose  feed  reel.  A  slot  to  be  provided  only  large  enough  to  receive 
the  film,  and  a  door  at  the  side  to  be  provided  to  remove  film.  The  door 
must  be  of  metal  and  equipped  with  spring  hinges  and  latch  to  keep  same 
securely  closed. 

A  shutter  must  be  placed  in  front  of  the  condenser,  so  arranged  as  to  be 
automatically  closed  when  film  is  stationary. 

Resistance  box  must  be  kept  not  less  than  one  (i)  foot  from  any  com- 
bustible material,  or  must  be  separated  from  it  by  a  slab  of  slate  or  marble. 
The  resistance  box  must  be  surrounded  with  a  substantially  attached  metal 
guard  having  a  mesh  not  larger  than  one-half  inch,  which  guard  is  to  be 
kept  at  least  one  inch  from  outside  frame  of  rheostat. 

The  lamp  must  not   be  mounted  upon   a  base  or   frame  composed   of  wood. 

LIGHTS. — No  artificial  light  shall  be  used  except  that  produced  by  elec- 
tricity. All  electric  wiring  to  and  in  the  booth;  except  necessary  flexible  con- 
ductors, shall  be  installed  in  metal  conduit.  One  light  will  be  allowed  for 
each  machine  and  one  for  the  rewinding  bench,  but  all  such  lights  shall  be 
provided  with  wire  guards,  and  reinforced  cord  shall  be  used  for  pendant 
purposes.  If  house  lights  are  controlled  from  within  the  booth,  an  additional 
emergency  control  must  be  provided  near  the  main  exit  and  kept  at  all  times 
in  good  condition. 

FILMS. — No  films  shall  be  exposed  in  the  booth  at  the  same  time  other 
than  the  one  film  in  process  of  transfer  to  or  from  the  machine  or  from 
the  upper  to  lower  magazine,  or  in  process  of  rewinding.  A  separate 
case,  made  without  solder,  shall  be  provided  for  each  film  when  the  same 
is  not  in  the  magazine  or  in  process  of  rewinding,  said  films  to  be  kept  in 
these  cases.  No  material  of  a  combustible  nature  shall  be  stored  within  any 
booth  except  the  films  needed  for  one  day's  operation. 

EXTINGUISHERS. — At  least  two  standard  hand  chemical  fire  extinguishers 
shall  be  provided,  one  inside  the  booth  and  located  in  an  accessible  place 
within  easy  reach  of  the  operator,  the  other  located  outside  of  the  booth 
near  the  door  to  same. 

SMOKING,  ETC. — Neither  smoking  nor  the  keeping  nor  use  of  matches  shall 
be  permitted  in  any  booth,  room,  compartment  or  enclosure  where  a  motion 
picture  machine-  is  installed. 

NOTE. — It  is  suggested  that  at  some  convenient  time  during  each  exhibi- 
tion a  bulletin  stating  the  precautions  taken  to  reduce  the  danger  from  fire 
and  a  caution  against  the  dangers  of  panic,  be  thrown  upon  the  screen. 


PYROXYLIN  PLASTICS  OR  NITRO  CELLULOSE        127 

ENVIRONMENT,  ETC. — No  motion  picture  machine  shall  be  installed,  main- 
tained or  operated  in  any  building  that  does  not  abut  directly  upon  a  street; 
nor  shall  any  such  machine  be  installed,  maintained  or  operated  in  connection 
with  any  exhibition  room  contained  in  a  building  occupied  as  a  hotel,  tenement 
house,  or  lodging  house;  nor  in  factories  or  workshops,  except  where  the 
exhibition  room  and  motion  picture  machine  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  building  by  unpierced  fireproof  walls  and  floors;  and  in  no  case  shall  the 
main  floor  of  such  exhibition  room  be  more  than  four  feet  above  or  below 
the  adjoining  grade  level.  To  overcome  any  difference  of  level  on  the  ground 
floor  gradients  shall  be  employed  of  not  over  one  foot  in  teri  feet;  no  steps 
shall  be  permitted.  Exit  doors  must  be  at  the  same  level  as  the  sidewalk. 

If  the  walls  of  the  auditorium  contain  wood  studs,  they  shall  be  covered 
with  either  expanded  metal  lath  or  wire  mesh  and  plastered  with  thiee  coats 
of  plaster,  or  be  covered  with  one-half  inch  plaster  boards  and  plastered  or 
covered  with  metal.  The  joints  shall  be  properly  filled  with  mortar.  The 
ceilings  of  all  such  rooms  shall  be  plastered  with  three  coats  of  plaster  on 
wire  mesh  or  metal  lath,  or  covered  with  one-half  inch  plaster  beards  and 
plastered  or  covered  with  metal.  If  there  be  a  basement  or  cellar,  the  ceil- 
ing under  the  auditorium  floor  must  be  plastered  with  three,  coats  of  plaster 
on  wire  mesh  or  expanded  metal  lath,  or  be  covered  with  one-half  inch 
plaster  boards  and  plastered  or  covered  with  metal. 

Any  motion  picture  exhibition  room  accommodating  more  than  three  hun- 
dred people,  or  containing  a  gallery  or  galleries,  shall  be  built  in  compliance 
with  the  requirements  for  theaters  and  opera  houses.  (See  the  Building 
Code  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.) 

EXITS. — All  motion  picture  exhibition  rooms  shall  be  provided  with  at  least 
two  separate  exits,  one  of  which  shall  be  in  -.the.  front  and  the  other  in  the 
rear,  both  leading  to  unobstructed  outlets  on  the  street.  The  aggregate  width 
in  feet  of  such  exits  shall  be  not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the  number  of 
persons  to  be  accommodated  thereby.  No  exits  shall  be  less  than  five  feet 
in  width,  and  there  shall  be  a  main  exit  not  less  than  ten  feet  in  total  width. 

If  an  unobstructed  exit  to  a  street  cannot  be  provided  at  the  rear  of  such 
buildings,  as  herein  specified,  either  an  open  court  or  a  fireproof  passage 
or  corridor  must  be  provided  from  rear  exit  to  the  street  front,  of  at  least 
four  feet  in  width  for  exhibition  rooms  accommodating  50  persons  or  less, 
and  six  inches  additional  for  each  additional  50  persons  accommodated  by 
such  room.  Such  passage  must  be  constructed  of  fireproof  material  and 
must  be  at  least  ten  feet  high  in  the  clear.  The  walls  forming  such  passage 
must  be  at  least  eight  inches  thick,  of  brick  or  other  approved  fireproof 
material,  and  if  there  be  a  basement  the  wall  on  the  auditorium  side  should 
either  run  one  foot  below  the  cellar  bottom  or  may  be  carried  in  the  cellar 
on  iron  columns  and  girders  properly  fireproofed.  The  ceiling  of  said  passages, 
and,  if  there  be  a  basement,  the  floor,  must  be  of  fireproof  construction. 

If  unobstructed  rear  exit  or  exits  to  a  street  are  provided,  the  said  exit 
or  exits  must  be  of  the  same  total  width  required  for  the  court  or  passage 
above  mentioned.  Said  passages  and  exits  to  the  street,  as  above,  must  be 
used  for  no  other  purposes  except  for  exit  and  entrance,  and  must  be  kept 
free  and  clear. 

The  level  of  the  open  court  or  passage  at  the  front  of  building  shall  not 
be  greater  than  one  step  above  the  level  of  the  sidewalk,  and  the  grade  shall 
not  be  more  than  one  foot  in  ten,  with  no  perpendicular  rises. 

SEATS  AND  AISLES. — All  seats  in  any  exhibition  room  for  movjng  picture 
machines  shall  be  not  less  than  32  inches  from  back  to  back  and  securely 
fastened  to  the  floor;  they  shall  be  so  arranged  that  there  will  be  not  more 
than  ten  seats  in  a  line  between  aisles,  nor  more  than  four  between  any 


128  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

seat  and  an  aisle.  Ail  aisles  shall  lead  directly  to  exits  and  all  exits  shall 
be  directly  accessible  to  aisles.  No  aisles  shall  be  less  than  three  feet  in  width 
where  they  begin,  and  shall  be  increased  in  width  toward  the  exits  three 
inches  to  every  ten  running  feet  length.  All  exit  doors  shall  be  arranged 
to  swing  outward  and  tie  provided  with  fastenings  such  as  can  be  opened 
readily  from  the  inside,  without  the  use  of  keys  or  any  special  effort,  but 
not  locked  when  the  room  is  open  to  the  public. 

All  the  requirements  of  this  section  relating  to  seats,  aisles,  passageways, 
exits  and  doors  shall  apply  in  connection  with  each  open-air  motion  picture 
exhibition. 

DOORWAYS. — 'Every  exit  doorway  leading  from  the  exhibition  room  shall 
have  over  the  same  on  the  auditorium  side,  the  word  "  EXIT  "  in  letters 
not  less  than  six  inches  high,  or  an  illuminated  sign  with  letters  of  the  same 
height.  Where  illuminated  signs  are  not  provided  there  shall  be  at  least  one 
red  light  over  each  exit  doorway.  The  exit  doorways  shall  be  numbered  with 
figures  not  less  than  six  inches  high.  Light  used  in  marking  exits  or  lighting 
passageways,  stairways  or  inclines  leading  from  them  shall  not  depend  upo« 
or  be  controlled  by  wires,  switches  or  fuses  located  in  room,  compartment, 
booth  or  enclosure  containing  motion  picture  machines,  but  shall  be  controlled 
from  the  ticket  office. 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF 
INFLAMMABLE   LIQUIDS 

Hazards. — The  hazard  from  inflammable  liquids  is  two-fold — 
tlie  danger  of  an  explosion  or  fire  from  the  gases  liberated,  and 
the  spread  of  fire  in  and  from  the  liquid. 

As  inflammable  liquids  are  nearly  always  of  considerable  mone- 
tary value,  the  usual  containers  in  which  they  are  handled  in 
bulk  are  tight,  with  small  chances  of  leaking.  The  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  and  the  Department  of  Commerce  have 
issued  requirements  covering  the  construction  of  shipping  con- 
tainers and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  any  inflammable  liquid  in  an 
original  shipping  container,  providing  it  is  in  good  condition,  can 
be  stored  in  practically  any  place  with  slight  danger  of  fire  or 
explosion  resulting  from  it.  But  with  these  containers  open  very 
distinct  hazards  arise,  first,  that  of  the  liberation  of  dangerous 
gases  and,  second,  that  of  spilling  or  igniting  the  liquid  contents. 

Properties  of  Liquids. — The  Underwriter's  Laboratories,  in 
classifying  the  hazardous  properties  of  liquids,  consider  eleven 
properties,  as  follows : 

1.  Explosive  characteristic. 

2.  Combustibility;   as  indicated  by  the  flashing  point. 

3.  Volatility;  as  indicated  by  the 

(a)  Vapor  pressure  at  68°  F. 

(b)  Boiling  point   at   standard   pressure. 

4.  Violence  of  vapor  air  explosions. 

5.  Vapor  density. 

6.  Ignition  point. 

7.  Resistance  when  burning  to  the  extinguishing  action  of  water. 

8.  Chemical  activity.     Hazards  in  combination. 

9.  Ability  as  a  corrosive  agent. 

10.  Ability  towards  leakage. 

11.  Ability  as  a  factor  in  spontaneous  ignition. 
Characteristics    i,   3,   4  and   5   are   rated  with   reference   to   the 

flashing  ^oint.    The  flashing  point  is  in  this  way  made  a  determina- 
tive factor  in  rating  the  hazard  and  is  not,  therefore,  considered 
separately. 
Under  this  classification: 

Ether  rates 100 

Gasolene 90-100 

Turpentine 40-50 

Kerosene   (F.  P.  38°  C.  100°  F.) 30-40 

Paraffin  Oil  (F.  P.  229°  C.  444°  F.) 10-20 

129 


130  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Flash  Point. — Although  the  above  classification  is  best  to  deter- 
mine the  exact  relative  hazard  of  liquids,  for  general  purposes  a 
simpler  method  is  necessary;  any  of  the  liquids  if  heated  and 
ignited  will  burn  intensely,  with  little  difference  between  them. 
The  main  hazard  then  to  differentiate  upon  is  the  volatility  and 
combustibility,  which  can  best  be  determined  by  the  flash  point. 
This  has  been  taken  as  the  deciding  factor  in  a  recommended 
ordinance  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and 
abstracted  below;  the  requirements  given  in  this  ordinance  are 
also  essentially  those  recommended  for  adoption  by  the  insurance 
associations  for  their  guidance  in  accepting  risks. 

Cleaning  Substitutes. — As  a  substitute  for  benzine,  gasoline, 
naphtha,  ether,  carbon  bisulphide  and  other  dangerous  substances 
used  for  cleaning  and  extracting,  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories 
have  listed  Carbona  as  non-combustible  and  non-flammable,  Deter- 
gene  as  in  the  same  class  as  turpentine,  Carbozine,  Claroline  and 
Woolleys'  Solvent  as  in  the  same  class  as  kerosene,  and  trichlore- 
thylene  and  tetrachlorethane  as  not  forming  inflammable  or  explo- 
sive mixtures  with  air  under  ordinary  conditions,  but  at  high  tem- 
peratures giving  off  vapors  that  are  moderately  combustible.  The 
last  two  and  chloroform,  which  is  also  a  safe  liquid  for  such  pur- 
poses, possess  toxical  properties  which  make  ventilation  a  'require- 
ment for  their  use. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  is  also  of  value  for  cleaning  purposes;  it 
has  high  extinguishing  value  and  is  used  to  a'  large  extent  in 
small  fire  extinguishers.  When  mixed  with  gasoline,  it  reduces 
the  flash  point,  until  with  a  mixture  of  40  to  50  per  cent  of 
tetrachloride,  the  hazard  is  removed. 

Gasoline. — The  more  volatile  parts  of  petroleum  are  known  as 
naphtha  by  the  refiners,  but  to  the  general  public  the  term  gasoline 
covers  the  general  class  used  in  every  day  life ;  gasoline  is  lighter 
than  water  and  therefore  can  not  be  extinguished  by  the  appli- 
cation of  water,  except  as  the  cooling  effect  of  the  water  dimin- 
ishes the  heat  generated  to  such  an  extent  as  to  bring  the  heat 
in  the  burning  liquid  below  the  flashing  point.  Fires  are  often 
spread  by  the  application  of  water,  the  oil  staying  on  top  and  con- 
tinuing to  burn. 

Gasoline  gives  off  vapor  at  practically  all  temperatures,  the 
amount  of  vapor  varying  with  the  temperature;  for  this  reason  it 
is  best  to  store  in  as  cool  a  place  as  possible;  underground  storage 
is  the  only  safe  method.  The  vapor  of  gasoline  when  pure,  not 
mixed  with  air,  will  not  explode.  It  becomes  violently  explosive 
when  mixed  with  air,  when  the  proportion  of  vapor  is  from  3  per 
cent  to  6  per  cent,  after  which  last  figure  it  is  no  longer  explosive. 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     131 

The  vapor  is  2.77  times  as  heavy  as  air,  therefore,  it  tends  to 
settle  to  the  ground  and  to  collect  in  low  spots  unless  a  draft 
or  ventilation  disperses  it.  This  feature  is  the  most  dangerous 
property  of  the  vapor,  and  causes  many  serious  fires,  as  the 
vapor  will  travel  several  hundred  feet  under  the  right  circum- 
stances, until  reaching  a  flame  it  will  ignite  and  flash  back  to 
the  origin  of  the  vapor,  setting  fire  to  any  inflammable  sub- 
stance in  its  path.  Many  instances  are  on  record  of  the  vapor 
lying  in  a  layer  on  a  garage  or  dry-cleaning  floor,  or  being  in  a 
pit  or  basement,  and,  when  ignited  by  a  dropped  match,  spark 
from  electrical  apparatus,  or  from  friction,  or  back-fire  of  a 
gasoline  engine,  spreading  so  rapidly  as  to  destroy  the  entire 
contents  of  the  building  in  a  very  short  period  of  time. 

Gasoline  Containers. — In  handling  gasoline,  open  receptacles 
should  never  be  used,  and  discharge  should  be  direct  from  one 
closed  container  to  another,  with  as  little  chance  of  its  getting  in 
contact  with  the  air  as  possible.  All  containers  which  are  partly 
filled  with  gasoline  or  have  held  gasoline,  contain  the  vapor  in 
a  more  or  less  mixture  of  air.  On  filling,  this  is  driven  off  and 
immediately  mingles  with  the  lower  stratum  of  the  air ;  if  no 
means  of  its  flowing  away  are  provided,  i.  e.,  proper  ventilation 
is  not  established,  it  forms  either  an  explosive  or  a  burnable 
mixture,  which  only  needs  a  spark  or  flame  to  set  it  off. 

The  principal  danger  is  in  the  handling  of  gasoline,  as  with 
underground  storage  the  hazard  of  storage  .is  well  safeguarded ; 
laws  should  be  stringent  as  to  its  use  and  should  be  strictly  en- 
forced by  the  fire  department. 

Fire  Risks. — In  respect  of  fire  risk,  the  crude  petroleums  are 
less  uniform  in  character  than  the  fats  and  oils,  the  risks  of  which 
are  confined  within  narrow  limits,  while  those  of  petroleum  have 
a  wide  range.  Many  of  them  contain  gases  that  are  liberated  at  the 
ordinary-  temperature,  and,  when  condensed  to  the  liquid  condi- 
tion, boil  a  little  above  the  freezing  point  of  water.  Such  gases 
do  not  occur  in  fats  or  oils.  Other  constituents  of  crude  petroleum 
are  extremely  volatile  and  inflammable,  the  vapors  forming  ex- 
plosive mixtures  with  air.  Finally,  other  constituents  are  solid, 
are  not  easily  ignited,  and  do  not  explode  until  high  temperatures 
are  attained. 

The  low-boiling  and  highly  volatile  constituents  of  petroleum 
and  mineral  oils  belong  to  the  most  dangerous  of  substances  so 
far  as  risk  of  fire  and  explosion  are  concerned.  However,  as 
the  boiling  point  rises  and  the  volatility  diminishes,  the  danger 
also  lessens,  until  we  arrive  at  the  paraffins,  which  are  about  on  a 
par  with  the  fats  and  oils. 


132  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Alcohol. — Alcohol  is  a  generic  term,  and  applies  to  a  large 
series  of  organic  compounds  consisting  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and  having  the  same  fundamental  chemical  composition. 
The  chief  member  of  the  series  is  spirits  of  wine,  which  is  called 
alcohol  when  chemically  pure  and  of  a  certain  degree  of  strength. 

The  alcohols  are  for  the  most  part  liquid  and  volatile,  only  a 
few — e.  g.  mannite  and  erythrite — being  solid  and  non-volatile. 

They  are  generally  combustible,  some  of  them  readily  inflamma- 
ble; and  though  perfectly  safe  alcohols  are  not  unknown,  the 
name  "  alcohol "  is  associated  with  the  idea  of  inflammability 
and  fire  risk,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also  with  that  of  explosion 
(especially  when  warmed  alcoholic  vapors  are  in  question).  For 
this  reason  very  stringent  precautions  should  be  prescribed  for  all 
premises  where  alcohol  is  employed. 

Alcohols  of  different  strengths  gives  off  inflammable  vapor  at 
the  following  temperatures: 

Absolute  alcohol  at  51°       F.  40  per  cent  alcohol  at  78^°  F. 

80  per  cent  68°  30  per  cent        "  85° 

70  per  cent  6oJ4°    "  20  per  cent       ."..  97I/4°    " 

60  per  cent  7i^°  10  per  cent        "  120%°    " 

50  per  cent  75^°    "  5  per  cent  143^°    " 

The  final  limit  of  inflammability  -is  only  attained  between  5  .and 
3  per  cent. 

Strong  alcohol  will  ignite  readily  even  in  the  cold ;  but  for  that 
of  60  per  cent  strength  a  temperature  of  80^  °  F.  is  necessary, 
and  87^4°  F.  for  45  per  cent  spirit. 

Alcohol  of  99-99^4  per  cent  strength  is  classed  as  alcohol,  that 
of  95-97  per  cent  as  fine  spirit,  that  of  8b-86  per  cent  as  raw  spirit, 
and  that  of  80  per  cent  strength  as  burning  spirit. 

Alcohol  between  60  and  99^  per  cent  strength  is  more  inflammable 
than  ordinary  petroleum  (f.  p.  70°  F.)  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  vapors  are  far  less  explosive,  since  to  attain  this  condition 
they  require  to  be  strongly  heated  and  placed  in  contact  with  a 
flame  or  electric  spark.  In  point  of  general  fire-risk,  alcohol  is 
far  below  ether,  benzol,  carbon  disulphide,  and  similar  liquids. 

Special  danger  attaches  to  alcohol  by  reason  of  its  high  diffusi- 
bility.  With  the  exception  of  glass  and  metals  there  are  few 
substances  through  which  alcohol  is  unable  to  penetrate,  even 
when  of  only  60  per  cent  strength.  Neither  wooden  vessels  nor 
the  most  compact  cement  tanks,  etc.,  can  prevent  escape,  and  the 
stronger  the  alcohol  the  quicker  the  dispersion. 

Denatured  Alcohol. — To  cheapen  alcohol  for  technical  purposes, 
it  is  denatured,  generally  with  methyl  alcohol  (2  per  cent),  which, 
however,  increases  the  risk  of  fire  and  explosion,  owing  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  adjunct  evaporates,  and  to  the  explosive 
vapors  it  yields. 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQ'UIDS     133 

Use  No  Rubber. — Rubber  pipes  or  tubing  made  of  organic  ma- 
terials should  never  be  used  for  conveying  alcohol,  or  connecting 
vessels  containing  that  liquid,  when  the  strength  of  the  spirit  is 
above  50  per  cent.  Flexible  metallic  tubing,  which  is  now  made 
of  good  quality,  is  necessary  in  such  cases. 

Spirituous  Liquors. — Among  spirituous  liquors,  only  such  as  are 
rich  in  alcohol  are  dangerous,  and  even  then  the  risk  is  not  high, 
since  it  is  only  when  they  are  in  a  warm  and  undiluted  condition 
that  they  readily  ignite.  Inflammable  vapors  are  liberated  by : 
Ordinary  brandy,  at  84°  F. ;  Dutch -gin  at  89^2°  F. ;  whisky  at 
S2l/2°  F. ;  rum,  arrack,  and  cognac  at  about  77°  F.,  according  to 
strength;  and  by  sherry  and  port  wines  at  129°  F. 

Ethers. — Like  "  alcohol,"  the  term  "  ether  "  is  a  generic  appella- 
tion for  a  large  series  of  organic  compounds  of  definite  composition. 
The  chief  representative  of  the  group  is  sulphuric  ether,  com- 
monly known  as  ether. 

The  cithers  are  .usually  volatile,  readily  inflammable  and  com- 
bustible, far  more  so  indeed  than  the  alcohols,  from  which  latter 
they  differ  in  the  explosive  character  of  their  vapors  at  low  tem- 
peratures, alcohol  vapors  being  explosive  only  when  hot. 

The  ethers  usually  have  lower  boiling  points  than  alcohols,  there 
being  but  few  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Wherever  large  quantities  of  ether  vapor  are  liberated,  great 
danger  of  explosion  is  imminent. 

Carbon  Bisulphide. — Carbon  disulphide,  on  account  of  its  great 
volatility,  must  always  be  kept  under  water,  -by  which  it  is  dis- 
solved to  the  extent  of  about  0.5  per  cent  without  any  dangerous 
properties  being  thereby  imparted  to  the  water  itself.  Owing  to 
the  great  density  and  high  explosive  factor  of  the  vapors,  the 
floorings  of  all  rooms  where  it  is  employed  must  be  well  made, 
to  prevent  penetration  by  the  vapor;  and  all  depressions  to  which 
the  vapor  could  gain  access  must  be  well  covered.  Where  large 
quantities  of  carbon  disulphide  are  employed,  no  fires  should  be 
allowed  within  50  ft.  of  the  workrooms. 

Despite  their  volatility  the  vapors  of  carbon  disulphide  are 
tenaciously  retained  by  porous,  fibrous,  woollen  materials;  and  in 
the  ground  they  are  retained  for  more  than  a  year.  By  reason  of 
this  retentive  faculty,  carbon  disulphide  cannot  be  used  for  ex- 
tracting fat  from  wool,  though  otherwise  the  best  agent  for  that 
purpose.  All  porous  materials  treated  with  carbon  disulphide  re- 
mains dangerous  for  a  considerable  time  from  the  above  cause. 

In  itself,  liquid  carbon  disulphide  is  not  explosive,  but  the 
presence  of  even  6  per  cent  of  its  vapor  in  air  is  sufficient  to 
impart  an  explosive  tendency  to  the  latter.  This  tendency  is 


134  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

retained  in  all  cases  where  the  proportion  is  higher ;  and  therein 
lies  the  great  danger  of  this  substance.  The  risk  is  increased  when 
the  air  is  replaced  by  oxygen,  violent  explosions  occurring  what- 
ever the  proportions  of  the  mixture. 

Ethereal  Oils. — The  ethereal  oils  are  of  an  oily  nature,  form 
grease  spots  (which,  however,  disappear  on  heating),  are  lighter 
than  water,  in  which  they  are  insoluble,  and  are  soluble  in  the  same 
solvents  as  fats. 

The  following  typical  ethereal  oils  may  be  cited : 

Lemon  oil,  turpentine  oil, '  lavender  oil,  wormwood  oil  (ver- 
mouth), pine  oil,  bergamot  oil,  nutmeg  oil,  mace  oil,  eucalyptus 
oil,  juniper  oil,  and  solid  camphor.  When  treated  with  iodine, 
these  oils  detonate  with  liberation  of  vapors  and  great  heat. 

Aniseed  oil,  fennel  oil,  camomile  oil,  rosemary  oil,  carraway 
oil,  thyme  oil,  sage  oil,  and  hop  oil.  These  detonate  only  slightly 
with  iodine. 

Rose  oil,  bitter  almond  oil,  clove  oil,  mustard  oil,  valerian  oil, 
and  amber  oil.  When  mixed  with  iodine  they  generate  only  a 
moderate  amount  of  heat. 

When  old,  resinfied,  or  rancid,  the  oils  of  the  last  two  groups 
behave  with  iodine  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  first. 

All  the  ethereal  oils  boil  at  temperatures  above  284°  F.,  and 
decompose  at  390° -535°  F.  They  will  burn  even  without  a  wick, 
are  more  easily  ignited  than  fats  or  oils,  and  are  in  general  more 
dangerous  than  these  latter.  Exposed  to  the  air,  they  take  up 
oxygen  and  then  form  characteristic  carriers  of  ozone. 

A  few  of  the  ethereal  oils  (oil  of  turpentine)  take  fire  on 
contact  with  fuming  nitric  acid  or  nitrating  liquid.. 

Varnishes. — Varnishes  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

1.  Oil    varnish,    usually    boiled    linseed    oil,    more    rarely    poppy 
or  nut  oil. 

2.  Lacquer    varnish    (true    lacquer,    also    called    spirit    varnish). 
This    class    consists    of    resins    dissolved    in    alcohol,    wood    spirit, 
acetone,   benzol,   or   petroleum   ether;    or   collodion   wool   dissolved 
in  amyl  acetate. 

3.  Oil  lacquer  varnish:    solutions  of  resins  in  linseed  oil  often- 
times thinned  with  oil  of  turpentine   or  benzol;   hence  a  mixture 
of   i  and  2. 

4.  Turpentine  lacquer  varnish :    solutions  of  resins  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. 

5.  Resin  oil  lacquer  varnish :    solutions  of  resins  in  resin  oils. 
There    are    also*  sundry    special    lacquers,    such    as    dull    lacquer 

(sandarach  in  ether,  benzol,  or  toluol),  zapon  lacquer  (collodion 
wool  or  celluloid  in  amyl  acetate),  asphaltum  lacquer  (asphaltum 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     135. 

in  oil  of  turpentine).  The  resins  most  in  use  for  lacquers  and 
oil  varnishes  are,  copal,  dammar,  anine,  sandarach,  mastic,  shellac, 
pine  resin,  colophony,  amber,  and  asphaltum. 

The  dangers  of  varnishes  and  lacquers  increase  in  proportion  to 
the  dangerous  character  of  the  solvents  used,  the  benzol  and  ether 
varnishes  being  the  worst  in  this  respect.  Of  late  the  extremely 
dangerous  nitrous  ether  (b.  p.  62°  F.)  has  been  largely  used,  but 
should  not  be  employed  except  when  greatly  diluted  with  alcohol. 

Lacquering  Stoves. — An  important  and  dangerous  appliance  in 
connection  with  the  use  of  dip  tanks  and  oil  varnish  is  the  dry- 
room  or  oven  and  the  lacquering  stove,  in  which  the,  articles  are 
dried  and  finished.  The  temperature  in  these  stoves  ranges  from 
120°  to  160°  R,  and  since  the  formation  of  explosive  mixtures  of 
vapor  may  occur,  they  must  be  fitted  with  proper  ventilating  out- 
lets discharging  into  flues  out  of  all  communication  with  fire. 
Efficient  ventilation  must  be  provided  in  the  room  where  the  stove 
is  located;  naked  lights  must  be  prohibited,  and  the  stove  must 
be  kept  in  good  condition  and  free  from  leaks  through  which  any 
inflammable  vapors  could  escape.  They  are  sometimes  heated  with 
hot  air  of  high  tension ;  explosions  may  readily  happen,  and  there- 
fore all  fire  or  sparks  should  be  rigidly  excluded.  The  danger 
may  be  diminished  by  the  introduction  of  carbon  dioxide,  10  per 
cent  being  sufficient,  though  even  in  this  event  no  guarantee  of 
safety  is  possible. 

Storage  of  Inflammable  Liquids. — From  the  insurance  view- 
point, the  storing  and  handling  of  hazardous  liquids  are  divided 
as  follows: 

Class  A — Underground  Storage  without  Inside  Discharge 

These  storage  systems,  which  are  generally  known  as  "  Isolated  Storage 
Systems,"  consist  of  an  outside  underground  storage  tank  provided  with 
suitable  means  for  filling  and  for  withdrawing  the  liquid  it  is  designed 
to  contain. 

Systems  which  provide  for  storing  and  handling  hazardous  liquids  out- 
side of  and  so  removed  from  adjoining  property  as  not  to  create  an  exposure 
thereto,  are  considered  the  least  dangerous. 

Class  B — Underground  Storage  with  Inside  Discharge 

An  inside  discharge  or  so-called  "  long  distance  "  system  consists  of  an 
underground  storage  tank  connected  by  piping  to  a  pump  or  other  means 
of  transferring  liquid  into  a  building.  This  type  of  installation  is  regarded  as 
more  dangerous  than  systems  not  introducing  hazardous  liquids  inside  buildings. 
Where  used  its  hazards  should  be  recognized. 

Class   C — Portable   Tanks 

A  portable  tank  consists  of  a  metal  receptacle  mounted  on  wheels  and 
provided  with  means  for  filling  and  withdrawing  liquid. 

These  devices  handle  a  considerable  quantity  of  hazardous  liquids  inside 
buildings.  Their  use  obviates  the  necessity  for  handling  these  liquids  in 
buckets  or  other  open  receptacles.  If  used,  their  hazards  should  be  recognized. 


136  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Class    D — Stationary   Tanks   in   Buildings 

Tanks  used  for  the  storage  and  handling  of  various  paint  oils,  linseed  oil, 
varnishes,  lubricating  oils,  kerosene,  etc.,  and  not  for  the  storage  of  gasoline, 
benzine,  alcohol,  naphtha  or  liquids  involving  similar  hazards. 

These  devices  are  not  intended  as  substitutes  for  Class  "A"  or  Class  "  B  " 
systems  when  same  can  be  installed,  but  are  largely  used  to  reduce  the 
hazard  of  storing  and  handling  of  the  first-above-mentioned  materials  in 
barrels,  etc. 

Class  E — Outside  Aboveground  Storage 

These  storage  systems,  in  the  largest  sizes,  are  such  as  are  generally 
found  in  oil  fields,  oil  refineries  or  distributing  stations  and  consist  of 
tanks  located  above  ground. 

The  hazards'  of  such  systems  depend  upon  the  distance  from  burnable 
property  and  topography  of  the  surrounding  land,  but  owing  to  the  tanks 
being  above  ground  they  are  considered  as  more  hazardous  than  under- 
ground systems  of  storage. 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  have  issued  regulations 
under  the  title  of  Containers  for  Hazardous  Liquids,  covering  the 
above  classes.  These  in  all  essentials  are  the  same  as  given  in  a 
model  ordinance  on  this  subject  also  issued  by  the  board ;  this  ordi- 
nance is  given  complete  below. 

USE,   HANDLING  AND   STORAGE   OF  INFLAMMABLE 
LIQUIDS  AND   THE   PRODUCTS  THEREOF* 

Section  2.  Inflammable  liquids  are  divided  into  three  classes,  according 
to  the  flash  point,  as  follows: 

Class  I.  Liquids  with  flash  point  below  27  degrees  Fahrenheit  ( — 3  degrees 
Centigrade)  closed  cup  tester.  (Equivalent  to  30  degrees  Fahrenheit  open 
cjup  tester.) 

Class  II.  Liquids  with  flash  point  above  that  for  Class  I  and  below  74 
degrees  Fahrenheit  (23  degrees  Centigrade)  closed  cup  tester.  (Equivalent 
to  80  degrees  Fahrenheit  open  cup  tester.) 

Class  III.  Liquids  with  flash  point  above  that  for  Class  II  and  below 
187  degrees  Fahrenheit  (86  degrees  Centigrade)  closed  cup  tester.  (Equivalent 
to  200  degrees  Fahrenheit  open  cup  tester.) 

The  flash  points  shall  be  as  determined  with  the  Abel-Pensky  or  the 
Pensky-Martens  closed  cup  tester.  For  commercial  use,  where  the  flash 
point  is  not  within  9  degrees  Fahrenheit  (5  degrees  Centigrade)  the  Tagliabue 
open  cup  tester  may  be  used;  provided  that  the  flash  point  as  given  by 
the  Abel-Pensky  or  :Pensky-Martens  testers  shall  be  authoritative  in  all 
cases,  f 

*Abstracted  from  a  suggested  ordinance  recommended  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Sections  omitted  covered  matters  of  enforce- 
ment and  permits. 

t  For  description  of  testers  and  methods  as  used  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Mines  see  technical  paper  No.  .49  on  "  The  flash  point  of  oils — methods  and 
apparatus  for  its  determination." 

This  paper  may  be  had  upon  request  from  the  Director  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Mines,  Washington,  D.  C. 

For  ordinary  usage,  the  comparison  of  open  and  closed  cup  testers  may 
be  assumed  as  follows: 

Degrees    Fahr.    (Tagliabue)  =  i°  +    Degre^  Fahr-  (Abel-Pensky). 
Degrees  Fahr.    (Abel-Pensky)  —  0.94  Degrees   Fahr.    (Tagliabue)  — 1°. 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     137 

Representative    examples    of   the   classes   of   inflammable   liquids  are: 

Class  I 

Ether  Benzole 

Carbon   bisulphide  Collodion 

Gasoline  Hydrocarbon    (gas   drips) 

Naphtha  Liquefied    Petroleum    gas 

Class    II 

Acetone        •  Amyl  acetate 

Alcohol  Toluol 

Class   III 

Kerosene  Whiskey 

Amyl  alcohol  Brandy 

Turpentine 

Section  24.  Except  in  sealed  containers,  no  Class  I  nor  II  liquids  may 
be  stored  within  10  feet  of  any  stairway,  elevator  or  exit. 

Section  25.  In  paint  or  oil  stores,  retail  stores  and  jobbers'  plants  con- 
taining inflammable  liquids,  at  least  two  exits  shall  be  provided,  one  of 
which  must  be  away  from  the  point  of  storage. 

Section  26.  The  mixing,  storing  or  handling  of  inflammable  liquids  of 
Class  I  and  II  in  open  containers,  is  prohibited  in  any  store  in  any  building 
housing  more  than  two  families  or  in  a  frame  building  housing  more  than 
one  family,  provided  that  this  shall  not  apply  to  drug  stores  where  inflam- 
mable liquids  are  used  in  making  and  compounding  medicines  and  prescriptions. 

Section  27.  The  storage  of  inflammable  liquids  inside  buildings,  except 
in  buildings  now  so  used,  shall  be  as  given  under  the  following  sub-sections; 
provided  that  in  a  special  storage  room  or  fireproof  building,  conforming  to 
requirements  given  in  Section  29,  an  unlimited  quantity  may  be  maintained 
therein,  except  of  Class  I  liquids: 

a.  Within   the   limits   given   in   Section   45. 
In    frame    buildings: 

Classes    I   and   II  prohibited. 

Class  III.  Maximum  limit  of  any  tank  or  container  to  be  60  gallons. 
-  In    other    than    frame    buildings: 

Class   I,    In  sealed   containers   or   safety   cans   of   not   more   than    i    gallon 

capacity,   and  not  exceeding  a   total  of    10   gallons. 
Class  II,  In  sealed  containers  or  safety  cans  of  not  more  than   5  gallons 

capacity   and   in   barrels,    drums   or   tanks   of   not   more   than   60    gallons 

capacity.      (Total  quantity  to   be   stored  in   this  manner  unlimited.) 
Class   III,    In   sealed   containers  of   not  more   than   5    gallons   capacity, 'in 

barrels    and    drums    and    in    tanks    not    exceeding    120    gallons    capacity. 

(Total  quantity  to  be  stored   in  this  manner  unlimited.) 

b.  Outside    the    limits    given    in    Section    45. 
In    frame  buildings: 

Class   I,    In   sealed   containers  or   safety  cans   of   not   more   than    i    gallon 

capacity,    and   not  exceeding   a   total  of    10   gallons. 
Class    II,   In   sealed   containers   of   not   more   than    5    gallons   capacity   and 

in   barrels,    drums   or   tanks   not    exceeding   60   gallons  capacity.      (Total 

quantity    to    be    stored    in    this    manner    unlimited.) 
Cldss    III,    In    sealed    containers    not    exceeding    5    gallons    capacity,    in 

barrels    and    drums    and    in    tanks    not    exceeding    120    gallons    capacity. 

(Total   quantity  to   be   stored   in   this   manner   unlimited.) 
In    other    than    frame    buildings: 

Class    I,    Not    exceeding    50    gallons    in    sealed    containers    or    safety    cans 

of  not  more  than    i    gallon  capacity. 
Class  II,  In  sealed  containers  or  safety  cans  of  not  more  than  5   gallons 


138 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


capacity,  in  drums  and  barrels  and  in  tanks  not  exceeding   120  gallons 
capacity.      (Total   quantity   to   be   stored   in   this   manner   unlimited.) 
Class    III,    In    sealed    containers,    drums    and    barrels    and    in    tanks    not 
exceeding    240    gallons   capacity.      (Total   quantity   to    be    stored    in    this 
manner  unlimited.) 

Section  29.  Special  rooms  for  storage  of  inflammable  liquids  and  the 
handling  and  use  of  inflammable  liquids  shall,  where  called  for  in  this 
ordinance,  be  constructed  as  follows:  Walls,  floors  and  ceiling  to  be  of  eight 
inches  of  brick  or  concrete,  or  four  inches  of  reinforced  concrete;  door 
openings  to  other  rooms  or  buildings  to  be  provided  with  sills  raised  six 
inches  and  with  automatically  closing  fire  doors;  windows  to  be  wired  glass 
in  metallic  sash  and  frames;  no  combustible  material  used  in  construction, 
except  that  floor  surfacing  may  be  of  wood;  proper  ventilation  provided; 
no  opening  to  rooms  below  except  as  made  necessary  by  trade  or  manu- 
facturing process,  and  openings  to  rooms  and  other  parts  of  building  above 
to  be  provided  with  automatically  closing  fire  doors  or  trap  doors. 

Section  30.  Except  where  kept  in  sealed  containers,  Class  I  liquids 
shall  be  kept  in  storage  tanks  underground  or  outside  the  building  and  no 
discharge  system  shall  have  outlet  inside  building  unless  in  a  special  room 
as  given  in  Section  29.  Provided  that  safety  cans  of  not  over  ten  gallons 
capacity  may  be  used,  except  that  if  of  over  one  gallon's  capacity,  they 
must  be  kept  and  used  in  special  rooms  as  given  in  Section  29. 

Section  31.  No  container  containing  Class  II  liquid  and  of  over  five 
gallons  capacity  may  be  used  to  fill  other  containers  and  appliances,  unless 
kept  outside  the  building  or  in  a  special  room,  as  given  in  Section  29,  and 
all  drawing,  except  from  safety  cans,  shall,  where  the  nature  of  the  liquid 
permits,  be  as  provided  for  in  Sections  66  and  67. 

Section  32.  Any  building,  other  than  a  frame  building,  within  the  fire 
limits  containing  more  than  500  gallons  of  inflammable  liquids  in  other 
than  sealed  containers,  must  have  all  windows  in  side  and  rear  walls  and 
above  the  first  floor  on  street  fronts  exposed  by  another  building  within 
fifty  feet,  provided  with  wired  glass  in  metallic  sash  and  frame. 

Section  33.  Any  manufacturing  plant  hereafter  established  in  a  building 
in  which  persons  are  employed  above  the  second  story,  shall  have  all  rooms 
in  which  Class  I  and  II  liquids  are  mixed  or  stored  in  receptacles  per- 
mitting the  escape  of  vapor  constructed  as  given  in  Section  29. 

Section  34.  In  existing  manufacturing  plants  where  persons  are  employed 
above  the  second  floor,  all  elevator,  stair  and  other  wells  or  vertical  openings 
communicating  to  rooms  in  which  Class  I  and  II  liquids  are  mixed  or 
stored  in  receptacles  permitting  escape  of  vapor,  must  be  inclosed  and 
provided  with  automatic  fire  doors  or  trap  doors. 

Section  35.  No  manufacturing  plant  shall  be  located  in  any  building 
used  as  a  dwelling  fdr  more  than  one  family  unless  all  Class  I  liquids  are 
kept  in  safety  cans,  not  exceeding  one  quart  in  capacity,  or  in  outside 
storage  tanks  as  given  in  Chapter  III,  with  no  discharge  inside  the  building. 

Section  36.  Kettles,  vats,  saturators  and  other  vessels  used  in  manufac- 
turing processes,  and  containing  more  than  five  gallons  of  inflammable  liquid, 
must  not  be  located  within  five  feet  of  combustible  material  nor  within  five 
feet  of  any  exit,  unless  two  or  more  exits  are  provided,  and  all  combustible 
floor  thereunder  within  a  radius  of  ten  feet  must  be  protected  with  non-com- 
bustible covering.  All  kettles  and  other  open  vessels  must  be  provided  with 
substantial  covers  operating  automatically  or  which  can  be  easily  and  readily 
placed  in  position. 

Section  37.  Rooms  in  which  Class  I  and  II  liquids  are  used  in  open 
vats,  pans  or  other  vessels,  or  in  which  Classes  I,  II  and  III  liquids  are 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     139 

heated  or  otherwise  treated  in  such  manner  as  to  produce  inflammable  vapor, 
shall  he  well  ventilated.  Where  natural  ventilation  is  not  sufficient,  ventilation 
may  be  obtained* as  provided  in  Section  no,  or  a  trench  or  trough  located 
in  the  lowest  portion  of  the  room,  near  any  appliance  emitting  inflammable 
vapor  may  be  used,  such  trough  to  be  not  less  than  six  inches  deep,  open 
except  for  screens  or  grating  and  sloping  downward  to  the  outside  of  the 
building  to  a  point  acceptable  to  the  inspection  department  having  juris- 
diction; or  a  ventilation  system  or  any  other  special  systems  meeting  the 
intent  of  this  section  may  be  used  when  approved  by  the  inspection  depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction. 

Section  38.  Where  inflammable  liquids  are  kept,  used  or  handled,  dry 
sand,  ashes,  chemical  extinguishers  or  other  fire  retardants  shall  be  provided 
in  such  quantities  and  with  such  pails,  scoops  and  other  fire  appliances  as 
may  be  directed  by  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction.  A  rea- 
sonable quantity  of  such  loose  non-combustible  absorbents  as  mentioned  above 
shall  be  kept  convenient  for  use  in  case  of  excessive  oil  leakage  or  overflow. 

Section  39.  Inside  the  fire  limits,  barrels  and  drums  containing  Class  I,  II 
or  III  liquids  stored  outside  any  building  must  not  be  piled  upon  each 
other  nor  stored  in  a  passageway  or  beneath  any  window  and  no  open  lights 
shall  be  permitted  in  any  such  storage  yard. 

Section  40.  Drums  or  barrels  for  inflammable  liquids  shall  have  caps, 
plugs  and  bungs  replaced  immediately  after  package  is  emptied. 

Section  41.  In  all  rooms  or  parts  of  buildings  which  contain  inflammable 
liquids  in  open  containers  or  in  which  the  vapors  from  inflammable  liquids 
are  present,  or  in  which  inflammable  liquids  are  used  in  any  manufacturing 
process,  the  carrying  of  matches  is  prohibited,  and  smoking  shall  be  a 
misdemeanor.  Suitable  signs  lettered  SMOKING  PROHIBITED  BY  ORDER 
OF  THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  FIRE  DEPARTMENT  shall  be  displayed. 

Section  42.  Inflammable  liquids  shall  not  be  drawn  nor  handled  in 
the  presence  of  open  flame  or  fire,  but  may  be  drawn  and  handled  when 
lighting  is  by  incandescent  electric  lamps  installed  in  compliance  with  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  "  National  Electrical  Code;"  said  rules  and 
regulations  are  hereby  made  a  part  of  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance 
as  affecting  all  electrical  equipment. 

Section  43.  No  portable  wheeled  tank  for  the  handling  of  inflammable 
liquids  inside  buildings  shall  exceed  sixty  gallons  capacity.  Tank  must  be 
of  iron  or  steel,  3^1 6-inch  thick,  with  all  openings  at  the  top  and  screened 
with  30  x  mesh,  or  equivalent,  brass  wire  screen.  Wheels  must  be  rubber 
tired  and  tanks  so  hung  as  not  to  be  tipped  over  in  ordinary  usage. 
Liquids  must  be  drawn  fiom  tank  by  means  of  a  tight  fitting  pump  or  equiva- 
lent device  which  will  not  permit  continuous  flow  in  case  of  mishap  or 
defective  operation. 

Section  44.  The  handling  or  storing  of  any  inflammable  liquid  within 
dangerous  proximity  to  open  flame  or  fire  is  expressly  prohibited. 

Storage  Tanks — Capacity,  Location  and  Restriction 

Section  45.  Except  as  otherwise  permitted  in  this  ordinance,  the  storage 
of  inflammable  liquids  shall  be  outside  buildings,  in  underground  tanks  or 
above  ground  tanks;  except  that  the  storage  in  tanks  above  ground  and 
outside  buildings  is  prohibited  within  the  following  limits:  (NOTE. — :These 
limits  to  be  specified;  they  should  include  the  mercantile  and  other  con- 
gested districts  and  land  near  streams  or  other  water  ways  which  would 
carry  burning  liquid  into  congested  districts.) 

Section  46.  Tanks  located  underground  shall  have  top  of  tank  at  least 
three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  below  the  level  of  the 


140 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


lowest  pipe  in  the  building  to  be  supplied.  Tanks  may  be  permitted  under- 
neath a  building  if  buried  at  least  three  feet  below  the  lowest  floor.  Tanks 
shall  be  set  on  a  firm  foundation  and  surrounded  with  soft  earth  or  sand, 
well  tamped  into  place  or  encased  in  concrete.  Tank  may  have  a  test  well, 
provided  test  well  extends  to  near  bottom  of  tank,  and  top  end  shall  be 
hermetically  sealed  and  locked  except  when  necessarily  open.  When  tank 
is  located  underneath  a  building,  the  test  well  shall  extend  at  least  twelve 
feet  above  source  of  supply.  The  limit  of  storage  permitted  shall  depend 
upon  the  location  of  tanks  with  respect  to  the  building  to  be  supplied  and 
adjacent  buildings,  as  follows: 

(a)  Unlimited    capacity    if    lower    than    any    floor,    basement,    cellar    or    pit 
in  any  building  within  a  radius  of  fifty  feet. 

(b)  20,000   gallons   total   capacity   if   lower   than    any   floor,    basement,   cellar 
or    pit    in    any    building    within    thirty    feet    radius. 

(c)  5,000    gallons    total    capacity    if    lower    than    any    floor,    basement,    cellar 
or  pit   in   any  building   within   twenty   feet   radius. 

(d)  1,500    gallons    total    capacity    if    lower    than    any    floor,    basement,    cellar 
or    pit    in    any    building    within    ten    feet    radius. 

(e)  500    gallons    if   not    lower    than   every    floor,    basement,    cellar 


r    pit    in 


any   building   within    ten 
six   inches   of  concrete. 


feet,    in    which   case    it   must   be    entirely   encased 


^ss 

"C5"?":;i.:.. 


•'Unlimited  capacity 

FIG.    i.— SHOWING   PERMISSIBLE   QUANTITY  AS  AFFECTED   BY    LOCATION 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — In  connection  with  the  requirement  for  the  depth 
of  bury  necessary  for  tanks,  the  following  extract  from  the  Scien- 
tific American,  August  25,  1908,  is  given,  to  show  that  the  3  feet 
required  is  ample. 

PENETRATION   OF  HEAT   IN   EARTH 

"  The  Hanover  fire  department  made  a  series  of  experiments  for  deter- 
mining the  penetration  of  the  soil  by  the  heat  of  a  fire  above  it.  Three 
broad  piles,  about  three  feet  high  and  three  feet  square,  with  slopes  of  45 
degrees,  were  constructed  of  dry  sand,  nearly  dry  clay,  and  wet  rubbish. 
On  each  pile  was  erected  a  brick  furnace,  in  which  a  hot  fire  of  coke  was 
maintained,  so  that  the  upper  surface  of  the  piles  inside  the  furnaces  acquired 
a  temperature  of  about  2,200  degrees  F.,  which  is  seldom  or  never  attained 
by  the  bottom  of  a  heap  of  ruins  in  a  conflagration.  Thermometers  and 
fusible  balls  were  buried  in  the  piles  at  depths  of  4,  12,  20,  30  and  40  inches 
below  the  surface,  and  were  examined  hourly. 

"  It  was  found  that  even  very  thin  layers  of  earth  have  a  great  power  of 
thermal  insulation.  In  the  pile  of  rubbish,  for  example,  after  the  fire  on 
top  had  been  burning  21  hours,  the  temperatures  in  Fahrenheit  degrees  were: 
518  at  the  depth  of  4  inches,  185  at  12  inches,  122  at  20  inches,  68  at  30 
inches,  and  62%  at  40  inches.  Moisture  was  found  to  retard  the  penetration 


STOKACL;  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     141   „ 


of  heat  very  greatly.  In  the  wet  pile,  at  the  small  depth  of  4  inches,  the 
temperature  remained  at  212  degrees  F.  (the  boiling  point  of  water)  until 
the  moisture  had  been  almost  entirely  evaporated. 

"  At  the  depth  of  -20  inches,  46  hours  of  firing  were  required  to  raise  the 
temperature  to  158  degrees  F.,  the  average  boiling  point  of  commercial  gaso- 
line, and  at  40  inches  below  the  surface  only  a  very  small  rise  of  temperature 
was  produced  by  70  hours  of  brisk  firing. 

"  Hence  it  appears  quite  sufficient  to  put  the  highest  part  of  the  gasoline 
reservoir  20  inches  t>elow  the  surface  of  the  ground,  for,  apart  from  the 
improbability  that  a  surface  temperature  of  2,200  degreds  F.  will  be  main- 
tained during  46  hours  as  the  result  of  a  conflagration,  gasoline  could  not  be 
caused  to  boil  by  a  temperature  of  160  or  170  degrees  F.,  produced  by  a  fire 
above,  because  of  the  cooling  of  the  reservoir  by  the  colder  strata  of  earth 
below. 

'*  The  cause  resulting  in  this  test  was  the  great  fire  in  the  Victoria  Ware- 
houses in  Berlin,  where  more  than  30,000  gallons  of  gasoline,  stored  in  an 
underground  reservoir,  lay  under  a  pile  of  burning  ruins  for  twenty-four 
hours.  The  explosion,  or  even  the  combustion  of  this  quantity  of  gasoline, 
would  have  entailed  a  great  direct  loss,  and  would  also  have  given  the  con- 
flagration a  vastly  more  serious  character." 

Section  47.  Outside  the  limits  given  in  Section  45,  the  capacity  of  each 
outside  above  ground  storage  tank  used,  designed  or  intended  for  Class 
I  and  II  liquids  shall  be  limited  as  given  in  Column  A  of  Table  I.  For 
Class  III  liquids  a  storage  double  that  given  in  Column  A,  Table  I,  will 
be  permitted. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — Since  the  date  of  issue  of  this  proposed  ordinance,  approval 
has  been  given'  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  to  the  Erwin  foam  extin- 
guisher— see  page  6 1 8,  which  in  the  opinion  of  some  authorities  is  of  such  value 
as  to  permit  a  closer  spacing  of  tanks  than  given  in  these  requirements,  or 
about  double  these  permitted  quantities  for  the  same  spacing. 

TABLE   i 
Capacity  of  Outside  Above  Ground  Storage  Tanks  for  Class  I  and  II  Liquids 


COLUMN'A 

MINIMUM  DISTANCE  OF  TANKS 

To  Line  of  Adjoining 

Capacity  of  Tank,  Gallons 

Property  which  may 

To  Any  Other  Tank 

be  Built  Upon* 

300  or  less 

5  feet 

2  feet 

500 

10 

2 

1,000 

20 

2 

8,000 

25 

2 

12,000 

30 

2 

18,000 

40 

3 

24,000 

50 

3 

30,000 

60 

3 

48,000 

75 

3 

75,000 

85 

3 

100,000 

100 

15 

150,000 

150 

25 

250,000 

250 

35 

500,000 

300 

50 

1,000,000 

350 

75 

Unlimited 

400 

200 

*  In  general  this  distance  should  apply  to  the  distance  away  from  any  build- 
ing, even  those  in  connection  with  the  plant  itself,  and  should  in  all  cases 
apply  to  buildings  where  open  flame  may  be  used. — EDITOR'S  NOTE. 


142  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Section  48.  Each  above  ground  tank,  inside  or  outside  buildings,  over 
1,000  gallons  in  capacity,  must  have  all  manholes,  hand  holes,  vent  openings 
and  other  openings,  which  may  contain  inflammable  vapor,  provided  with 
20  x  20  mesh,  brass  wire  screen,  or  its  equivalent,  so  attached  as  to  com- 
pletely cover  the  opening  and  be  protected  against  clogging.  A  safety 
valve  must  be  provided,  or  manhole  covers  must  be  kept  closed  by  weight 
only,  and  not  firmly  attached.  The  screen  on  such  opening  may  be  made 
removable,  but  must  be  kept  normally  firmly  attached. 

Section  49.  Above  ground  tanks  for  Class  I  and  II  liquids  outside  build- 
ings shall  have  painted  conspicuously  upon  their  side,  in  letters  at  least  2 
inches  high,  the  wording,  "  INFLAMMABLE— KEEP  FIRE  AWAY." 

Section  50.  Except  existing  tanks  in  good  condition,  all  tanks  outside 
buildings,  either  above  or  below  ground,  and  all  tanks  for  Class  I  liquids 
inside  buildings,  as  permitted  by  this  ordinance,  shall  be  made  of  galvanized 
steel,  basic  open  hearth  steel  or  wrought  iron  of  a  minimum  gauge  U.  S. 
Standard  depending  upon  the  capacity  or  size  as  given  in  Tables  2,  3  and  4. 

TABLE    2 

Underground  tanks  inside  the  limits  prescribed  in  Section  45,  or  within 
10  feet  of  a  building  when  outside  such  limits. 

Minimum 

Capacity  (Gallons)  Thickness  of  Material 

Ito       560...  14 

561  to    1,100 12 

1,101  to    4,000...  7 

4,001  to  10,500 

10,501  to  20,000 

20,001  to  30,000 

TABLE  3 

Underground  tanks  outside  limits  as  described  in  Section  45,  provided 
the  tanks  are  10  feet  or  more  from  a  building. 

Minimum 

Capacity  (Gallons)  Thickness  of  Material 

1  to         30. 18 

31  to       350 16 

351  to    1,100 ...  14 

1,101  to    4,000 7 

4,001  to  10,500.  .  . 

10,501  to  20,000 

20,001  to  30,000 

TABLE  4 
Above   Ground   Tanks. 

(a)   Horizontal   or   vertical   tanks   not   over    1,100    gallons   capacity. 

Minimum 

Capacity  (Gallons)  Thickness  of  Material 

1  to        30. . .  18 

31  to      350 16 

351  to  1,100 14 


(b)   Horizontal    tanks    over    1,100    gallons    capacity. 


Maximum 
Diameter 
Not  over  5  feet  

Minimum 
Thickness  of  Material 
Shell             Heads 
10                     7 

5  feet  to    8  feet  

7                       1' 

8  feet  to  11  feet.. 

r           r 

STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     143 

(c)   Vertical    tanks    over    1,100    gallons    capacity. 

Under  40   feet  in  diameter  and  containing  not  more  than   5,000  gallons: 

Bottom  No.  8  gauge 
Bottom  Ring  No.  8  gauge 
Other  rings  No.  10  gauge 
Top  No.  12  gauge 

Under    40    feet    in    diameter    and    containing    more    than    5,000    gallons    but 
not    more    than    1 0,000    gallons. 

Bottom  No.  8  gauge 
Bottom  Ring  No.  7  gauge 
Other  rings  No.  8  gauge 
•  Top  No.  12  gauge 

(  'ther    vertical    tanks    to    be    of    thickness    not    less    than    indicated    in    the 
following  table,   the   figures   referring   to   U.    S.    Standard   gauge:     . 


2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

DIAMETER 

Top 

Top 
Ring 

Ring 
from 

Ring 
from 

Ring 
from 

Ring 
from 

Ring 
from 

Bot- 
tom 

Top 

Top 

Top 

Top 

Top 

Feet 

80 

10 

7 

7 

3 

o 

3-0 

5-0 

10 

75  

10 

7 

7 

4 

1 

2-0 

4-0 

10 

70 

10 

7 

7 

4 

1 

2-0 

4-0 

10 

65  

10 

7 

7 

5 

1 

0 

3-0 

10 

60 

10 

7 

7 

5 

2 

0 

2-0 

10 

55.  .  . 

10 

7 

7 

6 

3 

1 

2-0 

10 

50 

10 

7 

7 

7 

4 

1 

0 

10 

45  

10 

7 

7 

7 

5 

3 

1 

10 

40  and  less  .... 

10 

7 

7 

7 

5 

3 

2 

10 

All    riveted   joints   to   have    an   efficiency   of   at   least   60    per   cent. 

Tanks  of  greater  capacity  than  given  above  shall  be  of  material  of  suf- 
ficient thickness  to  safely  hold  the  contents,  and  proportionately  heavier.  No 
vertical  tanks  shall  be  more  than  30  feet  high. 

Section  51.  With  the  approval  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  juris- 
diction, tanks  of  copper  or  other  suitable  material  may  be  used,  if  after 
the  necessary  handling  incident  to  installation  they  conform  to  the  value 
given  above  as  to  strength,  rigidity,  durability  and  tightness. 

Section  52.  Tanks  shall  be  riveted,  welded  or  brazed,  and  shall  be 
soldered,  caulked  or  otherwise  made  tight  in  a  mechanical  and  workmanlike 
manner,  and  if  to  be  used  with  a  pressure  discharge  system  shall  safely 
sustain  a  hydrostatic  test  at  least  double  the  pressure  to  which  tank  may  be 
subjected.  Top  of  tank  to  be  securely  fastened  to  top  ring,  with  joints  of 
equal  tightness  to  those  between  rings.  They  shall  be  covered  with  asphaltum 
or  other  non-rusting  paint  or  coating.  All  pipe  connections  shall  be  made 
through  flanges  or  reinforced  metal  securely  riveted,  welded  or  bolted  to 
tank  and  made  thoroughly  tight. 

Section  53.  Tanks  must  be  set  upon  a  firm  foundation,  and  outside  tanks 
when  above  ground,  except  portable  tanks,  must  be  electrically  grounded. 

Tanks  more  than  one  foot  above  the  ground  must  have  foundation  and 
supports  of  non-combustible  materials,  except  wooden  cushions;  no  com- 
bustible material  shall  be  permitted  under  or  within  ten  feet  of  any  above 
ground  outside  storage  tank. 

Tanks  containing  crude  petroleum  shall  be  surrounded  by  an  embank- 
ment or  wall  of  sufficient  height  to  provide  storage  equal  to  one  and  a  half 
times  the  capacity  of  the  tank. 


144  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Section  54.  Stationary  tanks  inside  buildings  for  the  handling  of  liquids 
of  Classes  II  and  III,  where  permitted  in  this  ordinance,  shall  be  made'  of 
soft  galvanized  iron,  or  tin  plate  suitable  for  the  purposes.  Cylindrical 
tanks  of  120  gallons  or  less  capacity  shall  be  made  of  material  with  a 
minimum  thickness  of  No.  20  gauge  U.  S.  Standard;  rectangular  tanks  of 
800  gallons  or  less  capacity  shall  be  made  of  material  with  a  minimum 
thickness  of  No.  14  gauge  U.  S.  Standard.  Correspondingly  heavier  gauge 
metal  must  be  used  for  longer  tanks.  All  joints  must  be  locked,  double 
seamed  or  riveted.  All  joints  must  be  soldered  or  made  tight  by  some 
equally  satisfactory  method.  All  such  tanks  shall  be  so  located  that  the 
pump  or  other  drawing  off  device  shall  not  be  below  the  first  floor,  and  the 
floor  for  a  radius  of  at  least  three  feet  from  pump  shall  be  of  non-com- 
bustible materials  or  covered  with  metal.  Tanks  similar  to  those  given  in 
Section  50  may  also  be  used,  or  original  barrels  or  drum  may  be  used 
until  contents  are  drawn,  if  substantially  placed  to  prevent  tipping  or  rolling, 
with  pump  inserted  through  a  close  fitting  connection  in  head  or  side. 

Piping  and  Other  Appurtenances 

Section  55.  All  connections  from  tank  'to  any  house  or  sub-surface  drainage 
system  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  the  flow  of  inflammable  liquid  to 
any  such  system  or  the  leakage  of  any  inflammable  gases  from  such  fluid, 
or  properly  constructed  inflammable  fluid  collectors  shall  be  provided  in  such 
connection. 

Section  56.  All  underground  storage  systems  or  Class  I  liquids,  in  which 
the  tank  may  contain  inflammable  gases,  shall  have  at  least  a  i-inch  vent 
pipe,  run  from  top  of  tank  to  a  point  outside  of  the  building  and  acceptable 
to  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  but  which  shall  end  at  least 
12  feet  above  level  of  source  of  supply  and  in  a  location  remote  from  fire 
escapes  and  never  nearer  than  three  feet,  measured  horizontally  and 
vertically,  from  any  window  or  other  opening,  the  tank  vent  pipe  shall  ter- 
minate in  a  goose-neck  protected  in  the  outer  end  by  a  30  x  30  mesh  or  equiva- 
lent brass  wife  screen.  Or  a  combined  vent  and  filling  pipe,  so  equipped 
and  located  as  to  vent  the  tank  at  all  times,  even  during  filling  operations, 
may  be  used.  The  vent  pipes  from  two  or  more  tanks  may  be  connected 
to  one  upright,  provided  they  be  connected  at  a  point  at  least  one  foot 
above  level  of  source  of  supply. 

Section  57.  All  drawing-off  pipes  terminating  inside  of  any  building  shall 
have  valve  at  the  discharge  end;  when  delivery  is  by  gravity,  pipes  shall 
have  valve,  which  shall  preferably  be  of  the  automatically  closing  type,  and 
in  addition  must  have  emergency  valve. 

Section  58.  Where  tanks  are  above  ground  there  shall  be-  a  valve  located 
near  the  tank  in  each  pipe.  In  case  two  or  more  tanks  are  cross-connected 
there  shall  be  a  valve  near  each  tank  in  each  cross  connection. 

Section  59.  Pumps  delivering  to  or.  taking  supply  from  above  ground 
storage  tanks  shall  be  provided  with  valves  on  both  suction  and  discharge 
side  of  pump,  and  check  valve  when  delivering  to  tank. 

Section  60.  Where  underground  tanks  are  used,  all  pipes  carrying  volatile 
inflammable  fluids,  except  in  dry-cleaning  establishments,  shall  pitch  toward 
tanks  without  any  traps  or  pockets,  and  shall  enter  tank  at  the  top. 

Section  61.  All  pipes  used  in  systems  for  inflammable  liquids  shall  be 
of  standard  full  weight  brass,  galvanized  iron  or  steel,  with  suitable  brass 
or  galvanized  malleable  iron  or  steel  fittings,  or  of  double  wall  lead  with  an 
inert  gas  in  the  annular  spaces  between  wall  at  all  times  the  inner  pipe 
contains  inflammable  liquid.  No  rubber  nor  other  packings,  and  no  flanges, 
shall  be  used.  If  unions  are  used,  at  least  one  face  must  be  of  brass,  with 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     145 

close  fitting  conical  joints.  Litharge  and  glycerin,  shellac  or  other  suitable 
material  shall  be  used  on  pipe  joints.  Outside  piping  must  be  protected  against 
any  mechanical  injury  when  within  5  feet  of  ground  level.  Inside  piping 
must  be  rigidly  supported. 

Section  62.  Defective  and  leaking  piping  must  be  made  tight  immediately 
or  replaced. 

Section  63.  Piping  carrying  Class  I  and  II  liquids,  unless  without  joints 
or  connections,  shall  not  extend  through  any  room  which  contains  any 
open  light  or  fire. 

Section  64.  The  end  of  the  filling  pipe  for  underground  storage  tanks 
for  Class  I  and  II  liquids  shall  be  carried  to  an  approved  location  outside 
of  any  building,  but  not  within  5  feet  of  any  entrance  door,  or  cellar  opening, 
and  shall  be  set  in  an  approved  metal  box  with  cover  which  shall  be  kept 
locked  except  during  filling  operations;  this  filling  pipe  shall  be  closed  by  a 
screw  cap.  A  30  x  30  mesh  or  equivalent  brass  screen  strainer  shall  be 
placed  in  the  supply  end  of  filling  pipe. 

Section  65.  Deliveries  of  inflammable  liquids  of  Class  I  and  II,  where 
practical,  shall  be  made  directly  to  the  storage  tank  through  the  filling  pipe 
by  means  of  a  hose  or  pipe  between  the  filling  pipe  and  barrel,  tank  wagon 
or  tank  car  from  which  such  liquid  is  being  drawn. 

Section  66.  Except  as  permitted  in  Section  68,  inflammable  liquids  shall 
be  drawn  from  tanks  by  pumps  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  leaking  or  waste 
splashing,  or  by  some  other  system  approved  by  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction,  with  controlling  apparatus  and  piping  so  arranged  as  to 
allow  control  of  the  amount  of  discharge  and  prevent  leakage  or  discharge 
inside  the  building  by  any  derangement  of  the  system.  When  inside  a 
building,  the  pump  or  other  drawing-off  device  shall  be  located  on  or  above 
the  grade  floor,  preferably  near  an  entrance  or  other  well-ventilated  place. 

Section  67.  Except  as  permitted  in  Section  68,  no  tanks,  drum  nor  other 
containers  inside  a  building,  or  discharging  inside  a  building,  shall  be 
provided  with  a  faucet  or  other  bottom-drawing  device  which  will  permit 
the  gravity  flow  of  liquids  inside  the  building.  Pipe  shall  not  terminate  at 
any  point  lower  than  the  level  of  source  of  supply. 

Section  68.  The  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  shall  permit 
the  storage  and  gravity  flow  of  inflammable  liquid  in  refineries  and  in  manu- 
facturing and  jobbing  plants  where  the  nature  of  the  manufacturing  process 
requires  such  storage  and  flow,  and  also  the  storage  and  gravity  flow  of 
commodities  of  Classes  II  and  III  in  stores,  plants  and  establishments,  where 
the  nature  of  the  liquid  will  not  permit  pumping.  Provided  that  the  contents 
of  tanks  holding  Class  I  liquid  shall  be  sufficient  only  for  one  day's  opera- 
tion and  such  storage  shall  be  in  rooms  as  called  for  in  Section  29. 

Section  71.  Pumps  must  be  equipped  with  a  pressure  gauge  for  oil  and 
the  system  shall  be  so  arranged  that  the  oil  pressure  cannot  at  any  time 
exceed  60  pounds,  a  relief  valve  to  be  provided  to  return  surplus  oil  back 
to  the  supply  tank  when  the  pressure  exceeds  this  quantity. 

If  receivers,  accumulators  or  standpipes  are  provided,  they  must  be  so 
arranged  that  the  oil  may  drain  back  to  the  supply  tank. 

Section  78.  Containers  of  petroleum  Class  I  and  II  liquids  shall  be  painted 
red  and  be  conspicuously  lettered  in  black,  "  Dangerous — Keep  Lights  and 
Fires  Away  and  Store  Outside  Building."  Containers  of  Class  III  liquids 
shall  be  painted  green  and  have  conspicuously  marked  in  white  letters,  "  In- 
flammable Liquid — Keep  Fire  Away  and  Store  Outside  Building."  It  shall 
be  a  misdemeanor  to  keep  or  place  the  above  mentioned  liquids  in  containers 
other  than  those  marked  as  designated,  or  to  use  the  containers  for  any  other 


146 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


liquids  or  substances  than  those  specified,  or  fail  to  keep  their  exterior  clean 
so  that  coloring  and  lettering  are  easily  distinguishable. 

Garages 

Section  85.  A  garage  shall  be  construed  to  mean  a  building  in  which  are 
housed,  for  rent,  care,  demonstration,  storage  or  sale,  self-propelled  vehicles 
or  other  wheeled  machines,  containing  in  the  tanks  thereof  inflammable 
liquids  for  fuel  or  power;  also  all  parts  of  the  building  and  all  adjoining 
structures  or  buildings  not  cut  off  by  an  unpierced  fire  wall. 

Section  86.  No  garage  shall  be  allowed  or  kept  in  any  building  used  for 
a  school,  place  of  assembly  or  detention,  hotel,  apartment,  tenement  or  lodging 
house,  or  within  50  feet  of  any  school,  place  of  assembly  or  detention.  Any 
building  erected  or  remodeled  as  a  garage  and  occupied  in  part  as  an  office 
building,  manufacturing  establishment,  warehouse  or  store,  shall  have  such 
parts  entirely  cut  off  from  the  portion  used  as  a  garage,  by  unpierced  fire 
walls  at  least  12  inches  thick  and  by  fireproof  floors,  and  shall  be  provided 
with  adequate  means  of  exit  independent  of  that  used  for  the  garage.  All 
windows  in  the  first  two  floors  above  parts  used  as  a  garage  shall  be  provided 
with  wired-glass  windows  in  metal  frames. 

Section  88.  All  garages  erected  in  the  future,  except  as  hereinafter  specified 
as  private  garages,  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction.  All  trim  or  other 
interior  finish  must  be  of  metal  or  of  other  non-inflammable  material  approved 
by  the  Building  Inspector.  Floor  finish  shall  be  smooth  and  of  concrete, 
brick  or  other  incombustible  material. 

Section  89.  No  rooms,  nor  open  or  closed  spaces  of  any  character,  shall 
be  permitted  below  the  flcor  level  in  any  building  erected  or  used  for  garage 
purposes,  and  no  floor  shall  be  entirely  below  the  street  level. 

All  elevators  and  stairways  in  garages  shall  be  enclosed  with  fireproof 
materials.  All  openings  in  stair  or  elevator  enclosures  shall  be  protected 
with  automatic  fire  doors  approved  for  this  purpose. 

Section  91.  Where  buildings  are  now  being  used  for  garage  purposes, 
in  which  wooden  floors  .exist,  sufficiently  large  and  fluid-tight  metallic  drip 
pans  shall  be  placed  under  all  motor  vehicles,  and  all  floors  shall  be  well 
cleaned  and  mopped  each  day  with  a  strong  alkali  or  other  non-inflammable 
grease  solvent  solution. 

Section  92.  All  automobile  garages  or  shelters  housing  not  more  than 
three  motor  vehicles  shall  be  known  as  private  garages.  A  private  garage 
located  within  10  feet  of  any  other  building  must  be  of  fireproof  construction 
as  called  for  in  Section  88.  If  more  than  10  feet  from  any  building,  it  must 
be  built  of  non-combustible  material  throughout,  except  that,  if  outside  the 
fire  limits  and  not  closer  than  30  feet  to  any  building,  it  may  be  constructed 
of  combustible  material,  except  walls,  floors  on  which  automobiles  are  kept 
and  roof  coverings,  which  shall  be  non-combustible.  All  portions  of  the 
building  used  for  other  purposes  must  be  cut  off  from  such  storage  place 
by  unpierced  fireproof  walls  and  floors. 

Section  93.  The  heating  for  all  buildings  used  for  garage  purposes  must 
be  done  by  steam  or  hot  water.  All  boiler  or  other  furnaces,  forges  or 
other  exposed  fires,  lights  or  spark-emitting  devices  or  machines,  and  all 
repair  shops,  if  on  or  below  the  topmost  floor  where  Class  I  liquids  are 
present,  must  be  in  a  room  separated  from  all  other  parts  of  the  garage  by 
an  i  unpierced  fire  wall  at  least  eight  (8)  inches  thick.  Such  appliances  may 
be  kept  in  the  garage  if  in  a  fireproof  room  8  feet  above  the  top-most  floor 
where  Class  I  liquids  are  present,  provided  all  doors  and  openings  between 
such  rooms  and  other  parts  of  the  garage  are  provided  with  standard  self- 


STORAGE  AND   HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     147 

closing  fire  doors  kept  closed.  All  such  rooms  must  be  ventilated  at  floor 
line  as  described  in  Sectipn  97.  Lighting  shall  be  as  given  in  Section  42. 
No  flame  lights  shall  be"  allowed  lit  on  automobiles  in  a  garage  except 
immediately  after  entering  and  immediately  before  leaving  the  garage. 

Section  94.  All  reserve  and  storage  of  Class  I  and  II  liquids  must  be 
stored  in  underground  tanks.  No  Class  I  liquid  shall  be  kept  inside  a 
garage  except  that  contained  in  the  reservoirs  of  motor  vehicles  and  in  the 
measuring  pumps  used  for  filling;  provided,  however,  that  there  may  be 
in  each  garage  one  or  more  approved  portable  wheeled  tanks  not  exceeding 
sixty  gallons  capacity,  to  lie  used  for  transferring  such  liquids  from  the 
storage  tank.  The  reservoirs  of  motor  vehicles  shall  be  filled  directly  through 
hose  from  pump  attached  to  such  portable  tank,  or  by  hose  coupled  to  a 
permanent  filling  station  connected  with  the  main  storage  tank.  No  transfer 
of  Class  I  or  II  liquids  in  any  garage  shall  be  made  with  open  containers. 
Hose  for  use  in  connection  with  the  permanent  filling  station  or  portable 
tank  shall  be  of  such  design  and  material  as  to  prevent  leakage.  The  port- 
able wheeled  tank  must  be  as  described  in  Section  43. 

The  use  of  gasoline  for  cleaning  any  parts  of  an  automobile  is  prohibited, 
except  in  a  special  room  as  provided-  for  in  Section  29,  and  ventilated  as 
given  in  Section  37,  and  used  for  this  purpose  only,  or  outside  of  any 
building  and  at  least  10  feet  from  any  opening  in  any  buildings. 

Section  95.  All  underground  tanks  shall  comply  with  the  requirements 
given  in  Sections  46,  50,  51  and  52. 

Section  96.  Pumps  and  other  drawing-off  appliances  shall  b^e  as  given  in 
Sections  55,  56,  57,  60,  61,  63,  64,  65  and  66.  The  drawing  of  any  inflam- 
mable liquid  within  dangerous  proximity  to  exposed  flame  or  fire,  or  while 
any  automobile  engine  or  motor  is  being  run  in  the  room,  is  expressly 
prohibited. 

Section  97.  Rooms  containing  Class  I  and  II  liquids  shall  have  openings 
for  ventilation,  of  at  least  30  square  inches,  along  at  least  two  walls  and  at 
floor  level.  These  openings  shall  connect  by  incombustible  flues  to  the 
outside  air  at  a  point  not  closer  than  3  feet  to  any  window  or  door  opening. 
They  shall  be  provided  with  2x2  mesh  brass  wire  screen  on  the  inside  of 
the  wall,  and  unless  laid  with  a  downward  slant  direct  to  the  outside  air,  shall 
conduct  to  and  through  a  sparkless  fan,  run  continuously,  which  shall  be  of 
sufficient  size  to  completely  change  the  air  volume  every  ten  minutes.  Dis- 
charge outlets  of  vent  pipes  shall  be  provided  with  20  x  20  mesh  (or  equiva- 
lent) brass  wire  screens. 

Section  98.  All  garages  must  be  kept  clean.  Grease,  oil  or  paint-soaked 
rags,  waste  or  other  combustible  materials  of  like  character,  shall  be  kept 
in  approved  self-closing  metallic  receptacles  having  metallic  legs  at  least 
3  inches  high  and  securely  braced.  These  receptacles  shall  be  kept  safely  clear 
of  all  combustible  surroundings  and  their  contents  shall  be  safely  disposed 
of  at  least  once  each  day.  Oily  and  greasy  clothing  shall  be  cared  for  in 
non-combustible  and  well-vented  closets,  safely  located. 

Section  99.  Class  III  liquids  may  be  kept  inside  the  buildings,  if  stored 
as  given  in  Section  54.  The  style  of  can  and  its  location  must  be  approved 

Section  100.  Dry  sand,  ashes,  chemical  extinguishers  and  other  approved 
fire  retardants  shall  be  provided  in  such  quantities  and  with  such  pails,  scoops 
and  other  fire  appliances  as  may  be  directed.  A  reasonable  quantity  of  such 
loose,  non-combustible  absorbents  as  mentioned  above  shall  be  kept  convenient 
for  use  in  case  of  excessive  oil  waste  or  overflow. 

Section  101.  There  shall  be  no  direct  connection  between  any  garage 
waste  basin,  sink,  floor  drain  or  waste  and  any  house  drainage  or  sewer 
system.  All  such  drains  or  waste  mains  to  sewer  system  shall  have  inter- 


148 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


INTERCEPTING     TANK     FOR     RETAINING     PETROLEUM 

THROUGH    WHICH     ALL    SURFACE    DRAINAGE    MUST    PASS 
BEFORE    ENTERING    THE    SEWER 


AS    RECOMMENDED      BY    THE      LONDON     COUNTY    COUNCIL. 


LONGITUDINAL.    SECTION 


CH  -\feffTiLXTi7fZ  ~f>~fS 


SECTIONAL.  PLAN 
FIG.  2.        ' 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     149 

cepting  grease,  oil  and  inflammable  liquid  traps  or  separators  which  will 
completely  separate  such  substance  from  water  and  sewage  and  allow  of 
their  safe  and  convenient  removal.  Such  traps  shall  be  ventilated  in  the 
same  way  as  is  required  for  tanks  holding  Class  I  liquids. 

Section  102.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner  or  manager  of  all  garages 
to  maintain  in  at  least  three  conspicuous  places  on  each  floor  of  a  garage 
a  placard  giving  a  copy  of  all  ordinances  affecting  the  handling  of  inflam- 
mable liquids  in  garages. 

In  recent  years,  practically  all  the  large  cities  have  had  violent 
explosions  in  sewers ;  the  evidence  in  many  of  these  cases  has  been 
such  as  to  indicate  that  these  were  caused  by  an  accumulation  of 
gasolene  vapor  or  vapors  from  other  oils.  Several  cities  have  rigid 
requirements  to  prevent  the  discharge  into  sewers.  Fig.  2  gives 
details  of  a  large  separator  designed  in  England  and  Figures  3  and 
4  give  details  of  one  in  use  in  New  York.  The  requirements  of 
this  last  are  as  follows: 

Oil  Separators  of  the  New  York  Fire  Department 

BILL  OF  MATERIAL. — See  Figure  3.  Two  3/1 6-inch  steel  tanks  rivetted  to- 
gether, composed  of  one  large  tank,  24  inches  by  30  inches  by  60  inches, 
having  rivetted  to  its  intake  end,  the  small  tank  22  *£  inches  by  12  inches  by 
34  inches  (end  of  large  tank  comprises  division  wall).  Top  of  small  tank 
on  same  level  with  that  of  large  one. 

SMALL  TANK. — Either   a   steel   or   cast-iron   hopper   bottom   rivetted   to   small 
tank,   about  9  inches  deep  by  22%    inches  by   12  inches. 
3-inch  plug  valve    (brass  plug — iron  body), 
box  wrench  to  fit  3-inch  plug  valve. 

connecting  nipple    (to  connect  3-inch  plug  valve  to  hopper  bottom). 
4-inch  threaded   I.   P.   flange  rivetted  to  tank. 
4-inch     by  6-inch  nipple    (threaded  for  its  entire  length). 
4-inch  by  6-inch  I.   P.   S.  nipple. 
4-inch  Tucker  connection. 
4-inch  cast-xiron  elbow. 
One   5/1 6-inch   steel  plate   cover,   tw\.   afting  rings   connected. 
2-inch  x  2-inch  x  ^inch   steel   angles   rivetted  all  around   inside   near  top   for 
cover. 

One   i/i 6-inch  asbestos  gasket. 

LARGE  TANK. — One  2-inch  threaded  I.  P.  flange  rivetted  to  large  tank  (for 
vent  pipe). 

One  2-inch  x  7-inch   nipple,    I.    P.    S. 
One  2-inch  elbow,  90  deg. 

One   i  %  -inch  threaded  I.   P.   S.  flange  rivetted  to  tank. 
One   i  %  -inch  stop  cock,  for  iron  pipe    (brass  plug — iron  body). 
One   i  %-inch  x  f%-inch   nipple. 

One  box  wrench  to  fit   i%-inch  plug  valve.  \ 

One  4-inch  I.  P.  S.  flange  rivetted  to  tank   (outlet). 
One  4-inch  x  5-inch  nipple  I.  P.   S. 
One  4-inch  C.  I.  standard  T-fitting.      . 
One  4-inch  C.  I.  plug  foi   T-fitting. 

One  piece  4-inch  wrought  iron  pipe,  29  inches  long,  threaded  both  ends. 
One  4-inch  C.  I.   standard  45-deg.    elbow. 

One  4-inch  C.  I.  standard  plug  for  45-deg.  elbow  (%-inch  hole  drilled  in  top 
for  syphon  breaker). 


150  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

One  s/i6-inch  steel  plate  cover  with  2%-inch  x  2%-inch  x  %-inch  stiffener 
attached. 

2%-inch  x  2%-inch  x  i'i  mch  angle  rivetted  to  inside,  all  around  near  top  for 
cover. 

Two  lifting  rings  rivetted  to  cover. 

One   i/i 6-inch  asbestos  gasket. 

SPECIFICATIONS. — 3/i6-inch  steel  throughout,  except  covers. 

Rivets  %-inch  diameter,  2  inches  C.   to  C. 

No  soldering  allowed. 

Electric  or  acetylene  welding  permitted. 

All  joints  to  be  caulked,  where  rivetted. 

To  be  gas  and  water  tight. 

All  flanges  to  be  rivetted  or  electric  or  acetylene  welded  to  shell. 

Outside  of  separator  to  be  coated  with  a  rust  proof  coating. 

INSTALLATION.— -Oil  separators  installed  in  any  building  where  volatile  in- 
flammable fluids  are  used,  must  be  arranged  to  be  readily  accessible;  where 
located  underground  an  iron,  brick  or  concrete  manhole  must  be  provided 
with  an  iron  or  flagstone  cover.  They  must  not  receive  the  discharge  of  house, 
outsidf  cjurt  and  area  drains,  toilets  or  leaders. 

They  must  in  all  cases  be  connected  by  a  Y-branch  fitting  to  the  house  sewer 
on  the  public  sewer  side  of  house  trap. 

No  separate  trap  need  be  provided  on  drain  entering  oil  separators,  but  a 
running  trap  must  be  provided  for  each  floor  drain  discharging  to  the  separator. 

When  fixture  of  floor  drains  are  located  on  any  floor  above  the  first,  the 
lines  to  which  they  are  connected  must  extend  in  full  calibre  at  least  one  foot 
above  the  rc-of  coping,  and  well  away  from  all  shafts,  windows,  chimneys  or 
other  ventilating  openings.  When  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter  they  must 
be  enlarged  to  4  inches  at  a  point  not  less  than  one  foot  below  the  roof  sur- 
face by  an  increaser  not  less  than  9  inches  long,  and  the  traps  of  all  fixtures 
vented.  ( 

Relief  pipes  must  be  piovided  at  least  2  inches  in  diameter  and  carried  inde- 
pendently above  the  roof  and  there  capped  with  down-turned  elbow  equipped 
with  fire  screen. 

Drainage  from  washstand  in  garages  shall  not  be  permitted  to  flow  into 
sump  pits. 

AH  piping  must  be  left  exposed  until  after  the  Fire  Department  inspections. 

Oil  separator  pit  should  be  so  located  to  prevent  floor  drainage  flowing  into 
it,  or  else  have  concrete  curbing  around  it. 

When  a  pit  is  below  the  ground  water  table  and  there  is  a  possibility  of 
water  being  in  the  pit,  the  lining  should  be  made  impervious. 

(See   Figure  4   for  Underground  Installations.) 


STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     151 


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FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


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STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     153 


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STORAGE  AND  HANDLING  OF  INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS     155 
Dry  Cleaning* 

Section  103.  "Dry  cleaning"  shall  be  known  as  the  art,  act  or  process 
of  cleaning  or  renovating  wearing  or  other  apparel,  clothes  and  other  fabrics 
or  textiles,  or  any  other  things  with  any  inflammable  liquid.  "  Sponging " 
shall  be  the  removal  of  dirt,  grease,  etc.,  by  local  application  of  inflammable 
liquid  as  applied  by  tailors  and  others. 

Section  104.  Sponging  is  prohibited  in  shops,  dwellings,  enclosures,  yards 
and  all  other  places,  unless  carried  on  through  the  application  of  such 
inflammable  liquids  from  an  automatically  closing  safety  can  of  not  more 
than  one  (i)  quart  capacity,  and  the  use  for  sponging  of  such  liquid  from,  or 
in,  open  pans  or  vessels  shall  be  a  misdemeanor. 

Section  105.  Sponging  is  prohibited  in  any  room  not  provided  with  safe 
means  of  exit  dnect  lo  the  outside  of  the  building  and  shall  not  be  executed 
or  applied  in  any  room  or  enclosure  containing  any  open  or  naming  fire 
or  light  nor  within  ten  feet  of  any  such  light,  self-heating  iron  or  other 
spark  or  flame  producing  appliance.  During  alt  such  application,  and  for 
one  half  hour  thereafter,  two  direct  openings  for  ventilation  and  air  circu- 
lation  must  be  provided,  preferably  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room  and  near 
the  floor  level. 

Section  107.  Buildings  used  for  dry  cleaning  purposes  shall  be  constructed 
of  non-combustible  material,  shall  not  be  more  than  one  story  or  16  feet 
high,  without  a  basement  or  other  open  space  below  the  floor,  shall  not 
be  used  for  other  occupancy,  and  shall  be  at  least  10  feet  from  other 
buildings  or  a  public  thoroughfare.  All  floors  shall  be  of  concrete  or  other 
non-combustible  material.  All  doors  shall  have  raised  sills  at  least  10  inches 
above  the  highest  point  of  floor,  and  no  other  opening,  except  for  ventilators, 
shall  be  less  than  12  inches  above  same  point.  In  wash  rooms,  only  the 
necessary  appliances  for  washing,  extracting  and  redistilling  shall  be  per- 
mitted. No  direct  opening  shall  be  permitted  between  wash  room  and  dry 
room.  No  combustible  material  shall  be  permitted  in  the  construction  of 
dry  rooms  or  any  racks  or  other  appurtenances.  All  steam  or  hot  water 
pipes  for  drying  purposes  must  be  protected  by  wire  screens  or  otherwise 
so  as  to  prevent  contact  of  pipes  and  inflammable  goods.  All  windows, 
doors  or  other  openings  within  100  feet  of  exposing  openings  or  combustible 
structures  or  materials  shall  be  provided  with  wired  glass  in  metal  frames 
or  fireproof  shutters,  doors  or  covers.  All  doors,  windows,  shutters,  screens, 
grills  and  barrel  openings  shall  be  arranged  for  ready  opening  from  either 
side  in  case  of  an  emergency.  Inter-communicating  openings  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  standard  automatic  closing  fire  doors  kept  closed  except  when 
passing  through.  All  rooms  shall  have  a  steam  extinguishing  system  or 
where  such  fire  extinguishing  agent  is  not  available  an  approved  system 
using  a  fire  deterrent  chemical  or  gas.  One  approved  hand  chemical  ex- 
tinguisher shall  be  provided  for  each  500  square  feet  of  floor  area. 

Section  108.  A  vent  opening  of  at  least  20  square  inches  area  shall  be 
provided  at  the  floor  level  in  each  wash  room  and  drying  room,  near  each 
machine  and  opposite  to  any  door  or  other  air  inlet:  such  openings  shall 
be  covered  with  2x2  mesh  No.  16  galvanized  wire  web  and  shall  be  kept 
clear  of  all  obstructions.  From  the  vent  opening  a  flue  of  at  least  20 
square  inches  area  and  of  non-combustible  materials,  built  into  the  wall  or 
floor  or  securely  fastened  thereto  and  free  from  mechanical  injury,  shall 
conduct  to  and  through  a  sparkless  exhaust  fan,  to  be  run  continuously,  and 
which  shall  be  of  sufficient  size  to  completely  change  the  air  volume  every 


*  Part  of  Suggested  Ordinance  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers.    References  by  section  number  are  to  the  sections  on  pages  136  to  149. 


'56 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


five  minutes.  All  discharge  outlets  of  vent  pipes  shall  be  provided  with  i2<x  12 
mesh  or  equivalent  wire  screen  and  located  without  hazard  to  surrounding 
property.  Skylights  and  windows  must  be  of  wired  glass  in  metal  frames  and 
provided  with  fusible  link  connecting  to  an  automatically  closing  device, 
and  shall  be  covered  with  12x12  mesh  or  equivalent  brass  wire  screen  to 
prevent  spark  or  other  fire  entrance.  Necessary  precautions  shall  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  clogging  or  in  any  way  the  stopping  of  air  passage  through 
such  wire  screens. 

Section  109.  Heating  shall  be  done  by  steam  or  hot  water.  No  steam 
boiler,  furnace  nor  exposed  fire,  nor  any  electric  dynamo  nor  motor,  nor 
other  spark  emitting  device,  shall  be  allowed  in  any  washing,  drying  or 
distilling  room,  or  in  line  with  vapor  travel  therefrom.  All  artificial  lighting 
shall  be  in  accordance  with  Section  42. 

Section  no.  In  each  wash  room  there  shall  be  provided  a  drain  or  con- 
nection to  the  sewer,  at  least  4  inches  in  diameter,  provided  with  a  U  pipe 
forming  a  water  seal  to  prevent  the  passage  of  inflammable  vapor,  and  with 
inlet  pipe  in  the  form  of  ah  inverted  U,  or  a  siphon,  with  end  at  least  2 
inches  above  the  floor  lever,  %-inch  air  inlet  3  inches  above  floor  level,  and 
top  of  siphon  8  inches  above  floor  level. 

Section  in.  All  dry  cleaning,  washing,  extracting  and  redistilling  shall 
be  carried  on  in  closed  machines,  which  shall  be  fluid  tight.  Washers 
shall  have  hinged  door  and  shall  be  arranged  so  that  in  case  of  an  explosion 
the  door  will  automatically  close.  The  transfer  of  all  liquids  shall  be 
through  continuous  piping,  and  all  outlet  or  drain  lines  shall  be  drained  by 
gravity  to  settling  or  storage  tanks.  No  dry  cleaning  liquid  shall  be  settled 
in  any  open  or  unprotected  vessels  or  tanks.  All  piping  and  all  metallic 
parts  of  each  machine  shall  be  properly  grounded  by  at  least  No.  10  copper 
insulated  wire  to  a  water  pipe  or  other  grounded  devices. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — Substances  like  cotton,  linen,  wool  and  silk  become  elec- 
trified when  moved  quickly  in  gasoline,  and  the  gasoline,  a  bad  conductor, 
accumulates  the  electricity  and  when  equalization  arrives  produces  sparks 
which  ignite  the  gases. 

Section  112.  All  reserve  and  storage  stocks  of  such  liquids  shall  be 
kept  and  handled  as  given  in  Sections  46,  50,  51,  52,  55,  56,  57,  60,  61,  63, 
64,  65  and  66. 

Section  113.  All  goods  removed  from  washer  to  extractors  must  be  kept 
in  tight  metal  pans  with  under  side  of  bottom  covered  with  wood,  and 
no  goods  or  washed  stocks  shall  be  taken  from  wash  room  till  washing  liquid 
has  been  removed  by.  the  extractor  and  all  dried  goods  shall  be  removed  from 
extractors  at  close  of  operation. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — It  is  reported  that  many  fires  start  at  the  centrifugal 
extractor,  from  friction  or  sparks  generated  by  the  brake;  daily  attention 
should  be  paid  to  this  and  care  taken  to  have  complete  ventilation  at  that 
point. 

Section  114.  Settling  tanks  shall  be  constructed,  located  and  vented 
essentially  as  given  for  the  storage  tanks.  At  the  close  of  the  day's  opera- 
tions, all  liquid  contained  in  washers,  extractors  or  stills,  or  otherwise,  shall 
be  returned  to  the  stock  or  settling  tanks.  The  location  of  all  tanks  buried 
or  otherwise,  and  their  contents  and  hazards,  shall  be  plainly  marked  by 
signs  as  approved  by  the  Chief  of  the  Fire  Department. 

r-...i  .  >-'i    :  ... 

I.i.:'.      .  ;  :  .:    •,,"*;  "  ,  •         .  ..I 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION 
AND  INSTALLATION  OF  DIP  TANKS* 

The  process  of  dipping  articles  in  tanks  containing  inflammable  mixtures 
should  be  carried  on  in  a  detached  building  used  for  no  other  purpose, 
located  at  a  safe  distance  from  other  properly.  It  is  impossible  to  entirely 
eliminate  the  din-tank  hazard  where  inflammable  liquids  are  used,  even 
though  all  practicable  safeguards  are  provided. 

If  the  dipping  process  is  permitted  inside  the  main  building  or  in  an 
adjoining  building,  the  room  in  which  the  hazard  exists  should  preferably 
be  on  the  lowest  floor,  but  not  below  the  grade  line,  nor  on  a  floor  imme- 
diately above  a  cellar  or  basement,  and  should  be  used  only  for  dipping 
processes.  Side  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  dipping  room  to  be  of  fireproof 
construction  at  least  equivalent  to  eight  inches  of  brick.  There  should  be 
a  standard  fire  wall  cutting  off  the  room  from  the  rest  of  the  plant;  the 
floor  should  be  fireproof  and  waterproof;  it  should  pitch  to  a  point  at  which 
is  located  a  drain  pipe  leading  outside  the  building  and  terminating  at  a 
point  where  liquids  flowing  therefrom  will  not  endanger  surrounding  property. 

The  drain  pipe  to  be  at  least  6  inches  in  diameter  and  to  have  a  coarse 
strainer  (about  %-inch  mesh)  at  floor.  No  drain-pipe  connection  shall  be 
made  to  a  sewer.  The  floor  should  be  6  inches  lower  than  the  floors  of 
adjoining  rooms,  or  the  thresholds  should  be  raised  that  distance  and  parti- 
tions should  be  flashed  so  as  to  guard  against  inflammable  liquids  flowing 
to  adjoining  rooms.  Metal  covering  for  floor  is  not  advised.  The  room 
should  be  well  ventilated  at  top  and  bottom  by  suitable  screened  openings. 

NOTE. — In  large  dip-tank  installations  a  more  positive  system  of  ventilation 
will  be  necessary. 

When  practicable  a  metal  hood  should  be  located  directly  over  each  tank; 
hood  to  terminate  in  a  metal  pipe  discharging  into  a  properly  constructed 
chimney  used  for  no  other  purpose.  The  hood  to  extend  well  over  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  tank  and  to  be  sufficiently  low  to  prevent  water  from  being 
thrown  into  the  tank  from  automatic  sprinklers.  The  hood  and  pipe  should 
be  designed  to  take  off  flames  from  the  burning  liquid  in  case  the  automatic 
cover  should  fail  to  operate. 

Requirements  for  Dip  Tanks 

1.  CONSTRUCTION. — To    be    constructed    in    a    substantial    manner    of    steel   or 
of    cast    iron.      The    edges    of    tank,    tracks    (when    used    in    connection    with 
covers),  and  all  working  parts,  to  be  so  constructed  and  shielded  as  to  protect 
same    against    mechanical    injury    and    accumulation    of    drippings    sufficient    to 
interfere    with    the    operation    of    the    cover. 

2.  COVERS. — Covers   may   be  either   hinged   or   sliding   on   tracks   and  should 
be   normally  held   open   by   approved   types   of  metal  chains   containing   fusible 
links,  one  such  link  to  be  near  top  of  tank  and  one  at  the  ceiling  above  the 
tank.      Such    covers    may    be    constructed   either    of   metal,    not    less    than    No. 
12    U.    S.    gauge,    reinforced   by    an    angle    iron    frame,    or    of    two-ply    %-inch 
tongued   and   grooved   board   nor  over   6   inches   in   width   and   covered  on   all 
surfaces   with   lock-jointed   tin,   and   in   all   cases  such   covers  must   overlap   the 
side    and   ends   of   tank   at    least   two  inches. 

All  covers  to  be   so   designed   and   installed   that   operation   will   be   automatic 
*  Issued   by   the   National    Board  of    Fire    Underwriters,    1913. 

157 


158 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


and  secure  positive  closing  without  danger  of  sticking  when  released  by 
action  of  heat  bn  the  fusible  links'  or  by  manual  operation.  Covers  to  be 
closed  when  tanks  are  not  in  use.  Hinged  covers  to  be  secured  with  strong 
metal  hinges  offset  and  protected  against  gumming. 

Covers  operating  by  gravity  on  tracks,  to  be  provided  with  deep  and  wide 
grooved  wheels,  properly  shielded  so  as  to  prevent  accumulation  of  drippings 
on  them  or  their  tracks,  and  to  be  provided  with  a  guard  to  prevent  the 
wheels  leaving  the  tracks.  The  inclination  of  the  tracks  on  this  style  of 
gravity  cover  to  be  not  less  than  %  inch  to  the  foot. 

3.  DRIP    BOARDS. — Each    tank    to    be    provided    with    drip    boards    to    protect 
working    parts    of    cover    and    return    all    drippings    to    the    tank.      Boards    to 
be   of  incombustible   material   and   readily   permit   of   cleaning. 

4.  AGITATOR. — Each    tank   containing   liquids   holding   material   in    suspension 
should  be  provided  with   an  agitator  or  other  facilities   designed  to  effectively 
prevent  sediment  accumulating  and   hardening  on  the   bottom   of  the  tank. 

5.  OVERFLOW. — Tank  to  have  an  iron  or  steel  overflow  pipe   leading  outside 
of    building    to    a    cistern.      Pipe    to    be    without    traps    or    unnecessary    bends 
and  to   lead   as  directly   as   possible   to   the   cistern.      This   pipe   to    be    at   least 
3  inches  in  diameter  when  the  tank  holds  less  than    too  gallons  and  increased 
proportionately    for    larger    tanks.      Overflow    to    have    a    coarse    strainer    at 
tank    (about    %-inch    mesh). 

6.  DRAINS. — Each  tank  should  preferably  be  provided   with   a   drain  pipe   of 
sufficient   size   to   empty   tank   in   about   sixty   seconds.      The    drain    to    be    pro- 
vided with  a  valve  capable  of  being  operated  both  manually  and  automatically. 
The    valve    opening    should    be    at    least    60    per    cent    larger    than    the    cross 
sectional    area    of    the    drain    pipe.      The    operation    of    the    valve    should    be 
sufficiently   positive    to    overcome    any   danger    of    sticking   or    clogging   due    to 
the    accumulation    of    sediment.      The    drain    valve    to    be    so    designed    that 
when  open,   it  will   not  interefere   with  the   agitator,   and  so  that  the   agitator 
will    effectually    assist    in    keeping    the    passage    to    the    drain    valve    clear    of 
sediment.      Drain    pipe    to    connect    directly    or    through    overflow    pipe    to    a 
cistern. 

7.  CISTERN. — To   be   of   sufficient   size   to   hold   the   aggregate    capacity   of  all 
tanks    emptying    into    it.      To    be    detached    at    least    thirty    feet    and    located 
in    ground    sloping    down    from    buildings,    or    to    be    so    arranged    that    any 
overflow    cannot     endanger    property;     otherwise     the     cistern     must     have     at 
least   twice    the    capacity    of   all    the    dip    tanks    draining    into    it,    and    be   sub- 
stantially   constructed    of    masonry,    or    metal,    so    as    to    be    watertight.      Such 
cisterns  to  be  buried  underground,  covered  and  otherwise  arranged  to  prevent 
filling  of  same  with  water.     A  proper  vent  must  also  be  provided.      Overflow 
and    drain    pipes    to    dip    under   water    and   terminate    near   bottom    of    cistern. 

8.  CARE  AND    ATTENDANCE. — a.    Heating   to    be    done    only    by    steam    or    hot 
water.      No    steam    boiler,    furnace    or    exposed   fire,    nor   any    electric    dynamo 
or    motor    or    other    spark    emitting    device,    to    be    allowed    in    any    room    used 
for   dipping  processes   or   dangerously   exposed   thereto,   or   in   line    with   vapor 
travel    therefrom. 

b.  No    open    light    or    flame    shall    be    allowed    in    any    such    room,    and    for 
electric     lighting,     lamps     shall     have     keyless     sockets    and     be     protected     by 
vapor-tight    outer    globes.       Switches    shall    be    placed    outside    of    room    and 
beyond  the  presence  of  ignitible  vapors,   and  the  whole  shall  be   done   accord- 
ing td  the  National   Electrical   Code. 

c.  All  'such    rooms    to    be    provided    with    a    high    pressure    steam    line    fed 
from    a    boiler    of    sufficient    capacity    to    admit    of    flooding    the    rooms    with 
steam  in  case  of  fire.     Operating  valves  to  be  located  outside  building.     Any 
other  method  of  protection  judged  to  be  equivalent  may  be  used. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  INSTALLATION  AND 

USE  OF  INTERNAL-COMBUSTION  ENGINES 

(GAS,  GASOLINE,  KEROSENE,  FUEL  OIL) 

AND  OF  OIL  BURNING  EQUIPMENT* 

Gas  Engines 

1.  LOCATION    OF    ENGINES. — (a)     Should,    whenever    possible,    be    located    on 
the   ground   floor. 

(b)  In  workshops  or  rooms  where  dust  or  inflammable  flyings  prevail, 
the  engine  should  be  enclosed  in  a  suitable  compartment  well  ventilated  to 
the  outer  air  at  floor  and  ceiling. 

-<c)  If  located  on  a  wooden  floor,  the  floor  under  and  24  inches  outside  of 
the  engine  should  be  covered  with  metal. 

2.  PIPING. —  (a)     Must    be    provided    with    a    shut-off    valve    located    in    an 
accessible   place  on   the  service   side  of  the  pressure   regulator. 

(b)  Piping  and  connections  shall  be  run  as  direct  as  possible  and  be 
thoroughly  tested  before  being  placed  in  service. 

3.  IGNITER    OR    EXPLODER. — Electric    ignition    only    must    be    used. 

NOTE. — Hot  tubes  and  any  provision  for  their  installation  on  engines  are 
prohibited. 

4.  MUFFLER   OR    EXHAUST    POT.- — (a)    Exhaust   pots    must   be    placed   on   firm 
foundations  and  mufflers  and  exhaust  pots  to  be   kept  at  least  one   foot   from 
woodwork  or  combustible  materials. 

(b)  Exhaust  pots  of  the  closed  type  must  be  provided  with  plugged  opening, 
placed  near  the  bottom  and  below  the  exhaust  pipe  connection. 

5.  GAS    BAG    OR    PRESSURE    REGULATOR.- — (a)     Gas    bags,    if    used,    must    be 
enclosed    in    a    substantial    gas-tight    metal    drum,    of    approved    construction, 
vented    to    the    outer    air    through    a   pipe    used    for    no    other    purpose. 

(b)   Where    not   otherwise   provided  for,   regulator   should   be    arranged   with 

an  automatic   gas   shut-off   to   prevent  the   flow    of   gas   into   the   room   in   case 
engine   shuts  down   from   any  cause. 

6.  EXHAUST     PIPE. — Exhaust    pipe,  whether    direct    from    engine    or    from 
mufflers,    shall,    where    practicable,   be  carried   above    the   roof   of    the   building 
in    which    the    engine    is    contained,  and    above    adjoining    buildings.      When 
buildings    are    too    high    to   make    this  practicable,   the    pipe   shall    end    at   least 
10    feet    from   any    wall    opening. 

Xo  exhaust  pipe  shall  be  within  9  inches  of  any  wooden  lath  and  plaster 
partition,  ceiling,  or  other  combustible  material. 

Where  exhaust  pipes  pass  through  combustible  partitions,  they  shall  be 
guarded  by  galvanized  iron  ventilated  thimbles  at  least  12  inches  larger  in 
diameter  than  the  pipes,  or  by  galvanized  iron  thimbles  built  in  at  least  8 
inches  of  brickwork  or  other  incombustible  material.  They  shall  not  under 
any  circumstances  be  connected  into  chimneys  or  flues,  except  that  the  pipe 
may  pass  up  in  flues  used  for  no  other  purpose.  No  exhaust  pipe  shall 
pass  through  any  floor,  nor  through  a  roof  having  wooden  framework  or 
covering. 

NOTE. — This  pipe  is  liable  to  become  very  hot  and  should  have  additional 
protection  where  dust  or  inflammable  flyings  are  present. 

*  As   recommended   by   the   National   Board  of   Fire   Underwriters. 

159 


i6o  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

7.  ENGINE   BASE. — It   is  recommended   that   the   base   be   constructed   with   a 
groove   or  channel  to  prevent  lubricating  oil   from1  soaking  into   floors. 

8.  LUBRICATING   OIL   DRIPS  AND   PANS. — (a)    Must 'be   provided   when   neces- 
sary to  prevent   the   spilling   of   oil. 

(b)  Cranks  and  other  rapidly  revolving  or  reciprocating  parts  must  be 
shielded  to  prevent  throwing  of  oil. 

9.  NAME    PLATES. — Must    be    provided    with    a    name    plate    giving   the    name 
of    the   manufacturer   and   the    trade   name   of   the    engine. 

10.  CARE  AND  ATTENDANCE. — Due  consideration  to  be  given  the  cleaning  of 
the    cylinder,    valves    and    exhaust    pipe    as    often    as    the    quality    of    the    fuel 
may    necessitate.  , 

Stationary  Gasoline  Engines 

In  addition  to  Nos.  I,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9  and  10  of  the  Gas  Engine 
regulations,  the  following  are  made  for  Stationary  Gasoline  Engines. 

CAPACITY  AND  LOCATION  OF  TANKS. — In  closely  built  districts,  or  within 
fire  limits,  tanks  should  be  Iocate4  underground;  see  page  139. 

GASOLINE  FEED-CUP. — (a)  Must  be  arranged  to  prevent  spattering,  dripping 
or  exposure  of  gasoline  during  operation  or  with  the  engine  at  rest. 

(b)  Must  be  provided  with  an  overflow  connection  draining  to  the  supply 
tank. 

GASOLINE  FEED-PUMP. — Must  be  of  approved  type  secure  against  leaks,  with 
check  valves  located  as  close  to  the  pump  as  convenient. 

EXHAUST  PIPE. — Water  pockets  in  exhaust  pipes  to  be  provided  with 
suitable  means  for  drainage. 

ENGINE  BASE. —  (a)  Must  not  be  used  as  a  storage  space  for  gasoline  or 
other  material. 

Portable  Gasoline  Engines 

In  this  class  are  included  so-called  "  self-contained  "  engines,  mounted  on 
wheels,  or  on  skids,  or  otherwise  so  arranged  as  to  be  conveniently  moved 
from  place  to  place  as  the  necessities  of  the  service  may  demand. 

These  engines  are  considered  more  hazardous  than  stationary  engines  hav- 
ing separate  underground  storage  tanks,  and  should  not  be  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  stationary  engines.  Where  used,  their  hazards  should  be  recognized 
by  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction,  and  the  following  rules 
and  precautions  should  be  rigidly  observed. 

The  requirements  for  Stationary  Gasoline  Engines  apply  except 
as  to  the  Tank,  which  are  as  follows. 

SUPPLY  TANKS. — (a)   Gravity  feed  from  supply  tank  to  engine  is  prohibited. 

(b)  Capacity  of  supply  tank  must  not  exteed  the  amount  of   fuel   required 
for    10  hours  running  full  load. 

(c)  Must    be    so   mounted    as    to    be   protected    against    wear    due    to    jarring 
and  vibrations. 

(d)  Must  be   so   located,    or   protected,    as   to   avoid   injury    from   coming  in 
contact  with  outside   objects,   as  well   as  to  prevent   an  excessive   rise   of   tem- 
perature of  the  gasoline,   due  to  heat   from  cylinder  or  exhaust. 

(e)  All   pipe    connections   should   be    made    above    the   highest   gasoline    level 
in   the   tank. 

CARE  AND  ATTENDANCE. —  (a)  Tanks  to  be  filled  during  daylight  hours  only 
and  while  the  engine  is  not  running. 

(b)  Tanks  to  be  filled  by  means  of  approved  safety  cans  and  main  gasoline 
supply   to  be   kept   in   approved   receptables   outside   of  buildings. 

(c)  Due    consideration    shall    be    given    to    the    cleaning    of    the    cylinder, 
valves  and  exhaust  pipe   as  often   as  the  quality  of  the  fuel  may   necessitate. 


INTERNAL-COMBUSTION  ENGINES  161 

(d)  Portable  engines  should  not  be  used  where  dust  or  inflammable  flyings 
prevail,  nor  be  located  near  combustible  material. 

Stationary  Kerosene  and  Fuel  Oil  Engines 

These  rules  refer  to  engines  using  a  fuel  having  a  flash  point  above 
100  degrees  Fahr.  (Abel-Pensky  Flash  Point  Tester.)  « 

In  addition  to  Nos.  I,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9  and  10  of  the  Gas  Engine 
Regulations,  the  following  are  made  for  engines  of  this  type. 

STORAGE  OR  SUPPLY  TANK  AND  PIPING. — In  closely  built  districts,  or  within 
the  fire  limits,  storage  or  supply  tanks  shall  be  located  underground  and  tanks 
and  piping  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  given  on  pages  139  and  144. 

Outside  of  closely  built  districts  or  outside  of  fire  limits,  aboveground  storage 
or  supply  tanks  may  be  permitted,  but  such  tanks  and  piping  shall  conform  to 
the  requirements  given  on  pages  141  and  144. 

AUXILIARY  TANKS. —  (a)  Tanks  or  other  reservoirs  for  providing  a  supply 
of  oil  v.-ithin  the  building  to  have  a  capacity  of  not  more  than  sixty  gallons 
when  not  of  the  pressure  type.  Tanks  to  be  filled  by  means  of  an  approved 
pump  connected  by  full  weight  iron  or  steel  pipe  to  the  main  supply  tank. 
To  be  provided  with  an  ample  overflow  pipe  connected  to  main  tank.  Oil 
to  be  drawn  from  auxiliary  supply  by  means  of  an  approved  pump  operated 
by  the  engine.  Gravity  feed  of  oil  to  engine  or  pipe  connections  below 
the  oil  level  in  auxiliary  tanks  having  a  capacity  in  excess  of  one  gallon 
is  not  to  be  permitted. 

(b)  Tanks  or  receivers  of  the  pressure  type  to  have  a  capacity  of  not 
over  ten  gallons  and  to  be  provided  with  a  reliable  gauge.  This  tank  also 
to  have  an  approved  pressure  relief  set  to  operate  at  a  safe  pressure  and 
connected  by  an  overflow  pipe  to  the  main  -tank.  These  receivers,  when 
arranged  with  engine  supply  pipe  connections  below  the  oil  level,  to  be  so 
arranged  that  the  oil  will  automatically  drain  back  to  the  main  supply 
tank  when  the  engine  stops,  leaving  not  over  one  gallon,  where  necessary 
for  priming.  In  case  the  supply  of  oil  for  the  engine  by  piping  is  connected 
above  the  oil  level  the  automatic  release  of  the  pressure  without  the  draining 
of  the  oil  may  be  permitted. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — At  a  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association  in  May,  1916,  the  above  section  on  Auxiliary  Tanks  was 
recommended  to  be  changed  as  given  below;  action  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  had  not  been  taken  at  the  time  this 
book  went  to  press: 

Auxiliary  Tanks,  Standpipes,  Receivers  or  Accumulators. — 
a.  These  may  have  a  total  capacity  of  60  gallons,  and  may  be  of 
an  individual  capacity  not  exceeding  60  gallons,  if  the  containing 
room  is  fireproof,  not  used  for  other  manufacturing  or  storage  pur- 
poses and  provided  with  standard  wall  opening  protection  on  all 
interior  and  exterior  walls. 

b.  In   room   other   than   described   above,   the   capacity    shall    not 
exceed  10  gallons. 

c.  Filling  shall  be  by  continuous  piping  from  the  storage  tank  or 
in  small  plants  by  piping  from  a  filling  inlet  outside  the  room. 

d.  Shall  be  constructed  in  accordance  with   Class  D,   Containers 
for  Hazardous  Liquids,  except  that  gravity  flow  may  be  permitted 
through  continuous  piping  to  the  apparatus  supplied. 

e.  Shall  be  provided  with  an  ample  overflow  pipe  connected  to  the 
main  tank ;  if  of  the  pressure  type,  this  connection  shall  be  from  an 


1 62  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

approved  pressure  relief  valve,  set  at  not  in  excess  of  twice  the 
normal  working  pressure. 

f.  Except  in  fireproof  rooms  (see  "a"  above)  or  by  special  per- 
mission of  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction,  provision 
shall  be  made  so  that  the  oil  will  automatically  drain  back  to  the 
supply  tank  upon  shutting  down  the  appliance  served,  leaving  not 
more  than  one  gallon  for  priming,  or  in  pressure  systems  that  the 
pressure  will  be  automatically  released. 

IGNITION  AND  STARTING. — (a)  Torches  for  pre-heating  the  combustion  cham- 
ber of  engines  are  to  be  used  only  while  starting  the  engine,  and  the 
pressure  on  the  supply  reservoir  is  to  be  released  as  soon  as  the  engine  is 
"  firing  "  properly. 

(b)  Torches    used    for    initially    heating    the    combustion    chamber    must    be 
of   a   type   approved    for   use    with   kerosene. 

(c)  Gasoline    if    used    for    starting    must    be    introduced    as    a    fuel    within 
the    cylinders    of   the   engine    and    the    supply   of    gasoline    must    not    be    more 
than    necessary    to    produce    a    proper    temperature    for    operating    the    engine 
with    the    heavier   oils. 

(d)  The    gasoline    supply    for    engines    using    this    liquid    for    starting    must 
be    drawn    from    an    outside    underground    storage    tank    by    means    of    a    hand 
pump  permanently  attached  to  the  engine,   into  an  approved   feed  cup   having 
a  capacity  of  not   more   than   one  pint  and   provided  with   an   overflow   to  the 
outside    gasoline    tank,    or    an    approved    reservoir    of    the    "  lift    out "    type 
may    be    used    provided    the    capacity    is    limited    as    in    Rule    36c,    but    not    to 
exceed    one    gallon,    and    further    that    the    retention    of    any    gasoline    after 
starting    is    automatically    prevented. 

EXHAUST  PIPE. — Water  pockets  in  exhaust  pipes  to  be  provided  with  suit- 
able means  for  drainage. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — The  above  regulations  are  to  lessen  the  haz- 
ard, and  are  not  based  on  the  relative  reliability  of  the  machine 
for  operation  purposes;  for  use  where  great  reliability  is  neces- 
sary, as  in  water-works  plants,  additional  requirements  are 
necessary,  covering  the  ability  to  start  quickly  and  operate 
continuously  under  varying  load. 

INDIVIDUAL  OIL  BURNING  EQUIPMENTS  FOR 
OTHER  THAN  HOUSEHOLD  PURPOSES* 

Apparatus  using  oil  for  fuel,  however  safeguarded,  introduces  a  distinct 
increase  in  hazard  which  should  be  recognized. 

Where   used,   the   following   rules   should   be    rigidly   observed. 

All  oil  used  for  fuel  purposes  under  these  rules  shall  show  a  flash  lest 
of  not  less  than  150  degrees  Fahrenheit.  (Abel-Pensky  Flash  Point  Tester.) 
This  flash  point  corresponds  closely  to  160  degrees  F.  (Tagliabue  Open  Cup 
Tester),  which  may  be  used  for  rough  estimations  of  the  flash  point. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — In  the  regulations  for  Fuel  Oil  Engines  (see  page 
161)  as  revised  in  1915,  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
adopted  100  degrees  Fahr.  as  the  minimum  allowed  for  fuel  oil. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  in  May, 
1916,  it  was  recommended  that  the  regulations  for  Fuel  Oil  Equip: 
ment  be  changed  accordingly ;  final  action  has  not  been  taken  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 


*  Abstracted   from   regulations  of   National   Board   of    Fire   Underwriters. 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS  163 

CAPACITY  AND  LOCATION  OF  TANKS. — a.  In  closely  built  up  districts  or 
within  fire  limits  tanks  to  be  located  underground  and  tanks  and  piping  are  to 
be  as  given  in  the  requirements  on  pages  139  and  144. 

Outside  of  closely  built  up  districts  or  outside  of  fire  limits,  above-ground 
storage  tanks  may  be  permitted,  provided  drainage  away  from  burnable  prop- 
erty in  case  of  breakage  of  tanks  is  arranged  for  or  suitable  dikes  built 
around  the  tanks. 

When  above-ground  tanks  are  used  all  piping  must  be  arranged  so  that 
in  case  of  breakage  of  piping  the  oil  will  not  be  drained  from  tanks.  This 
requirement  prohibits  the  use  of  gravity  feed  from  storage  tanks.  Above- 
ground  tanks  of  less  than  1,000  gallons  capacity  without  dikes  may  be  per- 
mitted in  case  suitable  housings  for  the  protection  of  the  tanks  'against 
injury  are  provided. 

Some  device  for  indicating  the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  tank  is  desirable. 
Where  used,  such  attachment  shall  be  connected  through  substantial  fittings 
so  as  to  minimize  exposure  of  the  oil,  and  devices  the  breakage  of  which 
will  allow  the  escape  of  oil,  must  not  be  used. 

Suitable  filters  or  strainers  for  the  oil  should  be  installed  and  preferably 
be  located  in  supply  line  before  reaching  pump.  Filter  to  be  arranged  so 
as  to  be  readily  accessible  for  cleaning. 

Feed  Pumps  must  be  of  approved  design,  secure  against  leaks. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — At  a  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association  in  May,  1916,  the  requirement  for  Pumps  was  recom- 
mended to  be  changed  as  given  below ;  action  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  had  not  been  taken  at  the  time  this  book  went 
to  press: 

Pressure  Delivery  Systems. — a.  Delivery  from  tank  to  burn- 
ers may  be  direct  or  through  receivers,  accumulators  or  stand- 
pipe. 

b.  Must    be   by    a    substantially   constructed    discharge    device    of 
approved    design,    which    will   prevent    the    delivery   or   leakage    of 
liquid  when  not  in  use. 

c.  Must  be  provided  with  safety  reliefs,   which  will  prevent  the 
accumulation   of  pressure  in   excess  of  twice   the   normal   working 
pressure ;  such  reliefs  to  be  of  a  design  which  will  not  discharge 
inflammable  liquid  into  the  open  air. 

d.  Must  be  of  a  design  that  when  delivering  to  a  system  of  several 
individual  oil  burning  equipments,  pressure  will  be  maintained  on 
the  piping  inside  the  building  only  when  the  equipment  is  in  actual 
use.     Or  shall  be  so  equipped  that  a  flow  in  excess  of  the  normal 
discharge   of  any   individual    oil   burning   equipment   will    result   in 
automatically    shutting   off    the    power    producing    the    pressure    or 
cutting  off  supply  to  the  piping  within  the  building  supplying  that 
equipment. 

Glass  gauges,  the  breakage  of  which  would  allow  the  escape  of  oil,  are 
to  be  avoided.  If  their  use  is  necessary,  they  should  have  substantial  pro- 
tection or  be  arranged  so  that  oil  will  not  escape  if  broken.  Pet  cocks  must 
not  be  used  on  oil  carrying  parts  of  system. 

Readily  accessible  shut-off  valves  to  be  provided  in  the  supply  lirfe  as  near 
to  the  tank  as  practicable,  and  additional  shut-offs  to  be  installed  in  the 
main  line  inside  building  and  at  each  oil  consuming  device. 


164   ,  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Receivers  or  Accumulators,  if  used,  must  be  designed  so  as  to  secure  a 
factor  of  safety  of  not  less  than  6.  Must  be  subjected  to  a  pressure  test 
of  not  less  than  twice  the  working  pressure.  The  capacity  of  the  oil  chamber 
must  not  exceed  10  gallons.  To  be  equipped  with  pressure  gauge.  To  be 
provided  with  an  automatic  relief  valve  set  to  operate  at  a  safe  pressure 
and  connected  by  an  overflow  pipe  to  supply  tank,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  oil  will  automatically  drain,  back  to  the  supply  tank  immediately  on 
closing  down  the  pump. 

Standpipes,  if  used,  shall  not  exceed  10  gallons  capacity.  To  be  of 
substantial  construction,  equipped  with  an  overflow,  and  so  arranged  that 
the-  oil  will  automatically  drain  back  to  the  supply  tank  on  shutting  down 
pump,  leaving  not  over  one  gallon,  where  necessary,  for  priming,  etc.  If 
vented,  the  opening  should  be  at  the  top  and  may  be  connected  with  the 
outside  vent  pipe  from  storage  tank,  above  level  of  source  of  supply. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — At  a  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protection 
Association  in  May,  1916,  the  above  section  on  Auxiliary  Tanks  was 
recommended  to  be  changed  as  given  below ;  action  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  had  not  been  taken  at  the  time  this 
book  went  to  press: 

Auxiliary   Tanks,    Standpipes,    Receivers    or    Accumulators. — 

a.  These  may  have  a  total  capacity  of  60  gallons,  and  may  be  of 
an  individual  capacity  not   exceeding  60  gallons,  if  the  containing 
room  is  fireproof,  not  used  for  other  manufacturing  or  storage  pur- 
poses  and  provided   with   standard  wall   opening  protection   on   all 
interior  and  exterior  walls. 

b.  In    room   other   than    described   above,   the    capacity   shall    not 
exceed  10  gallons. 

c.  Filling  shall  be  by  continuous  piping  from  the  storage  tank  or 
in  small  plants  by  piping  from  a  filling  inlet  outside  the  room. 

d.  Shall  be  constructed  in  accordance  with   Class  D,   Containers 
for  Hazardous  Liquids,  except  that  gravity  flow  may  be  permitted 
through  continuous  piping  to  the  apparatus  supplied. 

e.  Shall  be  provided  with  an  ample  overflow  pipe  connected  to  the 
main  tank ;  if  of  the  pressure  type,  this  connection  shall  be  from  an 
approved   pressure   relief  valve,   set  at  not   in  excess   of  twice  the 
normal  working  pressure. 

f.  Except  in  fireproof  rooms   (see  "a"  above)   or  by  special  per- 
mission of  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction,  provision 
shall  be  made  so  that  the  oil  will  automatically  drain  back  to  the 
supply  tank  upon  shutting  down  the  appliance  served,  leaving  not 
more  than  one  gallon  for  priming,  or  in  pressure  systems  that  the 
pressure  will  be  automatically  released. 

A  committee  of  the  Railway  Fire  Protection  Association,  in  a 
report  made  at  the  annual  meeting  in  October,  1915,  gave,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  National  Board  regulations  above,  which  they  adopted, 
the  following  requirements: 

Gravity  Systems  should  not  be  installed  under  any  conditions,  as  they  are 
a  menace  to  both  life  and  property. 

PUMPING  SYSTEMS. — Plate  No.  i  shows  the  plan  of  a  large  storage  tank  with 
auxiliary  tank  and  pumping  system,  also  the  pump  lines;  and  how  this  system 
should  be  installed  to  give  the  proper  protection  and  service  where  large 
equipments  are  used. 

I 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS 


165 


PLAN 
SATETY    FUEL,    OIL    SYSTEM 

BOILER  A*>  FUR^^lACE  INSTALLATIONS 

RALWAT  FRE  PROTECTION  ASSOCIATION 


PLATE  No.    1 


166 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


This  equipment  will  apply  to  large  furnace  installations  as  well  as  to  boiler 
plants. 

Plate  No.  2  shows  the  detail  of  a  steam  pump  equipment  and  how  it  should 
be  arranged  to  obtain  the  best  service  and  protection.  This  arrangement  will 
also  apply  to  rotary  pumps  with  the  exception  of  the.  steam  governor.  The 
order  of  the  automatic  appliances  should  be  strictly  adhered  to.  The  steam 
governor,  controlling  the  pump  direct  from  the  cushion,  should  be  set  at  a 
pressure  25  per  cent  lower  than  the  relief  valve,  so  that  the  oil  will  not  be 
circulated  through  the  relief  valve  unless  the  steam  governor  should  become 
inoperative.  By  placing  the  relief  valve  at  this  point,  only  cold  oil  is  handled 
by  the  pump  or  discharged  back  into  the  tank. 


SAFEFY  FUEL  OIL  STfSTEM 
DLTA1LS--PUMP3 
ran 

RAIUAWY'  FIRE  PROTECTION  AS30ClAnON 
PLATE   No.   2 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS 


The  heater  should  be  by-passed,  so  that  in  warm  weather  it  will 
under  constant  pressure. 

The  automatic  drain  valve  is  placed  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  line, 
absolute  drainage  can  be  secured. 


167 

not    be 
so  that 


PLATE    No.   3 


i68 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


The  discharge  of  the  pump  into  the  air  receiver  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
boiler  or  furnace  supply.  This  is  done  to  prevent  throbbing  and  to  maintain 
uniform  pressure  on  the  line. 

The  gauge  glass  on  the  receiver  should  be  protected  by  automatic  shut-off 
cocks  in  case  of  the  glass  breaking,  and  further  it  should  be  protected  by 
double  brass  casings  in  case  the  automatic  cocks  should  fail  to  operate. 

The  automatic  stop  valve  is  then  placed  in  the  direct  line  to  the  boiler  or 
furnaces  and  is  controlled  by  a  gate  valve  before  and  after,  so  that  the  former 
can  be  opened  and  cleaned  in  case  of  necessity  without  spilling  oil  on  the 
floor  or  emptying  the  fuel  oil  line. 

Strainers  should  not  be  used  anywhere  in  the  lines,  as  they  become  clogged 
and  are  a  constant  source  of  menace.  No  dirt  will  ever  enter  the  lines  if  the 
trouble  is  cured  at  the  source.  Large  basket  strainers  placed  in  the  manhole 
or  the  receiving  line  of  the  fuel  oil  storage  tank  will  remove  dirt  and  foreign 


PLATE   No.    4 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS  169 

matter  before  it  gets  into  the  system  and  better  satisfaction  will  be  obtained 
in  the  operation  of  the  system  and  at  less  cost. 

AIR  PRESSURE  SYSTEMS. — Plates  Nos.  3  and  4  show  two  types  of  Air  Pressure 
Systems,  one  with  single  tanks  and  the  other  with  double  tanks.  While  this 
system  is  not  approved  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  it  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  =ystera  from  the  point  of  service  obtained  in  the  use  of 
oil  around  the  furnace.  A  steadier  pressure  is  maintained  upon  the  oil  which 
reduces  to  .1  minimum  the  necessity  for  regulation  of  the  furnace  burners; 
there  is  under  pressure  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  oil  (not  over  a 
day's  capacity  for  the  shops)  and  but  little  time  is  required  each  day  to  fill  the 
tanks  for  the  day's  run  (the  air  maintaining  a  constant  pressure). 

The  two  plates  mentioned  show  the  storage  and  pressure  tanks.  The  system 
having  two  pressure  tanks  is  to  be  used  when  a  day's  supply  would  exceed 
a  thousand  gallons  and  the  piping  is  so  arranged  that  only  one  tank,  at  a 
time  is  under  pressure  feeding  the  system.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  three- 
way  valve  which  will  permit  the  operation  of  only  one  tank  at  a  time. 

The  other  system  is  designed  for  a  single  pressure  tank,  which  can  be  rilled 
during  working  hours  should  the  oil  run  low.  The  piping  therefore  is  so 
arranged  that  if  the  pump  should  accidentally  be  allowed  to  run,  the  overflow 
of  the  tank  will  be  discharged  back  into  the  main  supply  tank. 

In  many  instances  these  supply  tanks  are  filled  by  gravity  from  the  main 
storage  tanks,  but  this  has  proved  unsatisfactory.  If  the  connection  is  per- 
manent between  the  main  tanks  and  the  pressure  tanks,  and  the  latter  are 
not  properly  vented,  the  supply  of  oil  in  the  storage  tanks  as  well  as  that  in 
the  pressure  tanks  is  liable  to  be  discharged  into  the  buildings.  It  is  recom- 
mended, therefore,  that  no  direct  connection  be  made  between  these  tanks  and 
the  storage  tanks. 

Plate  No.  5  shows  how  the  pipe  lines  should  be  run  in  a  large  plant.  This 
applies  not  only  to  a  pressure  system,  but  also  to  a  pumping  system  of  any 
kind. 

All  lines  drain  back  to  the  source  of  supply.  They  are  outside  the  building 
as  far  as  possible  and  ail  piping  is  underground,  except  the  short  pipe  leading 
from  the  ground  line  to  furnace.  This  should  be  adhered  to  as  far  as  possible. 

Plate  No.  6  shows  how  the  lines  should  be  run  in  the  buildings  and  to  the 
furnaces  in  order  to  obtain  the  maximum  protection.  This  method  of  protec- 
tion prevents  the  operator  at  a  furnace  from  drawing  more  oil  than  the  furnace 
can  properly  consume;  pictecting  therefore  both  operator  and  building.  The 
method  of  testing  the  automatic  stop  valve  as  shown  on  this  plate  is  for  both 
the  master  valve  and  the  group  control  valve. 

All  underground  lines  in  the  building  should  be  at  least  i  inch  in  diameter. 
The  pipes  leading  from  the  underground  lines  to  above  the  floor  line  should 
be  at  least  %  inch  in  diameter  and  reduced  by  special  reducing  fittings  and 
extra  heavy  angle  valves,  to  which  the  automatic  valves  should  be  fastened. 
From  there  to  the  furnace  the  lines  should  be  at  least  %  inch.  This  gives 
stability  and  strength  to  the  installation,  and  insures  against  breakage  of  pip- 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


MOTOR 
g     AIR  COMPRESSOR/OIL  PUMP 


°    "     DISTRIBUTING- 
TANKS 


D 


p 
P 


PLATE    No.    5 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS 


171 


PLATE    No.   6 


172 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


ing  which  would  stop  temporarily  the  operation  of  the  plant.  On  account  of 
the  small  amount  of  piping  required  this  heavier  type  of  construction  will 
amply  repay  for  the  expenditure,  and  the  extra  cost  would  not  be  5  per  cent 
on  the  installation. 

There  should  be  no  connection  anywhere  in  the  building  by  which  ail  can 
be  drawn  from  the  fuel  Oil  lines  for  lighting  or  other  purposes.  Such  con- 
nections are  rarely  free  from  leak  and  eventually  the  ground  becomes  saturated 
with  oil,  which  is  liable  to  result  in  a  serious  fire. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  connection  for  filling  portable  tanks  or  for 
similar  purposes,  this  -should  be  done  by  a  connection  close  to  the  pumps  or 
an  individual  hand  pump  connected  to  the  storage  tanks. 

RIVET  OR  PORTABLE  FORGE.- — Plate  No.  7  shows  a  rivet  forge  which  is 
properly  protected  and  which  should  prevent  accident  in  case  of  ruptured  lines 
or  overfeeding  of  the  furnace.  Whether  the  tank  be  set  vertically  or  hori- 
zontally, the  same  method  would  be  applied;  but  if  a  horizontal  tank  be  used, 
the  method  shown  on  Plate  No.  8,  as  far  as  it  applies  to  this  tank  or  furnace, 
is  recommended. 


PORTABLE.    RIVET    FURNACE-. 

SHOWING  AUTOMATIC  STOP  VALVE. 

FOR 

FUEL  OIL  SYSTEM 

RAILWAY  FIRL  PROTECTION  ASSOCIATION! 


PLATE   No.    7 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS 


173 


PORTABLE  W£U>ING  TORCHES. — Plates  Nos.  8  and  9  show  a  safe  type  of 
torch  that  can  be  cheaply  constructed,  and  will  immediately  stop  the  discharge 
of  oil  in  case  of  fracture  in  pipe  or  hose  lines. 

Torches  using  single  hose  lines  (where  the  mixing  is  done  close  to  the 
tank)  should  not  be  used,  for  the  reason  that  the  operator  has  no  control  of 
the  oil  in  the  hose  line,  and  if  the  needle  valve  be  leaky  and  the  air  turned 
on,  the  oil  in  the  hose  pipe  line  will  be  immediately  discharged.  This  is 
liable  to  cause  a  serious  fire  or  personal  accident. 

Plans  of  the  proper  burners  to  use  in  connection  with  the  double  hose  line 
for  the  burning  of  fuel  oil  will  be  .supplied  upon  application  to  the  committee. 


PLATE   No.   8 

In  the  discussion  the  following  points  were  brought  out : 
Hose  should  not  be  used  if  it  is  possible  to  use  metal  piping  for 
any  connections  on  oil  tanks  or  oil  burning  equipment.  Metal 
hoods,  of  ample  proportions  and  properly  vented  through  the  roof, 
should  be  provided  over  furnaces  where  necessary  or  where  there 
is  danger  from  a  flash,  or  flare.  Furnaces,  wherever  possible, 
should  be  located  in  non-combustible  buildings,  must  be  on  non- 
combustible  floors  and  a  safe  distance  away  from  inflammable 


174 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


building  construction  or  other  material;  wooden  columns  or  win- 
dows, if 'necessary,  to  be  covered  or  shielded  with  metal. 


PLATE    No.    9 


FUEL  OIL  EQUIPMENTS  175 

OIL  CONVEYOR  OR  CARRIERS* 

STEAMERS,  ETC. — a.  Steamers,  barges  or  vessels  loading  or  discharging  oil 
in  bulk,  shall  not  load  or  discharge  at  wharves  other  than  those  used  by 
the  oil  company,  and  such  wharves  shall  be  well  isolated  from  all  burnable 
property  or  wharfage. 

b.  There    shall   be    a   gate    valve    immediately    at   the   point    in    the    pipe    line 
where   connection  is  made  with   the  hose   leading  to  the  ship   for  the  purpose 
of   shutting  off  the  oil,  and  there  shall  be  another   gate  valve   in  this  line   of 
pipe    at    a   distance   of   at   least    10    feet    back    from    the    wharf,    where    it    will 
be    readily    accessible    for    the    purpose    of    shutting    the    oil    off    in    event    of 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  valve   first  mentioned. 

c.  A   tight  connection   shall  be   made   with  the  hose  length   at   the   wharf  by 
means  of  a  carefully  threaded  coupling,   to  prevent   leakage  and   accumulation 
of   oil    around   the    piers. 

d.  Lights.      No    fire   nor   open    lights   to   be    allowed   on    the   vessel   while    at 
the  wharf. 


FUEL  OIL  APPARATUS  FOR  COOKING  AND  HEATING 
FOR  HOUSEHOLD  USE* 

The  use  of  oil  as  fuel  for  domestic  purposes  is  regarded  from  the  insur- 
ance viewpoint  as  more  hazardous  than  the  use  of  ordinary  fuel,  such  as 
coal,  wood  and  coke. 

Where  these  systems  are  used  their  hazards  should  be  recognized  and  the 
following  rules  and  precautions  should  be  observed.  All  oil  used  for  fuel 
under  these  rules  shall  show  a  flash  test  of  not  less  than  ,100°  Fahr.  (Abel- 
Pensky  Flash  Point  Tester.)  This  flash  point  corresponds  closely  to  106° 
Fahr.  (Tagliabue  Open  Cup  Tester),  which  may  be  used  for  rough  estima- 
tions of  the  flash  point. 

For  Capacity,  Location,  Material  and  Construction  of  Tanks  and  of  Piping, 
see  pages  139  to  145. 

PUMP. — Oil  pump  used  in  filling  auxiliary  tank  from  the  main  supply 
tank  to  be  approved  type,  secure  against  leaks,  with  check  valves  located 
as  close  to  the  pump  as  convenient.  Pumps  should  be  rigidly  fastened  in 
place. 

NOTE. — Stuffing  box,  if  used,  should  be  provided  with  a  removable  cupped 
gland  designed  to  compress  the  packing  against  the  shaft  and  arranged  so 
as  to  facilitate  removal.  Packing  affected  by  the  oil  must  not  be'  used. 

AUXILIARY  SUPPLY  TANK. — a.  If  used,  shall  not  exceed  five  gallons  in 
capacity,  except  by  special  consent  of  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction. 

b.  Shall     be     located    at    least     10     feet,    measured    horizontally,     from    the 
burners. 

c.  Shall    be    provided    with    an    overflow    connection    draining   to    the    supply 
tank    and    a    vent    pipe    leading    outside    the    building,    the"   latter    to    have    a 
weatherproof    hood.      To    be   constructed   of   brass,    copper   or   galvanized    plate 
not  less  than  0.050"    (No.    18    U.    S.   standard   gauge)    in  thickness.     Joints   to 
be    made   as    specified    for   outside   storage   tanks. 

VALVES. — a.  Readily  accessible  valves  to  be  provided  near  each  burner 
and  also  close  to  the  auxiliary  tank  in  the  pipe  leading  to  burners. 

b.   Controlling   valves    to   be   constructed    as    specified   in    Rule    2ib. 

INSTALLATION  OF  BURNERS.— a.  Overflow. — Burners  shall  be  installed  with 
overflow  attachment  so  arranged  that  any  surplus  oil  will  drain  by  gravity 


*  Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire   Underwriters. 


176 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


from  the  burner  through  a  pipe  into  a  substantially  constructed  reservoir 
having* a  capacity  of  not  less  than  that  of  the  auxiliary  tank. 

Each   tank   to    be    constructed    and    vented    as    provided    for   auxiliary   tanks. 

b.  Draughts. — No  dampers  to  be  used  in  smoke  pipe  between  burner  and 
chimney.  Any  regulation  of  draught  which  is  necessary  is  to  be  accomplished 
through  the  dampers  in  front. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  BURNERS. — a.  The  size  of  the  orifice  through  which  the 
oil  is  supplied  to  the  burners  should  be  limited  to  furnish  only  sufficient 
oil  for  the  maximum  burning  conditions  when  the  controlling  valves  are 
wide  open. 

b.  Valves   to   be   arranged   so   as   not   to  enlarge   the    orifice. 

c.  Burners    containing    chambers    which    allow    the    dangerous    accumulation 
of  gases  are  prohibited. 

d.  Burners   containing  oil   conveying   pipes   or   parts   subject   to   intense   heat 
or   subject   to  stoppage    from   carbonization    are   prohibited. 

e.  Burners    should    be    designed    so    that    they    can    be    easily    cleaned,    and 
so    as    not    to    allow    leakage    of    oil. 

INSTRUCTION  CARD. — A  card  giving  complete  instructions  in  regard  to  the 
care  and  operation  of  the  system  to  be  permanently  placed  near  the  apparatus. 


SAFETY  CANS 

For  Open   Stock  of  Liquids  which  at  Ordinary  Temperatures 
Give   Off  Inflammable  Vapors* 

MATERIAL. —  (a)  \Yeight.  Cans  one  gallon  and  smaller  must  be  constructed 
i*f  tinned  or  leaded  iron  or  steel  sheets  or  sheet  brass  at  least  .01 25-inch 
thick  (IC=io8  pounds  tin  plate)  or  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  copper  at 
least  .oi56-inch  thick  (28  gauge  galvanized  iron,  U.  S.  Standard). 

Cans  larger  than  one  gallon  must  be  constructed  of  tinned  or  leaded  iron 
IT  steel  sheets  or  sheet  brass  at  least  .oi5o-inch  thick  (IX  =126  pounds  tin 
plate)  or  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  copper  at  least  .oi87-inch  thick  (26 
galvanized  iron,  U.  S.  Standard). 

(b)  Quality.      All    materials    must    be    annealed    to    allow    working    without 
cracking   the   seams. 

(c)  Coating.      Tinned    steel    sheets    must    carry    a    coating    of    at    least    two 
pounds    per    100    square    feet    (Charcoal    grade),    leaded    steel    sheets    at    least 
tlyee  and  one-half  pounds  per   100  square   feet,  galvanized  sheet  iron  at  least 
nine  pounds  per   100  square  feet.     Electroplating  with  copper,  nickel  or  other 
material  equivalent  to  the  tin  coating  above  specified  will  be  acceptable. 

SEAMS. — Cans,  one  quart  and  larger,  must  be  made  with  straight  seams 
of  body  grooved  or  riveted;  ends  double  seamed,  machine  crimped,  riveted 
or  otherwise  secured  to  body,  so  body  parts  will  remain  together  after 
solder  is  melted.  All  seams  must  be  soldered  tight  or  brazed. 

CLOSURES. — (a)  .Each  opening  into  the  can  body  must  have  an  automatic 
valve,  which  will  remain  securely  closed  with  the  can  in  all  positions,  until 
it  rs  opened  by  the  application  of  manual  pressure  at  a  specific  point  in  a 
definite  direction  (a  series  of  small  holes,  controlled  by  a  single  valve,  is 
considered  a  single  opening).  Provided,  however,  that  a  can  having  a  capacity 
of  one  quart  or  over  may  be  provided  with  a  screw  cap  closure  to  the 
filling  opening  if  the  cap  is  lined  with  flexible  oil-proof  material  and  is 
chained  to  the  can  with  safety  chain,  permanently  secured. 

(b)  Cans  one  quart  and  larger,  must  be  provided  with  a  valve  or  equivalent 
device,    so    constructed    that   pressure   of   vapor   from   within    will    open   it   and 
relieve  the  pressure  before  it  accumulates  an  amount  sufficient  to  rupture  any 
seam   of  the  can. 

(c)  Cans,    smaller    than    one    quart,    shall    be    limited    to    a    single    valved 
opening  into  the  body  of  the  can  adapted  to  both  filling  and  emptying. 

(d)  Cans  having  closures  which  permit  a   leakage  of  more  than   four  drops 
per   minute,   must   be   condemned. 

NOTE. — 60  drops  =  i  teaspoonful  per  hour;  438  drops  =  i  fluid  ounce; 
or,  i  pint  in  112  hours. 

(e)  No   can   shall   have   more   than   two   valved  closures,   and   where   two   are 
used,    each   valve   must   be   closed   independently   to   avoid   leaks   resulting    from 
unequal    wear   of   valves   or   from   lost   motion.  <. 

PROHIBITIONS. —  Openings  into  the  body  of  the  can  provided  with  stuffing 
boxes,  removable  plugs  or  corks,  also  bearing  pins  smaller  in  diameter  than 
3 /32-inch  (Xo.  13  U.  S.  Standard)  are  prohibited. 

I>Roi'ORTio.\s.--To  insure  reasonable  stability,  it  is  desirable  that  the  height 
of  the  body  does  not  exceed  the  diameter  more  than  fifteen  per  cent. 

*  As  recommended  by  the   National   Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

177 


178 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SAFETY   CANS  FOR   HAZARDOUS   LIQUIDS. 


OIL  LIGHTING  SYSTEM 

Extensive  use  has  been  made  of  gasoline  to  furnish  light,  par- 
ticularly before  the  large  field  for  the  use  of  gasoline  for  auto- 
mobiles made  such  gasoline  systems  relatively  of  less  importance 
to  the  oil  producers.  The  rapid  improvement  in  the  electrical 
art,  and  the  big  cuts  made  in  the  cost  of  producing  electricity, 
have  also  tended  to  reduce  the  use  of  oil  lighting  systems.  The 
Xational  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  have  issued  rules  covering 
both  Kerosene  Pressure  systems  and  Gasoline  Lighting  systems, 
but  as  these  are  mainly  details  of  construction  of  the  apparatus, 
they  are  not  given  herein.  Several  different  makes  of  each  kind 
are  listed  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  as  being  safeguarded 
insofar  as  the  hazard  permits;  the  use  of  only  such  as  are  listed 
is  strongly  urged,  as  improperly  constructed  appliances  are  a  dis- 
tinct, hazard. 

Of  the  Gasoline  Systems,  five  classes  are  listed,  divided  as 
follows : 

Class  A — Machines  Having  Outside  Carbureters 

These  machines,  which  do  not  introduce  liquid  gasoline  into  the  building, 
are  regarded  from  an  insurance  viewpoint  as  constituting  the  least  dangerous 
type  of  gasoline  gas  machine. 

To  be  located  outside  the  building,  underground,  at  least  30  feet  removed 
from  all  buildings,  and  the  top  thereof  must  be  below  the  level  of  the 
lowest  pipe  in  the  building  used  in  connection  with  the  apparatus. 

Class   B — Machines   Having   Inside   Carbureters 

These  machines  are  regarded  from  an  insurance  viewpoint  as  more  danger- 
ous than  those  having  outside  carbureters,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they 
introduce  gasoline  in  liquid  form  and  manufacture  gas  inside  the  building. 
Where  permitted  the  following  rules  and  precautions  should  be  rigidly 
observed: 

Supply  tank  must  be  located  outside  the  building,  underground  where 
possible,  and  below  the  level  of  the  lowest  pipe  in  the  building  used  in 
connection  with  the  apparatus. 

If  impracticable  to  bury  the  supply  tank  the  same  may  be  installed  in  a 
non-combustible  building  or  vault  properly  ventilated,  preferably  from  the 
bottom,  always  remembering  that  it  must  be  below  the  level  of  the  lowest 
pipe  in  the  building  used  in  connection  with  the  apparatus. 

Class    C — Gasoline    Lighting    Systems    Having    Outside    Tanks 
and   Inside   Flame    Heated   Generators 

These  systems  are  regarded  from  an  insurance  viewpoint  as  more  danger- 
ous than  the  systems  in  Class  A  or  Class  B.  Where  used  their  hazards 

179 


180  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

should  be  recognized  by  Underwriters  and  the  following  rules  and  pre- 
cautions should  be  rigidly  observed: 

Supply   tank  must  be   limited  to   6   gallons. 

To  be  located  outside  the  building  and  so  arranged  that  under*  normal 
conditions  the  only  gasoline  in  the  building  will  be  that  contained  in  the 
hollow  wires  leading  to  lamps  or  to  the  common  generator. 

Class  D — Gasoline  Vapor   Lamps 

.  These  lamps  are  regarded  from  an  insurance  viewpoint  as  even  more 
dangerous  than  the  systems  covered  in  Class  A,  Class  B  or  Class  C,  and 
where  used  their  hazards  should  be  recognized.  If  permitted,  the  general 
specifications  for  the  construction  of  such  devices  and  for  regulating  same 
should  be  observed. 

Class  E — Systems  Having  Inside  Tanks  and  Inside  Flame 
Heated  Generators 

These  systems  which  embody  the  hazard  of  handling  gasoline  inside  build- 
ings are  regarded  from  an  insurance  viewpoint  as  more  dangerous  than  the 
devices  covered  in  Class  A,  Class  B  or  Class  C,  -and  on  a  par  with  those 
of  Class  D.  When  used  their  hazards  should  be  recognized.' 

If  permitted,  the.  following  general  specifications  for  the  construction  of 
such  devices  and  for  regulating-  same  should  be  observed. 

Supply   tank   not   to   exceed    6   gallons. 

Should  preferably  be  located  against  an  outside  wall  and  so  installed  that 
a  clear  space  is  maintained  above  and  below  from  floor  to  ceiling,  and  for 
at  least  a  foot  on  either  side  of  the  device. 

NOTE. — Where  located  against  other  than  a  fireproof  wall  to  be  insulated 
therefrom  by  an  ample  sheet  of  metal  placed  not  less  than  i  inch  from  the 
wall,  leaving  an  air  space. 


•:  r...".     .".' 


GASES  AND  VAPORS 

Gas  Defined. — In  a  restricted  sense  the  name  gas  is  applied  to 
bodies  that  exist  in  the  gaseous  state  at  the  ordinary  temperature 
and  pressure,  and  can  only  be  liquefied  or  solidified  by  artificial 
means.  Vapors  are  the  gases  given  off,  with  or  without  the  aid 
of  heat,  by  bodies  that,  under  ordinary  circumstances  are  either 
solid  or  liquid. 

When  several  gases  or  vapors  are  present  they  mix  with  com- 
parative rapidity;  only  very  dense  vapors  and  very  light  gases 
remaining  unmixed  for  any  length  of  time. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  when  in  a  pure  state,  gases 
and  vapors  are  non-explosive,  even  though  combustible. 

Gas  Explosion. — Explosions  of  gas  or  vapor  sometimes  occur 
in  places  where,  though  there  is  explosive  mixture,  there  is  neither 
fire,  light,  nor  other  burning  substances;  this  is  due  to  the  migration 
of  the  gas  or  vapor  caused  by  its  relatively  higher  or  lower 
density  than 'air.  Such  instances  of  fire  or  explosion  are  said  to 
be  produced  by  remote  fire,  or  flashing  back,  and  may  be  pro- 
duced by  contact  with  a  lighted  stove,  a  lamp,  a  discarded  lighted 
or  burning  match,  or  the  like. 

Explosion  Temperatures. — Gases  and  vapors  may  be  ignited  or 
exploded  by  heat  as  well  as  by  flame.  A  list  of  these  explosion 
temperatures  is  given  below : 

Degrees  C.  Decrees  C. 

Oxyhydrogen  gas 620-700  Carbon  disulphide  vapor..  100-170 

Under  pressure 518-606  Acetylene 509-515 

Cartx>n  monoxide 636-814  Propane 545-548 

Methane 656-678  Propylene 497-511 

Ethane 605-622  Coafgas 647-649 

EthyJene 577-  599  Hydrogen 555 

Limits  of  Explosibility. — According  to  Professor  Bunte  of  Carls- 
ruhe,  the  limits  of  explosibility  can  be  greatly  varied  by  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  lateral  dimensions  of  the  containing  vessel, 
the  method  of  ignition,  volume  of  gas  present,  moisture  content 
of  same,  etc.  The  same  authority  gives  the  following  values  in 
the  case  of  electrical  ignition,  the  mixtures  of  air  with  the  several 
gases  mentioned  exploding  when  the  proportion  of  gas  attains  the 
following  percentages : 

181 


1 82  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Range  of 
Per  Cent       Explosibility 

Carbon  monoxide 16.6-74.8  58.2 

Hydrogen 9.5-66.5  57.0 

Water  gas 12.5-66.6  54.1 

Acetylene..^. 3.2-52.2  49.0 

Coal  gas...                                 8.0-19.0  11.0 

Ethylene .- 4.2-14.5  10.3 

Alcohol  vapor 4.0-13.6  9.6 

Methane 6.2-12.7  6.5 

Ether  vapor.., 2.9-7.5  4.6 

Benzol  vapor 2.7-6.3  3.6 

Pentane 2.5-4.8  2.3 

Benzine  vapor 2.5-4.8  2.3 

According  to  Dr.  Von  Schwartz,  the  range  of  explosibility  in 
an  admittedly  very  imperfect  series  of  gases  and  vapors  is  as 
given  below,  the  figures  in  the  first  column  representing  the  mini- 
mum percentage  of  gas,  and  those  in  the  second  the  maximum 
percentage,  at  which  an  explosion  of  the  mixture  is  possible.  The 
gases  are  arranged  in  reverse  order,  starting  with  the  one  exhibit- 
ing the  highest  minimum ;  and  the  values  cited  are  merely  approxi- 
mate, great  divergence  prevailing  in  the  figures  given  by  different 
authors. 

Approximate  Relative 
Percentage  Range  of  Explosibility 

Carbon  monoxide ' 13-75  3 

Carburetted  air  (air  gas)..  .        9-26  5 

Water  gas 9-55  4 

Coal  gas 8-23  6 

Hydrogen 7-75  2 

Carbon  disulphide  vapor,  from  6  downwards  1  Merely 

Ether  disulphide  vapor,   from  6  downwards/  approximate 

Methane  (marsh  gas) 5-13.16  8 

Ethylene 4-22  7 

Acetylene 3-82  1 

Benzol  (Benzine),  2.6-4.8..        3-6  9 

Toluol about  7 

Pentane 2.5-5  10 

Above  and  below  these  limits  no  explosion  occurs,  the  mixture 
merely  flashing  at  the  upper  limit.  The  explosion  of  the  mixtures 
can  be  prevented  by  additions  of '7^-10  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Ventilation. — To  facilitate  solution  of  the  general  problem  re- 
specting the  comparative  advantages  of  roof  and  floor  ventilation, 
lists  of  the  gases  (g)  and  vapors  (v)  respectively  lighter  and 
heavier  than  air  are  given  by  Dr.  Von  Schwartz  as  follows,  the 
density  of  air  being  taken  as  unity. 

(1)  Lighter  than  Air  (Roof  Ventilation) 

0.069  Hydrogen  (g)  0.700  Wood  gas  (g) 

0.400-0.600  Coal  gas  (g)  0.898  Acetylene  (g) 

0.553  Pit  gas  (Firedamp)  (g)  0.945  Hydrocyanic  acid  (g) 

0.588  Ammonia  (g)  0.967  Ethylene  (g) 

0 . 622  Water  vapor  (v)  0 . 967  Carbon  monoxide  (g) 

Water  gas,  generator  gas,  Dowson  gas,  power  gas,  and  similar  gases  differ  con- 
siderably in  density  according  to  their  composition,  but  are  all  lighter  than  air. 

0.987-1.015  Mond  gas  (according  to  the  coal  used) 
0.510  Water  gas 
0.830-1.000  Generator  gas 


GASES  AND  VAPORS  183 

(2)  Heavier  than  Air  (Floor  Ventilation) 

1.036  Ethane  (g)  1-.800  Cyanogen  (g) 

1.039  Nitric  oxide  (g)  1.935  Butylene  (g) 

1.105  Oxygen  (g),  2.004  Butane  (g) 

1.120  Methyl  alcohol  (v)  2.104  Carbon  oxysulphide  (g) 

1.185  Phosphuretted  hydrogen  (g)  2.200  Sulphur  (v) 

1 . 192  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  (g)  2 . 448  Chlorine  (g) 

-Air  gas  (carburetted  air)   (v): —  2.565  Ether  (v) 

1 . 260  With  10%  of  hydririne  2 . 645  Carbon  disulphide  (v) 

1.275  With  11J%  of  hydririne  2.697  Arseniuretted  hydrogen  (v) 

1.317  With  14%  of  hydririne  2.770  Benzol  (v) 

1.382  Allylene  (g)  2.784  Seleniuretted  hydrogen  (g) 

1.451  Propylene  (g)  3.147  Amyl  alcohol  (v) 

1.520  Propane  (g)  4.215  Chloroform  (v) 

1 . 527  Nitrous  oxide  (g)  4 . 355  Phosphorus  (v) 

1 . 530  Ethyl  aldehyde  (v)  4 . 498  Telluretted  hydrogen  (g) 

1.590  Hyponitrous  acid  (g)  5.700  Selenium  (v) 

1.613  Alcohol  (v)  6.650  Sulphur  vapor 

1.617  Methyl  ether  (g)      -  8.896  Tellurium  (v) 

1 . 738  Methyl  chloride  (g) 

Gas  Containers. — According  to  ^Dr.  Von  Schwartz  in  Fire  and 
Explosive  Risk,  the  following  points  may  be  stated  with  reference 
to  the  fitting  up  of  the  gas  cylinders  and  their  pipe  connections: 

(1)  Liquid   gases    should   never   be   used   or   stored,   not   to    say 
manufactured,   in  workrooms   containing  inflammable   materials   or 
explodible  vessels. 

(2)  The    cylinders    and   pipes    may   only   be    placed   in    suitable 
cool  situations,  shaded  from  the  sun  and  remote  from  any  source 
of  heat  (a  stove  or  lamp). 

(3)  The  waste  gas  that  cannot  be  used  again  must  not  be  allowed 
to  escape  in  or  towards  any  place  where  it  might  become  ignited  by 
sparks,  fire,  or  incandescent  material    (flues).     Exceptions  to  this 
rule  are  afforded  by  the  uninflammable  gases  sulphuric  acid,  am- 
monia, and  carbon  dioxide ;  but  oxygen,  though  itself  uninflammable, 
may  stimulate  combustion  in  other  burning  materials,  and  should 
therefore  be  kept  at  a  distance  from  fires  of  all  kinds. 

(4)  The     cylinders     must     fulfil     legislative     requirements,     be 
officially  certified  and  tested,  mounted  on  secure  foundations,  pro- 
vided  with   safety   valves   of    sufficiently   strong   construction,   and 
have  been  thoroughly  annealed  at  the  time  of  manufacture. 

(5)  If  the  outlet  valve  be  opened  very  quickly,  the  temperature 
in  the  pressure  regulator  is  raised  to  a  point  sufficient  to  carbonize 
wood    shavings,    i.  '  e.,    i6o°-2oo°    C.     This    temperature    has    been 
observed  in  the  case  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  harmless  so  far 
as   inflammability   is   concerned;    and   in   the   case   of   inflammable 
gases  the  very  rapid  opening  of  the  valve  would  lead  to  consid- 
erable' risk  of  explosion. 

(6)  Explosions  of  liquefied  combustible  gases  may  easily  cause 
fires,   whereas,   in   the   case   of   incombustible   gases,   e.   g.,    carbon 
dioxide,  ammonia,   sulphur  dioxide,  such  a  result  can  only  occur 
wrhen    particularly   inflammable   materials,    carriers    of    oxygen,   or 
dust-yielding  substances  are  present. 


184  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(7)  With  certain  gases  the  escape  from  the  cylinder  is  accom- 
panied   by    electrical    phenomena,    which    may    prove    a    source    of 
danger,  especially  in  the  case  of  readily  inflamm-able  gases. 

(8)  Cylinders  containing  liquid  gases  should  never  be  heated  to 
more   than    30°    C,    and   this   temperature,    which   may   readily -be 
attained  in  the  sun,  may  induce  explosion  even  in  the  case  of  the 
best-made    cylinders.      Conveying    gas    cylinders    on    open    wagons 
exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  stm,  is  a  dangerous  proceeding. 

In  the  United'  States,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
has  issued  regulations  covering  the  construction  of  cylinders 
and  drums  for  compressed  or  liquefied  gases  or  gases  in  solu- 
tion. The  provisions  of  these  regulations  have  been  adopted 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for  storage  con- 
tainers for  acetylene  and  like  gases,  and  are  in  use  by  various 
cities.  Containers  meeting  the  above  regulations  are  required 
to  have  stamped,  labeled  or  marked  thereon  "  Complies  with  the 
I.  C.  C.  Spec'n  No.  — :."  These  containers,  if  used  for  gases, 
must  be  tested  every  five  years,  and  must  not  show  a  permanent 
expansion  of  over  ten  per  cent. 

These  regulations  provide  that  containers  of  inflammable, 
liquids  must  not  be  entirely  filled,  a  vacant  space  equal  to  two 
per  cent  being  required. 

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ACETYLENE  APPARATUS 

Calcium  carbide  in  its  commercial  form  is  harmless  in  so  far  as 
the  effect  of  fire  on  it  is  concerned.  With  the  application  of 
water,  however,  it  decomposes  and  generates  acetylene;  when  left 
open  its  great  affinity  for  water  permits  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  air,  with  a  gradual  liberation  of  acetylene.  Because  of 
this,  the  commercial  packages  are  made  very  tight;  instances  are 
known  where  large  quantities  have  been  sunk  or  flooded,  with 
no  harmful  effect  on  the  contents  of  the  drums.  In  small  quan- 
tities, if  the  containers  are  kept  closed  and  above  the  floor,  to 
prevent  accidental  letting  in  of  water,  there  is  little  hazard,  and 
storage  is  permitted  in  most  any  place.  For  larger  storage,  the 
rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  are  as  follows: 

Calcium  carbide  in  excess  of  600  pounds  shall  be  stored  in  approved  metal 
packages  above  ground  in  one-story  buildings  without  cellar  or  basement 
and  used  exclusively  for  the  storage  of  calcium  carbide.  Such  buildings 
shall  be  constructed  to  be  dry,  waterproof  and  well  ventilated.  Buildings 
shall  be  located  outside  congested  mercantile  or  manufacturing  districts. 
If  storage  building  is  of  incombustible  construction  it  may  adjoin  other  one- 
story  buildings  if  separated  therefrom  by  an  unpierced  fire  wall;  if  detached 
less  than  ten  feet  from  such  one-story  buildings  there  shall  be  no  openings 
in  the  adjacent  sides  of  either  building.  If  carbide  storage  building  is  of 
combustible  construction  it  must  not  be  within  20  feet  of  other  one-story  or 
two-story  buildings,  nor  within  30  feet  of  other  buildings  over  two  stories. 

Acetylene. — Pure  gaseous  acetylene  under  a  pressure  of  less 
than  i  atmosphere  may  be  exposed  to  powerful  shocks,  blows, 
falls  from  a  considerable  height,  and  the  effects  of  gunshot,  without 
exploding,  but  if  there  is  any  liquid  acetylene  in  the  vessel  or 
any  sparks  are  produced,  there  will  be  a  violent  explosion.  How- 
ever, as  it  is  highly  explosive  at  2  atmospheres  it  is  desirable  not 
to  store  it  under  pressure. 

Anything  likely  to  produce  sparks  is  a  source  of  danger  to 
acetylene  kept  under  pressure.  All  vessels  should  be  protected 
from  the  action  of  heat,  since  the  gas  should  never  be  heated 
above  100°  F.,  at  which  temperature  the  effects  are  the  same  as 
those  of  direct  ignition,  electric  sparks,  etc.,  and  explosion  may 
result  even  if  the  gas  be  under  moderate  pressure.  An  acetylene 
burner  will  reignite  the  gas  if  the  tap  is  turned  on  again  before 
it  has  cooled. 

Through  the  sudden  opening  of  the  delivery  apertures  of  vessels 
containing  acetylene  under  pressure,  the  escaping  gas  may  become 


i86  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

so  hot  as  to  take  fire.  The  overcharging  of  the  vessels  that  are 
not  sufficiently  cooled,  or  the  transfer  of  acetylene  from  a  small 
vessel  (under  pressure)  to  a  larger  one,  is  also  a  source  of  danger. 

To  prevent  acetylene  lighting  back  from  the  burner  jet  to  the 
generator,  at  least  two  non-return  valves  or  back-flash  preventers 
should  be  provided. 

To  diminish  the  dangers  of  acetylene  it  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  coal  gas  or  oil  gas.  The  latter  in  particular  is  now  used, 
in  the  proportions  50  per  cent  of  acetylene  and  56  per  cent  of 
oil  gas,  or  60-65  per  cent  of  oil  gas  and  40-35  per  cent  of  acetylene. 
In  addition  to  being  inexplosive,  these  mixtures  may  be  subjected 
to  a  pressure  of  6  atmospheres.  Acetylene  is  not  well  suited  for 
incandescent  lighting,  the  mantles  being  rapidly  injured  and  spoiled 
by  the  violence  of  the  detonations  on  lighting  the  gas. 

The  dangers  of  acetylene  have  been  reduced  by  dissolving  the 
'  gas  in  liquids  that  are  capable  of  absorbing  it  in  large  quantities. 
Water  is  unsuitable  for  this  purpose,  since  it  merely  dissolves  its 
own  volume  of  the  gas ;  and,  besides,  this  solution  is  always  danger- 
ous when  brought  into  contact  with  burning  gases  or  oxygen. 
Hence  all  water  containing  acetylene,  and  especially  waste  waters 
that  have  stood  in  contact  with  the  gas  for  some  time,  must  be 
handled  with  care. 

The  best  solvent  is  acetone.  Under  ordinary  pressure,  this  liquid 
will  take  up  31  times  its  own  volume  of  the  gas;  and  if  cold  be 
employed,  one  part  of  acetone  will  absorb,  at  — 81°  C.  (the  solidifi- 
cation point  of  acetylene),  as  much  as  2,000  parts  of  acetylene, 
its  own  volume  being  thereby  increased  4  to  5  fold.  Even  under 
pressure  alone — though  this  is  dangerous — the  solvent  capacity 
can  be  raised  to  50  volumes  of  acetylene  to  one  of  acetone.  The 
solution  may  be  exposed  to  a  pressure  of  10  atmospheres  without 
any  great  danger  being  incurred.  If  the  acetone  is  supersaturated 
with  acetylene,  or  the  solution  is  heated  so  that  free  gas  accumu- 
lates in  the  container,  this  gas  will  present  the  same  dangers  as 
acetylene  gas  under  pressure. 

In  using  or  generating  acetylene,  it  is  highly  advisable  to  use 
only  generators  and  appliances  which  have  been  listed  by  the 
Underwriters'  Laboratories,  which  guarantees  that  the  appliances 
have  been  examined  under  a  rigid  set  of  requirements  tending 
largely  to  reduce  the  otherwise  high  hazard  of  this  gas. 

The  insurance  regulations,  as  given  below,  permit  the  location 
of  stationary  automatic  generators  inside  the  building  being  lighted. 
In  the  first  rules  adopted,  the  larger  sizes  were  prohibited  inside 
buildings,  and  were  required  to  be  in  a  special  generator  house 
30  feet  distant;  because  the  hazard  was  primarily  one  of  explosion 


ACETYLENE  APPARATUS  187 

and  there  was  little  fire  hazard,  these  have  been  changed,  against 
the  judgment  of  many  insurance  engineers,  who  felt  that  the  hazard 
to  life  was  sufficiently  great  to  still  require  the  separate  generator 
house.  A  form  of  generator  becoming  more  common  is  the  so- 
called  "  Pit  Generator ;"  this  is  buried  and  is  located  at  least  30 
feet  from  any  building.  While  not  provided  with  all  the  safety 
features  of  the  stationary  automatic  generator  used  inside  a  build- 
ing, the  damage  possible  with  an  explosion  is  greatly  reduced;  it 
is  strongly  recommended  that  this  type  be  used  where  possible. 

The  installation  rules  of  the  various  types  of  machines,  as  issued 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  are  as  follows: 

(See  also  appendix  for  changes  made  in  the  Regulations  in 
1916  and  Regulations  for  Classes  D  and  C.) 

The  use  of  liquid  acetylene  or  gas  generated  therefrom  is  absolutely  pro- 
hibited. 

Class    A — Stationary    Automatic    Apparatus 

1.  FOUNDATIONS.— a.   Where    practicable    to    be    of    brick,    stone,    concrete    or 
iron.     If  necessarily  of  wood  they  shall  be  extra  heavy,  located  in  a  dry  place 
and  open  to  the  circulation  of  air. 

The  ordinary  board  platform  is  not  satisfactory.  Wooden  foundations  shall 
be  of  heavy  planking,  joists  or  timbers,  arranged  so  that  the  air  will  circulate 
around  them  and  so  as  to  form  a  firm  base. 

b.  To  be  so  arranged  that  the  machine  will  be  level  and  unequal  strain  will 
not  be  placed  on  the  generator  or  connections. 

2.  LOCATION. — a.   Generators,   especially   in    closely   built   up   districts,   should 
preferably    be    placed    outside    of    insured    buildings    in    generator    houses    con- 
structed and  located  in  compliance   with   Rule   9. 

b.  Generators  to  be  so  placed  that  the  operating  mechanism  will  have  room 
for  free  and  full  play  and  can  be  adjusted  without  artificial  light.     They  must 
not  be  subject  to  interference  by  children  or  careless  persons,  and  if  for  this 
purpose    further    enclosure    is    necessary    it    must    be    furnished    by    means    of 
slatted  partitions  permitting  the  free  circulation  of  air. 

c.  Generators  which  from  their  construction  are  rendered  inoperative  during 
the  process  of  recharging  to  be  so  located  that  they  can  be  recharged  without 
the  aid  of  artificial  light. 

J.   Generators  to  be  placed  where  water  will  not   freeze. 

3.  ESCAPES  OR  RELIEF  PIPES. — Each  generator  to  be  provided  with  an  escape 
or  relief  pipe  of  ample  size;   no  such  pipe  to  be  less  than  three-quarters  inch 
internal   diameter.     This  pipe  to  be   substantially  installed,   without   traps,   and 
so  that  any  condensation  will  drain  back  to  the  generator.     It  is  to  be  carried 
to   a  suitable   point   outside   the  building,   and  terminate   in   an   approved   hood 
located  at  least  twelve  feet  above  ground  and  remote  from  windows. 

The  hood  is  to  be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  be  obstructed 
by  rain,  snow,  ice,  insects  or  birds. 

4.  CAPACITY". — a.  To  be   sufficient  to  furnish   gas   continuously   for  the  maxi- 
mum  lighting   period   to   all   lights    installed.      A   lighting  period   of   at   least    5 
hours  is  to  be  provided  for  in  every  case. 

b.  Generators  for  conditions  of  service  requiring  lighting  periods  of  more 
than  5  hours  to  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  avoid  recharging  at  night. 

The  following  ratings  will  usually  be   found  advisable: 

(i)  For  dwellings,  and  where  machines  are  always  used  intermittently,  the 
generator  to  have  a  rated  capacity  equal  to  the  total  number  of  burners  in- 
stalled. 


1 88  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

V;*( 2)  For  stores^  opera  houses,  theatres,  day  run  factories,  and  similar 'ser- 
vice, the  generator  to  have  a  rated  capacity  of  from  30  to  50  per  cent  in  excess 
of  the  total  number  o'f  burners  installed. 

(3)  For  saloons  and  all  night  or  continued  service,  the  generator  to  have 
a  rated  capacity  of  from  100  to  200  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  total  number  of 
burners  installed. 

c.  A  small  generator  should  never  be  installed  to  supply  a  large  .number  of 
lights,  even  though  it  seems  probable  that  only  a  few  lights  will  be  used  at  a 
time.  An  overworked  generator  adds  to  the  cost  of  producing  acetylene  gas. 

$.  CARBIDE  CHARGES. — To  be  sufficient  to  furnish  gas  continuously  for  the 
maximum  lighting  period  to  all  burners  installed.  In  determining  charges 
lump  carbide  to  be  estimated  as  capable  of  producing  4%  cubic  feet  of  gas  to 
the  pound,  commercial  %-inch  carbide  4  cubic  feet  of  gas  to  the  pound,  and 
burners  to  be  considered  as  requiring  at  least  twenty-five  per  cent  more  than 
their  rated  consumption  of  gas. 

6.  BURNERS. — Burners   consuming  one-half   of  a   cubic  foot  of  gas   per  hour 
are  considered  standard  in   rating  generators.     Those  having  a  greater  or  less 
capacity    will    decrease    or    increase    the    number    of   burners    allowable    in    pro- 
portion. 

Burners  usually  consume  from  25  to  100  per  cent  more  than  their  rated 
consumption  of  gas  depending  largely  on  the  working  pressure.  The  so-called 
%-foot  burner  when  operated  at  pressures  of  from  20  to  25  tenths  inches  water 
column  (2  to  2%  inches)  is  usually  usedv  with,  best  economy. 

7.  PIPING. — a.    Connections    from    generators    to   service   pipes   must   be    made 
with  right  and  left  thread  nipples  or  long  thread  nipples  with  lock  nuts.     All 
forms  of  unions   requiring  gaskets   are  prohibited. 

b.  Piping,  as   far  as  possible,  to  be  arranged  so  that  any  moisture  will  drain 
back  to   the   generator.      If   low  points   occur  of   necessity   in   any   piping,   they 
are  to  be  drained  through   tees  into   drip  cups  permanently  closed   with   .screw 
caps  or  plugs.     No  pet-cocks  to  be  used. 

c.  A  valve   and   by-pass  connection  to   be   provided    from   the   service-pipe   to 
the  blow-off  for  removing  the  gas   from  the  holder  in  case  it  should  be  neces- 
sary to  do  so.  ("". 

d.  The  schedule  of  pipe  sizes  for  piping  from   generators  to  bxirners  should 
conform  to  that  commonly  used  for  ordinary  gas,  but  in  no  case  are  the  feed- 
ers to  be  smaller  than  three-eighths  inch. 

The  following  schedule  is  advocated: 

t.  inch  pipe,  26  feet,  three  burners, 

inch  pipe,  30   feet,  six  burners, 

inch  pipe,  50  feet,  twenty   burners. 

1  inch  pipe,  70  feet,  thirty-five   burners. 
1%  inch  pipe,  too  feet,  sixty  burners. 

i%   inch  pipe,   150   feet,  one   hundred  burners. 

2  inch  pipe,  200  feet,  two  hundred  burners. 
2^  inch  pipe,  300  feet,  three   hundred   burners. 

3  inch  pipe,  450  feet,  four  hundred  and  fifty  burners. 
3^/2  inch  pipe,  500  feet,  six   hundred  burners. 

4  inch  pipe,  600  feet,  seven    hundred   and   fifty   burners. 

e.  Machines   of  the   carbide   feed  type   are   not  to   be   fitted    with   continuous 
drain    connections    leading   to    sewers,    but    must    discharge    into    suitable    open 
receptacles  which  may  have  such  connections. 

.  /»  Piping  to  .be  thoroughly  tested  both  before  and  after  the  burners  have 
been  installed.  It  should  not  show  loss  in  excess  of  two  inches  of  mercury 
within  twelve  hours  when  subjected  to  a  pressure  equal  to  that  of  fifteen 
inches  of  mercury. 

g.  Piping  and  connections  to  be  installed  by  persons  experienced  in  the 
installations  of  acetylene  apparatus. 

8.  CARE  AND  ATTENDANCE. — In  the  care  of  generators  designed  for  a  lighting 


AfKTYLKNK    APPARATUS  189 

period  uf  nn>ro  than  5  hours  always  clean  and  recharge  the  generating  cham- 
bers at  regular  stated  intervals  regardless  of  the  number  of  burners  actually 
used. 

Where  generators  are  not  used  throughout  the  entire  year  always  remove  all 
water  and  .UPS  and  clean  thoroughly  at  the  end  of  the  season  during  which 
they  are  in  service. 

It  is  usually  necessary  to  take  the  1>ell  portion  out  and  invert  it  so  as  to 
,,llo\v  all  gas  to  escape.  This  should  never  be  done  in  the  presence  of  arti- 
ficial light  or  fire  of  any  kind. 

Always  observe  a  regular  time,  during  daylight  hours  only,  for  attending  to 
and  charging  the  apparatus. 

In  charging  the  generating  chambers  of  water-feed  machines  clean  all 
residuum  carefully  from  the  containers  and  remove  it  at  once  from  the  build- 
ing. Separate  from  the  mass  any  unslacked  carbide  remaining  and  return  it 
to  the  containers,  adding  new  carbide  as  required.  Be  careful  never  to  fill 
the  containers  over  the  specified  mark,  as  it  is  important  to  allow  for  the 
swelling  of  the  carbide  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  water.  The  proper  action 
and  economy  of  the  machine  are  dependent  on  the  arrangement  and  amount  of 
carbide  placed  in  the  generator.  Carefully  guard  against  the  escape  of  gas. 

Whenever  recharging  with  carbide  always  replenish  the  water  supply  and  in 
carbide  machines  be  careful  not  to  place  in  the  generator  less  than  one  gallon 
of  water  for  edch  pound  of  the  carbide  capacity,  and  not  to  bring  the  water 
above  the  point  marked  on  the  machine  as  the  proper  level. 

Never  deposit  residuum  or  exhausted  material  from  water-feed  machines  in 
sewer  pipe  or  near  inflammable  material. 

Never  recharge  carbide  feed  generators  with  carbide  without  first  cleaning 
out  the  generating  chambers  and  completely  refilling  with  clean  water. 

Never  test  the  generator  or  piping  for  leaks  with  a  flame,  and  never  apply 
flame  to  an  outlet  from  which  the  burner  has  been  removed. 

Never  use  a  lighted  match,  lamp,  candle,  lantern  or  any  open  light  near  the 
machine. 

Failure  to  observe  the  above  cautions  is  as  liable  to  endanger  life  as  property. 

9.  OUTSIDE  GENERATOR  HOUSES.— a.   Outside  generator  houses  should  not  be 
located   within  five    (5)    feet  of  any  opening  into,   nor  shall   they  open  toward 
any  adjacent  building,  and  mustt  be  kept  under  lock  and  key. 

b.  The    dimensions    to    be    no    greater   than    the    apparatus    requires    to    allow 
convenient  room  for  recharging  and  inspection  of  parts. 

c.  Generator   houses   to   be  thoroughly   ventilated,   and    any   artificial   heating 
necessary  to  prevent   freezing  shall  be  done  by  steam  or  hot  water  systems. 

Class    B — Stationary    Non-Automatic    Apparatus 

10.  FOUNDATIONS. — a.  To  be  of  brick,  stone  or  concrete. 

b.  To  be  so  arranged  that  the  machine  will  be  level  and  so  that  strain  will 
not  be  brought  upon  the  connections. 

it.  GAS  HOUSES. — a.  To  be  constructed  entirely  of  non-combustible  material 
and  must  not  be  lighted  by  any  system  tff  illumination  involving  open  flames. 

b.  To  be  heated,  where  artificial  heating  is  necessary  to  prevent  freezing,  by 
steam  or  hot  water  systems,  the  heater  to  be  located  in  a  separate  building, 
and  no  open  flames  to  be  permitted  within  generator  enclosures. 

r.   To  be  kept  closed   and   locked   excepting  during  daylight  hours. 

d.  To    be    provided    with    a    permanent    and    effective    system    of    ventilation 
which  will  be  operative  at  all  times,  regardless  of  the  periods  of  operation  of 
the  plant. 

12.  ESCAPE  PIPES. — Each  generator  to  be  provided  with  a  vent  pipe  of  ample 
size,  substantially  installed,  without  traps.  It  should  be  carried  to  a  suitable 


190  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

point  outside  the  building  and  terminate  in  an  approved  hood  located  at  least 
twelve  feet  above  ground  and  remote  from  windows. 

The  hood  is  to  be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  be  obstructed 
by  rain,  snow,  ice,  insects  or  birds. 

13.  CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE. — All  charging  and  cleaning  of  apparatus,  gen- 
eration of  gas  and  execution  of  repairs  to  be  done  during  daylight  hours  only, 
and  generators  are  not  to  be  manipulated  or  in  any  way  tampered  with  in  the 
presence  of  artificial  light. 

This  will  require  gas-holders  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  supply  all  lights 
installed  for  the  maximum  lighting  period,  without  the  necessity  of  generation 
of  gas  at  night  or  by  artificial  light. 

In  the  operation  of  generators  of  the  carbide-feed  type  it  is  important  that 
only  a  limited  amount  of  carbide  be  fed  into  a  given  body  of  water.  An 
allowance  of  at  least  one  gallon  of  generating  water  per  pound  of  carbide  must 
be  made  in  every  case,  and  when  this  limit  has  been  reached  the  generator 
should  be  drained  and  flushed,  and  clean  water  introduced.  These  precautions 
are  necessary  to  avoid  overheating  during  generation  and  accumulation  of  hard 
deposits  of  residuum  in  the  generating  chamber. 

Class   C — Semi-Portable   Automatic  Acetylene   Apparatus 

FOUNDATIONS. — (a)  Should  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  proper  support  for 
the  weight  involved.  If  of  wood,  they  shall  be  located  in  a  dry  place  open 
to  the  circulation  of  air. 

(b)  To  be  so  arranged  that  the   machine  will  be  level,   and  so  that  unequal 
strain   will   not  be   placed   on  the  generator  or  connections. 

(c)  The    generator    must    be    so    installed    as    to    prevent    accidental    over- 
turning. 

LOCATION. —  (a)  Generators  to  be  so  placed  that  the  operating  mechanism 
will  have  room  for  free  and  full  play  and  can  be  adjusted  without  artificial 
light.  They  must  not  be  subject  to  interference  by  children  or  careless 
persons,  and  if  for  this  purpose  further  enclosure  is  necessary  it  must  be 
furnished  by  means  of  slatted  partitions,  permitting  the  free  circulation  of  air. 

(b)  Generators    which     from    their    construction     are     rendered    inoperative 
during  the  process  of  recharging  to  be  so  located  that  they  can  be  recharged 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  light. 

(c)  Generators  to  be  placed  where   water  will  not   freeze. 

ESCAPES  OR  RELIEF  PIPES. — If  escape  or  relief  pipes  are  required,  they 
should  conform  to  rule  for  the  installation'  of  other  acetylene  apparatus. 
(See  Rule  3.) 

PIPING. — (a)  Shall  conform  to  Rule  7,  except  that  seamless  brass  tubing 
may  be  employed  provided  the  generator  is  so  designed  that  in  case  of  a 
break  anywhere  in  the  distributing  system,  the  machine  will  be  inoperative. 

(b)  If   conditions    for    recharging   are    such    that   the    machine    must   be    dis- 
connected   from   the   piping  system,    it   may   be    connected    with    the   piping   by 
metal   tubing    or    pipe    having    sufficient    flexibility    through    U-bend    or   coil    to 
allow    necessary   adjustment    for   making   connection    without    undue    strain    on 
material   or   joints. 

(c)  Tubing  must  be  of  sufficient  internal  diameter  t&  insure  adequate  supply 
of  gas  with  normal  working  pressure  at  the  generator. 

(d)  Tubing    must    be    of    sufficient    thickness    to    safely    withstand    pressure 
of   500  pounds   per   square   inch,   and  in   no   case    lighter   than    %-inch   outside 
diameter   with    i /64-inch   walls. 

(e)  Must    not    be    secured    in    place    with    staples    unless    bushed,    and    must 
be    suitably    protected    from    mechanical    injury    wherever    the    distance    above 
the   floor  is  less  than   5    feet. 

Must  be  protected  by  sleeves  where  passing  through  floors,  walls  or 
partitions. 

Must  be  supported  in  ceiling  runs  at  intervals  not  exceeding  6  feet. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  INSTALLATION 
AND  USE  OF  COAL  GAS  PRODUCERS* 

XOTE. — These  are  installation  rules  only  and  are  not  to  be  considered  as 
specification^  for  the  construction  of  Coal  Gas  Producers. 

1.  PRESSURE    SYSTEMS. — All    pressure    systems    must    be    located    in    a    special 
building   or   buildings   approved   by    Inspection    Department    having   jurisdiction 
for    the    purpose,    at   such    distance    from   other    buildings    as    not    to    constitute 
an  exposure  thereto,  except  that  approved  pressure   systems  without   gasometer 

'having  a  maximum  capacity  not  exceeding  250  horse  power  and  with  pressure 
in  generator  not  exceeding  two  pounds,  may  be  located  in  the  building,  pro- 
vided that  the  generator  and  all  apparatus  connected  therewith  be  located 
in  a  separate  fireproof  room,  well  ventilated  to  the  outside  of  the  building; 
every  communication  if  any  to  be  protected  by  an  approved  fire  door.  In 
al'  other  respects  the  apparatus  must  comply  with  the  requirements  for 
suction  systems. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE.— The  pressure  type  of  system  introduces  an  explosion  hazard 
to  a  slight  degree,  making  the  building  best  suited  one  of  light  non-com- 
bustible character.  For  both  types  of  producers,  the  hazard  of  coal  storage 
is  the  same  as  for  a  boiler  plant. 

2.  SUCTION    SYSTEMS. —  (a)    Approved   suction   gas   producers   may    be   located 
inside   the   building,   provided   the    apparatus    for  i  producing  and   preparing  the 
gas    is    installed    in    a    well-ventilated    room.      At    no    time    shall    the    internal 
pressure  of  the  producer  be   in  excess   of  atmospheric   pressure. 

NOTE. — The  installation  of  gas  producers  in  places  where  open  lights  or 
fires  are  used  may  be  permitted  by  special  permission  of  the  Inspection  De- 
partment having  jurisdiction. 

(b)  The    smoke    and    vent    pipe    shall,    where    practicable,    be    carried    above 
the    roof    of    the    building    in    which    the    apparatus    is    contained,    and    above 
adjoining    buildings.      When   buildings    are    too    high   to    make    this    practicable 
the    pipe    shall   end    at   least    10    feet    from    any   wall    opening. 

No  smoke  nor  vent  pipe  shall  be  within  9  inches  of  any  woodwork  or 
any  wooden  lath  and  plaster  partition  or  ceiling. 

Where  smoke  and  vent  pipes  pass  through  combustible  partitions  they 
shall  be  guarded  by  galvanized  iron  ventilated  thimbles  at  least  12  inches 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipes,  or  by  galvanized  iron  thimbles  built  in 
at  least  8  inches  of  brickwork  or  other  incombustible  material.  They  shall 
not  under  any  circumstances  be  connected  into,  chimneys  or  flues  except  that 
the  pipe  may  pass  up  in  flues  used  for  no  other  purpose.  No  smoke  pipe 
shall  pass  through  any  floor  nor  through  a  roof  having  wooden  framework 
or  covering. 

(c)  Platforms    used    in    connection    with    generators    must    be    incombustible. 

(d)  The    producer    and    apparatus    connected    therewith    shall    be    safely    set 
on   a  solidly   built  masonry  foundation. 

(e)  While    the    plant    is    not    in    operation    the    connection    between    the   gen- 
erator and  scrubber  must  be  closed  and  the  connection   between  the   producer 
and   vent  pipe   opened,   so   that  the  products  of  combustion   can   pass   into   the 

*As   recommended   by   the    National   Board    of    Fire    Underwriters. 

IQI 


192  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

open  air.     This  must  be  accomplished  by  means  of  a  mechanical  arrangement 
which    will    prevent    one    operation    without    the    other. 

(f)  The    producer   must    have    sufficient   mechanical    strength    to    successfully 
resist    all    strains    to    which    it    will    be    subjected    in    practice. 

(g)  Wire  gauze  not  larger  than  30  mesh  to  the  inch  or  its  equivalent  must 
be  used  in  the  test  pipe  outlet. 

(h)  If  illuminating  or  other  pressure  gas  is  used  as  an  alternative  supply, 
the  connections  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  the  mixing  of  the  two 
gases  or  the  use  of  both  at  the  same  time  impossible. 

If  illuminating  or  other  pressure  gas  is  used  as  a  supplementary  supply, 
mixing  of  the  two  gases  may  be  permitted  if  a  suitable  device  is  provided 
to  prevent  the  supplemental  gas  from  entering  any  part  of  the  producer 
gas  equipment,  including  the  scrubber  or  purifier. 

(i)  The  opening  for  admitting  fuel  shall  be  provided  with  some  charging 
device  so  that  no  considerable  quantity  of  air  can  be  admitted,  or  gasv 
escape,  while  charging. 

(j)  Before  making  repairs  which  involve  opening  the  gas  passages  to  the 
air,  the  producer  fire  must  be  drawn  and  quenched  and  all  combustible  gas 
blown  out  of  the  apparatus  through  the  vent  pipe. 

(k)  Except  for  pressure  producers,  the  opening  for  admitting  air  into 
the  producer  during  operation  may  be  inside  the  building  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

(1)  The  apparatus  must  have  name  plate  giving  the  name  of  the  device, 
capacity  and  name  of  maker. 

NOTE.— For  installation  of  engines  used  in  connection  with  these  producers, 
see  Regulations  for  Internal  Combustion  Engines. 


Hazard  of  Electric  Lamps 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  as  the  result  of  an  investigation,  reports  that 
the  naked  filaments  of  all  standard  lamps,  energized  at  rated  voltage,  will 
ignite  explosive  gaseous  mixtures;  that  all  classes  of  standard  carbon  lamps 
will  sometimes  ignite  gas  when  the  tips  of  the  bulbs  are  broken  off;  that  the 
filament  temperature  of  all  classes  of  standard  lamps  and  of  all  but  one  class 
of  miniature  lamps  can  be  increased  to  such  a  degree  that  the  lamps  when 
smashed  will  ignite  gas;  that  several  classes  of  both  standard  and  miniature 
lamps  when  smashed  while  burning  at  rated  voltage  will  invariably  ignite  gas. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  list  a  watchman's  portable  electric  safety 
lamp,  consisting  of  a  lead  plate,  2  V.  storage  battery  enclosed  in  aluminum 
case*  A  small  incandescent  lamp,  together  with  a  special  switch,  safety  glass 
and  shells  are  mounted  on  the  top  of  casing.  For  watchman's  use.  Also  a 
miners'  portable  electric  safety  lamp,  consisting  of  a  battery,  reflector  and 
safety  features  same  as  watchman's  lamp.  Battery  is  enclosed  in  a  case  for 
fastening  to  miner's  belt,  and  reflector  is  designed  to  fasten  to  miner's  cap. 
Electrical  connection  is  made  between  the  two  by  length  of  small  armored 
cord  and  bayonet  receptacles  and  plugs.  For  use  in  mines. 

Fire  hazard  of  these  lamps  under  any  conditions  liable  to  be  met  in  service 
is  judged  to  be  practicably  negligible,  although  it  is  recognized  that  under  con- 
ditions remotely  possible  the  more  explosive  vapors  can  be  ignited  by  the  hot 
filaments  exposed  by  breaking  of  lamps  used. 

The  results  of  tests,  supplemented  by  reports  of  extensive  field  experience, 
indicate  that  these  lamps  are  suitable  for  general  use  and  are  .especially  suitable 
for  use  wherever  flammable  or,  explosive  vapors  or  gases  are  liable  to  be 
encountered. 


GAS  APPLIANCES  193 

Gas  Shut-Off  Valves 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  fires  are  frequently  caused  or  increased 
in  volume  as  a  result  of  the  escape  of  inflammable  gases,  which 
cannot  be  readily  controlled  on  account  of  the  inaccessibility  or 
absence  of  shut-off  valves  in  the  system  of  piping,  or  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  ordinary  valves  where  installed  may  not  be  opera- 
tive after  long  standing,  a  properly  located  manually  operated 
valve  in  such  piping  should  be  provided. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  list  several  makes  of  gas  shut-off 
valves.  The  equipment  consists  essentially  of  a  valve  connected 
by  a  protected  rod  or  cable  with  a  control  handle  in  a  pull  box 
located  at  some  readily  accessible  point. 

As  given  in  the  regulations  issued  by  the/National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters  issued  in  1913  the  installation  should  be  as  follows : 

INSTALLATION. — a.  Shut-off  valve  preferably  to  be  located  in  a  substantially 
constructed  pit  outside  the  building  wall.  Pit  to  be  provided  with  a  locked 
cover  and  to  be  no  larger  than  necessary  tc  allow  the  proper  inspection  and 
adjustment  of  the  valve.  Valve  should  be  protected  against  freezing. 

NOTE.— Inspection  departments  and  local  authorities  haying  jurisdiction  to 
be  consulted  when  the  valve  cannot  be  located  as  specified  above.  When 
necessarily  installed  inside  of  building,  valve  to  be  located  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  point  where  gas  main  enters  building. 

b.  The    installation    of   the   valve   to   be   such   that    the   hazards   from    falling 
walls,    etc.,    will    be    minimized. 

c.  The  valve  to  be  located  in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  readily  inspected 
and   reset   by   authorized   persons. 

d.  The    valve    to    be    protected    from    accumulation    of    moisture    as    far    as 
practicable,  and  to  be  kept  free  from  accumulation  of  lumber  or  other  material. 

e.  Control    handle    for   closing   valve   to   be   in   a   locked   metal   pull   box   pro- 
vided  with   a   glass   or   metal   cover   suitably   marked  to   designate   its   purpose. 
Pull    box   to    be   located   so  that  it   will   be    readily   accessible    from   outside   of 
building,  and  to  be  secured  to  a  non-combustible  wall   where   possible. 

f .  Connection  •  between    valve    and    control    handle    to    be    run    as   directly    as 
practicable,    and    to    be    entirely   enclosed    in    galvanized    iron    or    steel    pipe    or 
approved    conduit    to    prevent    interference    with   operation,    accidental    closure, 
or   tampering. 

NOTE. — Connection  between  valve  and  control  handle  by  means  of  a  single 
direct  rod  is  preferred.  Where  the'  character  of  the  installation  is  such  that 
the  direct-rod  connection  is  impracticable  the  use  of  a  cable  connection,  if 
acceptable  to  inspection  departments  and  local  authorities,  may  be  permitted. 

g.  Where    a    cable    connection    is    used    between    valve    and    control    handle, 
the    conduit    is    to    be    securely    anchored    and    provided    with    suitable    roller 
fittings  at   angles   which   will  prevent  sticking  of  the  cable. 

NOTE. — Bends  in  conduit  and  unnecessary  joints  which  are  liable  to  cause 
friction  or  lost  motion,  are  to  be  avoided. 

h.  Supplementary  pull  boxes  for  operating  valve  from  inside  of  building, 
if  used,  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  will  not  in  any  way  interfere  with 
the  manual  operation  referred  to  above. 

NOTE. — Supplementary  controls  are  not  to  be  used  unless  acceptable  to 
inspection  departments  and  local  authorities,  who  should  be  consulted  in 
reference  to  location  of  control  stations. 

i.  Valve  mechanism  and  pull  boxes  to  be  locked  so  as  to  be  accessible  only 
to  authorized  persons. 


194  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

NOTE. — Automatic  means  for  closing  valves  may  be  of  value  for  the  pro- 
tection of  fusible  meters  or  connections.  Where  meters  and  connections  are 
of  such  construction  that  gas  will  not  escape  in  case  of  fire  an  automatic 
control  is  of  little  value  and  may  lead  to  the  premature  extinguishment  of 
the  lights  in  the  building. 

CARE  AND  ATTENDANCE.— The  valve  and  its  attachments  should  be  inspected 
at  least  once  every  six  months,  and  after  a  valve  has  been  used  to  shut  off 
the  gas  it  should  be  reset  only  by  authorized  persons. 


! 

,     . 
. 

- 

'    ' 


. 


• 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION  OF 
LAUNDRIES* 

Xo  combustible  material  shall  be  permitted  in  the  construction  of  any 
laundry  drying  room  hereafter  erected  in  hotels,  apartments,  tenements, 
asylums,  convents,  prisons,  and  similar  public  institutions. 

NOTE. — It  is  strongly  recommended  that  all  laundry  drying  rooms  be 
made  of  incombustible  materials.  The  extra  cost  of  such  fireproof  con- 
struction is  not  excessive  and  this  is  offset  by  the  increased  life  of  the 
structure.  The  reduction  in  fire  hazard  by  the  use  of  such  construction  is 
very  marked. 

If  drying  rooms  are  constructed  of  wood,  the  inside  surface  of  all  walls, 
ceilings,  partitions,  and  doors,  shall  be  covered  in  every  part  with  a  layer 
of  sheet  asbestos  not  less  than  %  inch  thick;  and  over  this  a  layer  of  sheet 
metal.  The  metal  shall  be  nailed  in  place  with  locked  joints  covering  the 
nail  heads. 

If  wheel  racks  are  used  which  roll  on  the  floor  of  the  drying  room,  the 
floor  shall  be  covered  with  heavy  sheet  steel  suitable  to  resist  the  wear  of 
the  wheels;  or  it  may  be  covered  with  brick,  concrete,  tile,  or  any  incom- 
bustible composition  flooring  approved  by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 
If  drying  racks  are  of  such  type  as  not  to  abrade  the  floor,  it  may  be 
covered  the  same  as  the  sides  and  ceiling. 

If  any  windows  are  placed  in  drying  room  walls  or  ceilings,  they  shall 
be  glazed  with  wired  glass,  set  in  stationary  approved  metal  sash. 

If  a  vent  pipe  be  used  in  connection  with  a  drying  room,  it  shall  be 
wrapped  its  full  length  with  sheet  asbestos,  corrugated  asbestos,  or  some 
equivalent  fireproof  material  satisfactory  to  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 
Such  covering  shall  be  not  les's  than  %  inch  in  thickness,  and  shall  be 
securely  attached  to  the  pipes  with  wire  or  metal  bands. 

Xo  part  of  a  vent  pipe  shall  be  placed  nearer  than  6  inches  to  any 
exposed  woodwork. 

In  the  vent  pipe,  in  or  near  the  drying  room,  there  shall  be  placed  a  fine 
wire  screen  to  catch  the  lint  and  dirt  that  is  drawn  out  of  the  drying  room. 
The  screen  shall  be  arranged  to  permit  of  easy  removal  for  purpose  of 
cleaning,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  person  in  charge  of  the  drying 
room  to  see  that  the  screen  is  kept  clean. 

XOTE. — For   requirements   for  ventilating  systems,   see   page   204. 

The  inside  of  the  drying  room  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  at  least  once 
a  week  to  remove  any  dust  or  lint  that  may  have  accumulated  therein. 

The  dust  and  lint  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  all  dryroom  tumblers, 
ironing  machines,  and  mangles  at  least  once  per  month.  Particular  attention 
shall  be  paid  to  cleaning  the  driving  mechanism  where  such  accumulations 
may  be  saturated  with  oil. 

XOTE. — These  precautions  are  taken  because  of  the  well  recognized  danger 
of  fire  due  to  an  accumulation  of  lint  and  dust  in  conjunction  with  the 
inevitable  spark  from  some  unexpected  source.  Even  spontaneous  com- 
bustion is  known  to  have  started  such  a  fire. 


*  Abstracted    from    a   suggested    ordinance    issued    by   the    National    Board   of 
Fire    Underwriters. 

195 


196  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Ventilating  fans  for  drying  rooms  shall  be  constructed  entirely  of  metal, 
and  shall  have  all  bearings  outside,  and  easily  accessible  for  oiling  and 
daily  inspection. 

Fans  shall  be  so  installed  as  to  be  automatically  stopped  when  the  tempera- 
ture around  them  reaches  300  degrees  F. 

All  heating  pipes  in  drying  rooms,  whether  single  6r  in  coils,  shall  be 
in  vertical  tiers  and  be  protected  by  wire  screens  of  a  mesh  not  exceeding 
14  inch.  Such  screens  shall  be  rigidly  placed  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than 
2  inches  trom  the  pipes  or  their  connections  in  every  part.  The  screens  shall 
be  conveniently  removable  for  purposes  of  repairing  pipes  or  removing  dust 
therefrom. 

No  stove  or  any  heating  appliance  burning  gas,  gasoline,  coal  or  other 
fuel  shall  be  permitted  in  any  drying  room. 

No  gas  lights  or  lamps  of  any  kind  shall  be  permitted  in  any  drying  room. 

No  combustible  material  of  any  character  shall  be  allowed  to  be  stored 
or  to  accumulate  upon  the  top  or  against  the  sides  of  any  drying  room. 

In  all  wooden  drying  rooms  hereafter  erected,  there  shall  be  introduced 
through  the  ceiling  or  near  it,  a  one-half  inch  live  steam  pipe  directly  con- 
nected to  the  boiler.  Said  pipe  shall  be  fitted  in  the  drying  room  with 
automatic  sprinkler  heads  set  to  open  at  300  degrees  F.  The  number  and 
location  of  heads  to  be  controlled  by  the  standard  sprinkler  rules  of  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  there  shall  be  a  "  sealed  open  " 
cut-off  valve  in  the  boiler  room  which  can  be  closed  in  case  of  emergency, 
or  for  repairs. 

In  lieu  of  this  steam  pipe  connection,  the  drying  room  may  be  protected 
by  automatic  sprinklers  installed  under  the  ceiling  according  to  the  sprinkler 
rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  except  that  the  water 
may  be  taken  from  the  city  supply,  provided  it  will  give  a  pressure  of  10 
pounds  at  the  sprinkler  heads  with  all  heads  open.  All  sprinkler  heads  shall 
be  set  to  open  at  300  degree  F. 

Combustible  floors  under  dryroom  tumblers,  or  other  similar  apparatus 
using  steam  from  a  boiler  rated  at  50  pounds  pressure  or  over,  shall  be 
protected  by  a  shret  of  metal  over  a  %  inch  layer  of  asbestos  or  asbestos 
building  lumber. 

All  stoves  used  for  laundry  purposes  in  non-fireproof  buildings  shall  be 
supported  on  metal  legs  not  less  than  6  inches  in  length. 

A  combustible  floor  under  a  laundry  stove  shall  be  protected  by  a  %  inch 
layer  of  sheet  asbestos  or  asbestos  building  lumber,  upon  which  a  course 
of  hollow  brick  shall  be  laid  in  cement  mortar;  and  over  the  brick  there 
shall  be  placed  a  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  of  a  thickness  not  less  than  No.  26 
gage.  The  whole  protection  shall  extend  24  inches  beyond  the  stove  on 
all  sides. 

The  sheet  metal  may  be  lapped  down  over  the  sides  of  the  layer  of  brick 
1  and  be  nailed  to  the  floor  to  assist  in  holding  the  brick  in  place,  but  the 
metal  must  not  project  over  the  ends  of  the  brick  sufficiently  to  cover  any 
portion  of  the  hollow  spaces  and  thereby  obstruct  a  free  circulation  of  air. 

The  installation  of  laundry  stoves  as  regards  their  proximity  to  wooden 
partitions,  ceilings,  or  furred  walls,  shall  conform  in  all  particulars  to  the 
requirements  for  stoves  and  ranges  presented  on  page  340. 

All  machines  used  for  ironing  or  finishing  purposes  which  are  heated  by 
gas  or  any  volatile  inflammable  fluid,  shall,-  so  far  as  possible,  be  vented 
by  metal  pipes  into  some  safe  place  outside  the  building,  or  into  a  chimney 
flue.  In  no  case  shall  the  vent  opening  of  such  machines  be  permitted  to 
face  any  passageway,  nor  any  part  of  a  laundry  floor  where  operatives  would 
be  stationed,  or  likely  to  pass  within  a  distance  of  5  feet  of  the  vent.  All 
such  machines  shall  be  placed  at  least  2  feet  from  any  woodwork. 


LAUNDRIES  197 

Collar  or  cuff  shapers,  or  stands  for  sad  or  polishing  irons,  which  are 
heated  by  gas,  or  any  volatile  inflammable  fluid,  and  rest  on  wooden  tables, 
floors,  or  other  wooden  supports,  shall  have  between  them  and  the  woodwork 
a  %  inch  layer  of  asbestos  or  asbestos  building  lumber,  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  metal.  The  aforesaid  protective  material  shall  extend  the  full  size 
of  the  heating  appliance.  No  such  heating  stand  shall  be  placed  nearer 
than  1 8  inches  to  any  combustible  wall  or  partition  unless  such  wall  or 
partition  be  protected  in  the  same  manner  as  specified  for  tables. 

No  rubber  or  other  combustible  tubing  or  hose,  shall  be  used  for  gas 
connections  to  any  laundry  heating  appliance,  except  that  necessary  for 
certain  types  of  flat  irons  which  are  used  while  being  heated.  All  other 
connections  shall  be  made  with  standard  metal  pipe  and  fittings. 

The  gas  used  for  heating  purposes  shall  be  supplied  by  a  system  of  piping 
entirely  separate  from  that  used  for  lighting,  and  the  main  supply  pipe  for 
the  heating  system  shall  "have  a  cut-off  valve  near  the  meter  which  shall  be 
closed  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work. 

No  matches  other  than  safety  matches  shall  be  permitted  to  be  used  in 
any  laundry.  i 

NOTE. — Some  careful  laundrymen  require  that  all  gas  heated  laundry  ap- 
pliances be  ignited  by  means  of  a  wax  taper,  or  a  portable  electric  gas 
lighter.  This  practice  is  commended. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  manager  or  person  in  charge  of  the  laundry 
to  see  that  the  gas  is  shut  off  from  all  ironing  or  other  heating  surfaces  at 
the  close  of  each  day's  work,  and  that  all  sad,  polishing,  *or  other  such 
irons  are  placed  on  some  incombustible  support. 

He  shall  also  see  that  no  combustible  material  be  allowed  to  accumulate  about 
any  of  the  heating  machines.  All  waste  paper  or  other  combustible  material 
shall  be  kept  in  metal  cans. 

If  the  packing  room  and  the  laundry  adjoin,  they  shall  be  separated  by 
a  fireproof  partition. 

NOTE.— Sections  covering  electric  wiring,  volatile  inflammable  liquids,  gas 
and  acetyline  are  omitted  as  being  covered  by  other  parts  of  this  book. 


EXPLOSIBILITY  OF  GRAIN  DUST.* 

Origin  and  Distribution  cf  Dusts. — During  the  process  of 
handling  grain  large  quantities  of  dust  are  produced.  The  coarse 
or  heavier  dust  settles  on  the  floors,  steps,  machinery,  etc.,  while 
the  very  fine  dust  rises  into  the  atmosphere,  and  settles  on  beams, 
rafters  and  other  inaccessible  points.  The  bolters,  rolls,  purifiers, 
etc.,  all  produce  a  large  quantity  of  dust  during  their  process  of 
operation,  and  if  a  satisfactory  system  of  dust  collecting  is  not 
installed  a.  portion  of  the  dust  may  escape  'into  the  surrounding 
atmosphere.  During  the  grinding  process  considerable  dust  may 
also  escape  into  the  air  if  proper  provisions  are  not  taken  to  keep 
the  machinery  in  repair.  The  conveyor  lines  and  elevator  legs, 
in  case  of  any  defect  in  construction,  will  allow  the  dust  to  enter 
the  surrounding  air.  At  the  discharging  point  of  grain  into  stor- 
age, an  opportunity  is_  given  for  the  dust  to  escape  into  the  air 
and  settle  on  surrounding  projections.  In  addition  to  the  various 
sources  enumerated,  there  are  possibly  a  number  of  others,  but 
the  ones  mentioned  generally  cover  the  sources  that  produce  the 
largest  quantity.  An  important  consideration  in  the  prevention  of 
the  accumulation  of  dangerous  dusts  would  be  to  attack  the  point 
where  the  dust  is  produced,  and  not  deal  exclusively  with  its 
removal  after  it  has  settled  in  dangerous  quantities.  It  is  true 
that  the  escape  of  dust  cannot  be  entirely  prevented,  but  it  can 
be  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  its  complete  removal  can  be 
more  certain. 

Efficiency  of  Dust-Collecting  Systems. — The  introduction  of 
dust-collecting  systems  in  the  milling  industry  has  succeeded  in  the 
practical  elimination  of  the  old  dust  or  "  stive  "  room.  When  this 
dust  room  was  in  use,  such  as  at  the  time  of  the  Minnesota  ex- 
plosion in  1878,  and  the  Illinois  explosion  in  1893,  the  dust  was 
conveyed  or  carried  to  the  "  stive "  room  from  the  various  parts 
of  the  mill.  This  always  made  an  "  explosive  chamber,"  as  it 
were,  allowing  sufficient  dust  to  be  in  suspension  to  produce  a 
violent  explosion,  if  ignited.  With  the  present  system  of  dust 
collection  as  •  applied  to  modern  mills  this  particular  source  of 
danger  is  done  away  with,  and,  by  means  of  air  currents,  the  dust 
is  carried  to  the  collector  and  deposited.  Many  millers  seem  to 
feel  a  sense  of  security  if  such  a  dust-collecting  system  is  in  good 
working  order,  and  that  this  danger  from  explosions  is  practically 
eliminated.  Owing  to  the  difference  in  types  of  grinding  machines 
used  in  flour  and  feed  milling,  the  flour  miller  feels  an  additional 
amount  of  protection  from  the  fact  that  a  series  of  sparks  neces- 
sary to  ignite  the  dust  cloud  will  not  be  as  readily  produced  by 
the  grinding  "  rolls "  as  when  attrition  or  friction  mills  are  used. 
However,  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  conclude  that  flour  mills 
are  not  as  liable  to  experience  explosions  as  feed  or  cereal  mills, 
owing  to  this  one  difference  of  machinery  installation,  as  other 

*  Abstracted   from  a  report  of  the  U.   S.   Bureau  of  Mines. 

198 


EXPLOSIRILITY    OF    GRAIN    DUST  IQ9 

sources  are  often  present  which  may  cause  a  spark  or  fire  and 
generate  an  explosion  which  would  extend  to  the  highly  inflam- 
mable dust  usually  prevalent  in  any  grinding  mill. 

Observations  in  various  mills  would  seem  to  indicate  that  at 
times  some  of  the  dust  collectors  do  not  work  as  effectively  as 
at  other  times.  In  sorrre  cases  dust  has  been  in  suspension,  form- 
ing a  noticeable  cloud  near  the  collecting  device,  probably  due  to 
defective  equipment.  When  this  occurs  the  very  finest  part  of 
the  dust  leaks  out  into  the  atmosphere,  and  when  mixed  with  suf- 
ficient air  forms  a  dangerous  mixture. 

Laboratory  Investigations  of  Inflammability  of  Grain  Dust. — 
Following  the  disaster  in  Minnesota  in  1878,  Professors  Peck  and 
Peckham  carried  out  some  tests  upon  the  explosibility  of  flour 
dusts.  They  found  that  two  ounces  of  these  dusts  together  with 
two  cubic  feet  of  air  would  produce,  when  ignited  in  a  box  with 
a  frame,  an  explosion  that  would  lift  two  men  standing  on  the 
cover.  It  has  been  calculated  that  a  sack  of  flour  suspended  as 
dust  in  4,000  cubic  feet  of  air*(a  room  20x20x10),  when  ignited, 
would  generate  sufficient  force  to  throw  2,500  tons  100  feet  high. 

More  recent  work  upon  the  inflammability  of  carbonaceous  dusts 
has  been  carried  out  by  R.  V.  Wheeler,  Chief  Chemist  for  the 
Explosion  in  Mines  Committee,  England.  He  tested  a  large  num- 
ber of  various  kinds  of  dusts  by  two  different  methods — one  for 
the  purpose  of  discriminating  between  harmless  and  dangerous 
dusts :  the  other  with  the  intention  of  ascertaining  the  temperatures 
at  which  inflammation  of  the  dangerous  dusts  takes  place  readily. 
As  a  result  of  these  tests  he  divided  the  dusts  into  three  classes, 
namely : — 

"  Class  I. — Dusts  which  ignite  and  propagate  flame  readily,  the  source  of 
heat  required  for  ignition  being  comparatively  small;  such,  for  example,  as 
a  lighted  match. 

"  Class  II.- — Dusts  which  are  readily  ignited,  but  which  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  flame  require  a  source  of  heat  of  large  size  and  high  temperature 
(such  as  electric  arc),  or  of  long  duration  (such  as  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen 
burner). 

"  Class  III. — Dusts  which  do  not  appear  to  be  capable  of  propagating  flame 
under  any  conditions  likely  to  obtain  in  a  factory;  either  (a)  because  they 
do  not  readily  form  a  cloud  in  air,  or  (b)  because  they  are  contaminated 
with  a  large  quantity  of  incombustible  matter,  or  (c)  because  .the  material 
of  which  they  are  composed  does  not  burn  rapidly  enough." 

Class  I 

Sugar  Maize 

Dextrine    (calcined    farina)  Tea 

Starch  Compound   cake 

Cocoa  Grain   (grain  storage) 

Rice,   meal   and   sugar   refuse  Rape    seed 

<'"rk  Cornflour 

Unextracted    soya    bean  Flour    (flour    mill) 

Wood   flour  Chicory 

Malt  Briquette- 

Oat    husk  Gramophone   record 

Grain     (flour    mill)  Extracted   soya    bean 

Class  II 

Copal  gum  Oil  cake 

Leather  Offal    grinding    (bran) 

"  Dead  "   cork  Grist  milling 

Cocoanut    oil     milling  Horn    meal 


2oo  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION    » 


Rice  milling  Mustard 


Sawdust  Shoddy 

Castor   oil   nieal  Shellac  composition 


Class  III 


Organic    ammonia  Drug  grinding 

Tobacco  Cotton    seed 

Spice  milling  .      Cotton  seed  and  soya  bean 

Bone  meal  Charcoal 

Coal    (foundry    blacking)  •     Foundry   blacking 

Lamp   black  Brush    carbon 

Sack  cleaning  Stale   coke 

Retort   carbon  Plumbago 

Rape   seed    (Russian)  Bone   charcoal 

Blacking     •  Mineral  and  ivory  black 

Grain  cleaning 

The  classification,  as  here  given,  is  according  to  the  inflammabil- 
ity, of  the  sample  tested.  Other  results  might  he  obtained  from 
other  samples  of  the  same  material,  especially  those  placed  in 
Class  III. 

The  U,  S.  Bureau  of  Min'es,  aftef  a  series  of  tests,  reports  that: 
"Although  sufficient  work  has  not  been  done  to  allow  of  any  absolute 
statements,  the  results  thus  far  indicate  that  all  dusts  that  are  made  in  the 
handling  and  working  up  of  grain  :into  food  products  can  be  ignited  under 
proper  conditions,  and  also  will  propagate  a  flame,  most  of  them  with 
explosive  violence.  This  statement  should  not  be  taken  as  meaning  that 
the  dusts  will  ignite  of  themselves,  that  is,  spontaneously;  but  when  heated 
to  their  ignition-temperature  will  ignite  an.d  will  propagate  a  flame.  In 
other  words,  there  must  be  some  outside  source  of  heat.  This  may  be 
very  small,  such  as  a  heated  coil  of  wire,  as  used  in  the  above  tests,  if 
the  temperature  is  sufficiently  high;  or  it  may  be  larger,  as  a  flame,  which 
may  have  a  lower  temperature  but  a  larger  heating  surface." 

Amount  of  Dust  that  will  Propagate  an  Explosion.  —  In  dust 
explosions  usually  two  reports  are  heard  ;  the  first  is  described  as 
a  sharp,  quick  sound,  followed  by  a  second  of  a  loud,  rumbling 
nature,  and  lasting  for  a  much  longer  period  and  usually  followed 
by  fire,  destroying  the  plant.  The  theory  of  this  is  that  a  very 
small  quantity  of  fine  dust  in  suspension  becomes  ignited,  causing 
the  first  sharp  report,  which  would  produce  sufficient  concussion 
to  disturb  settled  and  packed  dust  on  surrounding  ledges  and  pro- 
jections, filling  the  air  with  an  additional  explosive  mixture.  The 
heat,  or  flame  from  the  original  small  puff,  would  cause  an  ignition 
of  this  newly  formed  mixture,  and  the  explosion  would  propagate 
throughout  a  very  large  area,  until:  the  entire  dust  zone  would  be 
covered.  Because  of  the  possibility  of  this,  it  is  necessary  to 
prevent  even  small  accumulations  of  dust,  particularly  near  points 
from  which  sparks  or  flame  may  originate. 

Many  theories  and  ideas  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  conditions 
under  which  dust  explosions  are  produced  and  the  amount  of  dust 
in  suspension  necessary  to  original  the  explosion,  all  probably 
based  on  different  tests  and  experiments.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  dust  must  be  fine  and  dry,  and  in  a  state  of  suspension 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  there  must  be  a  proper  proportion  in 
diffusion  so  that  the  explosive  mixture  will  ignite  with  sufficient 
force  to  propagate  to  an  explosion!  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
to  prevent  explosions  practically  all  the  dust  must  be  removed, 
or  the  amount  of  air  kept  down  to  a  minimum. 

Causes  of  Grain-Dust  Explosions.  —  The  following  causes  have 


EXPLOSIBILITY   OF    GRAIN    DUST  2OI 

been  assigned  to  many  of  the  explosions  in  milling  plants  through- 
out this   country  and  abroad: 

(1)  Use  of  open  lights,  or  naked  flames,  such  as  lamps,  torches, 
gas  jets,  lanterns,   candles,  matches,  etc. 

(2)  Property  fires. 

(3)  Introduction   of    foreign    material    in   grinding   machines. 

(4)  Electric  sparks  from  motors,  fuses,  switches,  lighting  systems. 

(5)  Static  electricity  produced  by  friction  of  pulleys   and  belts, 
grinding  machines,  etc. 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  first  two  classes  is  not  necessary; 
recognizing  the  explosive  hazard  of  dust  laden  air,  it  is  obvious 
that  all  the  causes  in  (i)  should  be  guarded  against.  Many  violent 
explosions  have  occurred  during  mill  fires,  as  the  force  from  the 
fire  produces  sufficient  concussion  to  jar  accumulated  dust  into 
suspension. 

A  large  number  of  explosions  in  more  recent  years  have  been 
traced  to  the  introduction  of  foreign  materials  into  grinding 
machines,  particularly  in  grinding  oat  hulls  and  feeds.  Particles 
of  foreign  material  seem  to  pass  the  separating  systems  and,  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  grinding  plates  of  the  machines,  produce 
sufficient  sparks  to  cause  an  ignition  of  the  dusts  in  the  grinding 
machines  and  conveyor  lines. 

Explosions  have  been  assigned  to  the  ignition  of  the  dust  cloud 
by  an  electric  arc,  and  by  sparks  from  motors,  blown  fuses,  switch- 
boards, starting  boxes,  lighting  systems,  etc.  A  disastrous  ex- 
plosion in  Liverpool,  England,  in  1911,  was.  due  to  the  ignition 
of  dust  stirred  up  by  the  breaking  of  a  belt.  The  cause  of  the 
ignition  was  due  to  sparks  from  a  blown  fuse  of  a  temporary' 
switchboard. 

The  production  of  static  electricity  by  friction  of  pulleys  and 
belts  has  been  assigned  as  the  cause  of  recent  dust  explosions. 
Although  experiments  have  not  been  conducted  along  this  line  to 
show  that  a  dust  cloud  can  be  ignited  in  this  manner,  a  recent 
experiment  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  showed  very  clearly 
that  sufficient  static  electricity  could  be  produced  by  a  very  small 
pulley  and  shaft  to  readily  ignite  gas.  A  milling  company  in 
Texas,  engaged  in  grinding  cottonseed  cake  into  meal,  states,  that 
after  experiencing  a  series  of  explosions,  the  insulating  of  a  certain 
grinding  machine,  prevented  any  repetition  of  previous  occurrences. 
The  fact  that  explosions  have  been  known  to  occur  at  times  when 
the  feed  of  grinding  machines  was  cut  off,  seems  to  indicate  that 
an  unknown  factor  may  be  the  responsible  agent. 

Prevention  of  Grain-Dust  Explosions. — Since  only  a  very  small 
quantity  of  dust  in  suspension  is  necessary  .to  present  conditions 
favorable  to  ignition,  it  would  appear  advisable  that  the  proper 
thing  to  do  would  be  to  avoid  the  production  or  escape  of  dust 
into  the  atmosphere,  as  far  as  this  is  possible.  From  the  large 
number  of  explosions  thought  to  have  been  due  to  the  presence 
of  foreign  material  in  the  grain,  it  appears  that  the  grain  contains 
a  portion  of  this  material  from  the  original  point  of  shipment 
and  suggests  the  importance  of  cleaning  the  grain  at  the  very  first 
stages  of  handling.  In  addition  to  this  source  of  danger  the 
size  of  the  bins  receiving  ground  material  has  an  important  rela- 
tion to  the  extent  of  the  fire  or  the  violence  of  the  explosion. 
If  the  bin  is  of  large  dimensions  and  very  deep,  it  gives  a  very 


2O2  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

large  area  that  may  become  filled  with  very  fine  dust  in  suspension. 
A  number  of  violent  explosions  have  occurred,  due  to  a  flame  coming 
in  contact  with  the  suspended  dust  in  bins  containing  only  a 
small  quantity  of  grain. 

It  is  necessary  in  mills  and  elevators,  for  the  workmen  to  deter- 
mine at  frequent  intervals  the  amount  of  grain  that  the  storage 
bins  contain.  A  common  practice  is  to  lower  a  light  of  some  kind 
into  the  bin,  to  observe  or  measure  the  quantity  of  grain.  Many 
explosions  have  occurred  when  open  lights  and  lanterns  were 
introduced  into  grain  bins  for  this  purpose,  and  the  practice 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  The  relation  of  the  electric 
spark  to  the  ignition  of  the  dust  cloud  has  not  been  fully  deter- 
mined by  experiment,  and  many  companies,  for  this  reason,  have 
discontinued  the  lowering  of  incandescent  electric  light  bulbs  into 
dusty  atmospheres.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  workmen  to 
become  hasty  in  an  effort  to  ascertain  the  quantity  in  a  series  of 
bins,  and  the  bulb  may,  by  contact  with  the  side  of  the  bin  or 
floor,  become  broken  and  introduce  an  element  of  possible  danger. 
The  desired  result  can  be  obtained  by  lowering  a  "  tape "  with  a 
weight  attached  to  the  end,  and  the  exact  measurement  can  be 
recorded. 

Where  lights  must  be  used  an  approved  type  of  portable  electric 
lamp  should  be  provided.  The  Electrical  Section  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  has  recently  approved  three  different  types  of  lamps  for 
safety  in  gaseous  mixtures. 

Electric  bulbs  in  dusty  atmospheres  located  near  machinery  where 
there  is  a  possibility  of  the  lamp  becoming  broken,  or  at  points  in 
the  mill  where  workmen  may  strike  the  lamp,  especially  when 
carrying  a  projection  of  some  kind  on  their  shoulder,  should  be 
enclosed  in  strong  wire  guards  or  protectors;  and  it  would  be 
advisable  also  to  enclose  each  bulb  in  a  vapor-proof  globe.  An 
extra  safety  feature  would  be,  whenever  possible,  to  locate  all 
fuses  on  light  and  power  circuits,  switches,  starting  boxes,  motors, 
etc.,  at  points  where  dust  is  not  present  in  dangerous  quantities. 

An  adequate  system  of  preventing  or  collecting  dust  should  be 
provided  and  maintained;  in  fact,  from  the  point  where  the  grain 
or  other  material  enters  the  building  to  its  final  distribution,  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  be  discharged  or  moved  in  such  a  manner 
that  dust  may  escape. 

At  any  point  where  open  delivery  is  necessary,  powerful  suction 
dust  collectors  should  be  provided.  To  prevent  explosions  due 
to  sparking  in  milling  machinery,  vents  are  often  provided ;  these 
are  essentially  safety  or  explosion  valves,  to  permit  the  release  of 
pressure  caused  by  incipient  explosions ;  to  be  of  value  they  must 
be  of  good  size,  and  under  no  circumstances  should  they  open  into 
any  part  of  the  building.  Lately  experiments  have  been  made  with 
checking  devices  which  hold  back  a  sufficient  amount  of  the 
material  to  almost  completely  exclude  any  air  at  the  point  where 
sparks  may  be  expected ;  such  an  appliance,  when  perfected,  will 
tend  largely  toward  reducing  the  hazard  of  explosions  originating 
or  traveling  through  conveyors  and  machinery. 

Besides  the  dust  collecting  systems,  the  removal  of  dust  which 
has  settled  in  the  mill  is  necessary.  The  usual  method  is  to 
sweep  up  the  floors  with  a  broom  and  dust  off  all  rafters,  etc. 
This  removes  the  larger  particles  and  much  of  the  real  dust,  but 


EXPLOSIBILITY  OF  GRAIN  DUST  2O3 

the  finest  and,  therefore,  most  dangerous  dust  is  only  stirred  up 
to  mix  with  the  fine  particles  already  in  the  air.  In  any  of  the 
larger  mills  and  in  any  dust  laden  section  of  a  smaller  plant  a 
complete  vacuum  cleaning  system  should  be  installed,  similar  to 
that  used  by  the  housewife  in  cleaning  her  home.  The  cost  of 
installation  may  be  high  but  the  thoroughness  is  undisputed  and 
it  will  save  in  the  number  of  employees  usually  necessary  for 
cleaning. 


BLOWER   SYSTEMS* 

Blower  systems,  which  are  often  an  economic  necessity,  usually 
introduce  an  additional  hazard  contributing  to  the  cause  and  spread 
of  fire,  particularly  when  used  for  conveying  stock  and  refuse.  It 
is  impossible  to  eliminate  the  fire  hazard  from  such  systems,  but 
reasonable  safeguards  can  be  provided  to  reduce  it. 

The  general  standards  applicable  to  blower  systems  are  sub- 
divided into  two  classes: — 

A.  Heating  and  Ventilating  Systems. 

B.  Stock  and  Refuse  Conveying  Systems. 

Class   A — Heating   and   Ventilating   Systems 

1.  BLOWERS.      (The'  word  blowers  is  used   to  include   blowers   and   fans.) 

(a)  Blowers    shall    be    so    located  •  as    to    be    accessible    for    repairing    and. 
lubricating. 

(b)  Casings  to   be  strongly  built   and   properly   reinforced   where    necessary; 
joints    shall    be    air-tight. 

Casings  and  runners  shall  be  entirely  non-combustible,  and  large  enough 
not  to  require  overspeeding. 

To  prevent  accidents,  openings  into  casings  shall  be  protected  with  sub- 
stantial screens  or  their  equivalent. 

(c)  Bearings    and    journals   to    be    constructed    in    accordance    with    the    best 
modern  machine  design  and  so  proportioned  as  to  prevent  over-heating.     The 
bearings    shall    be    self-oiling    and    so    designed    as    to    prevent    leakage    of    oil. 
They    shall    be    located    outside    of    casings    or    ducts    wherever    possible.       If 
located     inside     of    casings    or     ducts,     oilless     self-lubricating    bearings     shall 
be    used,    made    of    bronze    bushings    fitted    with    plugs,    such    as    graphite    or 
metaline. 

2.  DUCTS.     (The  word  ducts  is  used  to  include  ducts,  flues,  pipes  and  tubes.) 

(a)  Openings    through    floors    for    the    circulation    of    air    from    one   story   to 
another   shall   not   be   used. 

(b)  Entire  system  of  ducts  to  be  self-contained;   no  rooms,  hallways,  attics, 
hollow    spaces,    voids,    nor    other    portions    of    the    building    shall    be    used    for 
air    chambers    or    ducts,    unless    of    fire- resisting    constructon,    and    then    only 
by   permission   of  the    inspection   department   having   jurisdiction. 

(c)  Ducts    shall    be    made    of    galvanized    iron    or    other    approved    non-com- 
bustible   material.      The    same    applies    to    enclosures    of    steam    coils    used    for 
heating    air. 

(d)  To    be    thoroughly   braced. 

(e)  To    be    substantially    supported    by    metal    hangers,    brackets    or    their 
equivalent. 

(f)  Where    subject    to    mechanical    injury,    ducts    to    be    properly    protected. 

(g)  In  no  case  shall  the  clearance  between  any  metal  ducts  and  combustible 
material  be  less  than   i   inch. 

(h)  The  'passing  of  ducts  through  fire  walls  should  be  avoided  wherever 
possible.  Where  ducts  pass  through  fire  walls  they  shall  be  provided  with 

*  From  the  -Regulations  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
in  1915. 

204 


BLOWER  SYSTEMS 


205 


automatic  dampers,   or  national  standard  vertical  automatic  fire   doors,   located 
on  each  side  of  the  wall  through  which  they   pass. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


(i)  All  ducts  passing  through  floors  shall  be  made  of  or  protected  through- 
out by  approved  fire-resisting  material,  such  as  4-inch  brick,  hollow  tile, 
or  2-inch  cement  plastered  partition  supported  by  a  substantial  steel  frame. 

(j)  Where  a  vertical  duct  has  an  outlet  on  more  than  one  floor,  automatic 
dampers  shall  be  provided  on  all  outlets  opening  directly  from  such  vertical 
ducts  and  at  all  connections  where  ducts  branch  from  such  vertical  ducts. 

Editor1^  Note. — The  object  of  these  requirements  is  to  prevent 
fire  from  spreading  from  one  floor  to  another  through  ducts. 

(k)  Joints  between  ducts  and  floors,  walls  or  partitions,  must  be  made 
tight  by  non-combustible  material. 


206 


s    FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


(1)  Outlets  on  supply  and  exhaust  ducts  should  always  be  protected  by 
means  of  register  faces  or  wire  screens. 

(m)  Intake  of  air  to  be  from  outside  except  in  re-circulating  systems, 
and  shall  be  taken  only  from  areas  containing  non-combustible  material. 
Intakes  must  be  protected  with  rolling  shutters  or  heavy  doors. 

Intake  and  intake  rooms,  steam  coils  and  blowers,  etc.,  shall  be  segregated 
in  a  room  cut  off  by  fire-resisting  partitions  from  other  portions  of  the 
building. 

(n)  Blower  systems  should  preferably  have  an  emergency  or  automatic 
control  to  shut  them  down  in  case  of  fire.  This  may  be  done  automatically 
by  means  of  devices  utilizing  fusible  links,  thermostats,  or  automatic  sprinklers. 
Such  installations  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  inspection  depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction. 

3.  VENTILATION  OF  COOKING  APPLIANCES.  (a)  Ventilating  ducts  used  to 
carry  off  the  grease-laden  vapors  from  hoods  over  cooking  appliances,  espe- 
cially in  kitchens  of  large  restaurants  and  hotels,  shall  be  constructed  simi- 
larly to  boiler  smoke  flues,  and,  if  of  metal,  must  be  of  not  less  than  No.  16 
U.  S.  gauge,  so  substantially  built  that  the  grease  and  gum  could  be  removed 
from  the  interior  by  burning  out  under  a  flash  fire. 

(b)  The    ventilating    ducts    shall    be    an    independent    system    in    no    manner 
connected  with   other   house   ventilating  systems. 

(c)  Ducts    should    not    be    connected    to   stacks,    chimneys    or    flues    used    for 
other   purposes. 


BLOWER  SYSTEMS 


207 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(d)   A    live    steam    jet    should    preferably    be    provided    at    the    end    of    the 
duct  nearest  the  cooking  appliances. 


Class   B — Stock  and   Refuse   Conveying   Systems 

The  high  velocity  of  the  air  and  the  inflammability  of  the  slock  or 
refuse  which  these  systems  are  usually  designed  to  handle  make  them  espe- 
cially hazardous. 

The  specific  requirements  of  a  ventilating  system  detailed  under  class 
"A"  shall  be  applied  to  the  stock  and  refuse  conveying  systems,  also  the 
following: 

4.  BLOWERS.       (a)     Blowers    shall    be    installed    on    proper    foundations    and 
secured    in    place    in    a    manner    subject    to    the    approval    of    the    inspection 
department   having   jurisdiction. 

(b)  Bearings  of  blowers  shall  not  extend  inside  of   blower  casings  or  ducts. 

(c)  It    is    recommended    that   oilless   self-lubricating   bearings  .be    used,    made 
of   bronze   bushings   with   plugs   such    as   graphite    or   metaline. 

(d)  Connections   between    discharge   end   of  blower   and   main*  duct   must   be 
made   so    as   to   prevent    leakage   of   fine    dust. 

(e)  Blowers    through    which    inflammable    materials    pass    shall    have    blades 
,  of    composition,    copper    or    brass.      Ample    clearance    to    be    provided    for    all 

blades. 

5.  DUCTS.       (a)    Ducts    for    conveying    stock    and    refuse    shall    be    made    of 


208  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

suitable    non-combustible    materials,    preferably    galvanized    iron.       All    joints 
shall   be   riveted  and  soldered. 

(b)  Lock   joints  are  acceptable   for   longitudinal   seams   in   pipes   used   under 
suction.      All  such  joints   shall   be  made   dust  proof. 

(c)  Spiral   pipes  to  be   full  riveted   and   soldered. 

(d)  Provision    shall    be    made    for    the    wear    due    to    friction,    at    all    points 
of   change   of  direction,   by   making   long   bends,   by    using   heavier   metal,    and 
in  case  where  abrasive  materials  are  to  be  conveyed,  by  inserting  an  approved 
form    of    inside    lining    that    may    readily    be    renewed. 

(e)  Suitable    tight-fitting    sliding    clean-out    doors    to    be     provided    on    all 
conveyor     ducts    at    sufficient     intervals    to     facilitate    cleaning    of     ducts     or 
removing    obstructions. 

(f)  Suction    ducts    shall    be    provided    at    all    machines    producing    dust    or 
combustible    refuse,    and    shall    be    connected    to    exhaust    fans. 

(g)  "  Sweep-up  "    pipes    should    be    so    protected    as    not    to    admit    material 
which    would    be    large    enough    to    damage   blower. 

(h)  Trunk  line  shall  be  run  on  the  ;<mtside  wall  of  the  building  with 
ducts  from  each  machine  and  each  floor,  passing  out  directly  through  the 
wall  and  discharging  into  the  trunk  line.  If  inside  of  building,  the  trunk 
duct  shall  be  overhead  rather  than  under  the  benches. 

(i)   The  air   vents   from   the   system   shall   discharge   outside   of   building. 

(j)  Where  dust  or  readily  inflammable  material  can  accumulate  on  or 
near  blowers  and  ducts,  they  shall  be  grounded  to  prevent  ignition  of  these 
materials  from  a  discharge  of  static  electricity. 

6.  AUTOMATIC   SPRINKLERS.     There  shall  be   an  approved  sprinkler  near  the 
feed  end,   and  at  the  discharge   outlet,   inside   the   condenser,   if  such   is   used, 
and   also    a   sprinkler   to   protect   the   blower.      In  some    cases,    sprinklers    may 
be    installed    inside    the    ducts.      Such    sprinklers  should    be    arranged    in    an 
off-set    or    dome-shaped    casing    and    not    in    the  direct    path    of    the    draft. 
Sprinklers    with    smooth    deflectors    that    will    not  catch    the    flying    stock    are 
desirable. 

7.  CYCLONE    COLLECTORS    OR    SEPARATORS.       (a)    The    cyclones    or    separators 
shall   be    outside    the    building,    and    so    located    as    not    to   constitute    a   hazard 
to    adjacent    structures.      Their    construction    and    supports   shall    be    of    incom- 
bustible   material.      If    the    cyclone    of    necessity    is    placed    within    10    feet    of 
wooden    walls,    inflammable    structures.,    or    openings    into    buildings,    it    shall 
be    provided    with    a    metal    pipe    extending    to    a    point    above    the    main    roof, 
or   other   safe    location. 

(b)  The     refuse     from     the    cyclones    and     separators     is     to     discharge     by 
gravity  into  a  vault  as  described  in   Section  9. 

(c)  If    the    discharge    ;from    the    cyclone    or    separator    conveys    the    refuse 
directly  to   the   fire ,  boxes   of  boilers,   the   feed   spout  shall   have   an   open   end 
discharging    into    a    suitable    receiver    near    the    furnace,    so    that    when    the 
furnace  gets  choked   the   refuse   will   fall   out  on   the   boiler   room   floor   giving 
the    fireman  %    warning,    also    it    would    prevent    "  back    fire  "    when    the    fan 
blowing    the    refuse    is    stopped. 

Editor's  Note. — The  above  section  applies  mainly  to  conveyors 
of  sawdust,  cotton  waste  and  such  substances.  Where  considerable 
dust  of  a  combustible  character,  see  page  199,  is  being  conveyed, 
the  delivery  direct  to  a  boiler  is  strongly  recommended  against. 


BLOWER  SYSTEM  209 

For   such    material,   the   opening  in   the   discharge   pipe   would   not 
prevent  a  "  back  fire." 

(d)  The  air  vent   from  the  separator  must  not  be   connected   to  a  chimney. 

(e)  If    the    air    vent    carries    objectionable    dust,    as    in    the    case    of    refuse, 
such    as    from    grain    elevators,    etc.,    the    use    of    a    simple    air    washer,    or 
other  suitable  filter,  is  recommended  for  eliminating  the   dust. 

A  screen  shall  be  installed  in  the  air  vent  to  prevent  sparks  from  entering. 

8.  SPECIAL   CASES.      (a)    Readily   ignitible   stock,    such   as   cotton,   should   not 
pass    through    the    fan.      The    system    should    never    be    connected    directly    to 
picker    or    other    hazardous    machines.       Systems    handling    such    stock    shall 
operate    entirely    under    suction    with    a    device    such    as    a    "  condenser,"    or 
large    separating    chamber    to    discharge    the    stock    from    the    pipe    or    conduit 
before     it     reaches     the     fan.       Stock    should     be     fed     to     system     preferably 
by     hand.        Stock     shall     enter     such     a     system     in     an     upward     direction 
and     the     pipe     should    continue    upward    for    at    least    ten    feet     to     allow 
any   henvy   substances   or   foreign   material   in   the    stock   to    drop    out.      If   the 
pipe    must    leave    the    room    at    a   lower   level,    a    long   radius    inverted    U   may 
be    used    to    obtain    the    necessary   vertical   distance. 

(b)  Systems   using   mixtures    of   cotton    and   wool   which   cannot   be   handled 
by    condensers    and    which    operate     under    fan    pressure,    shall    discharge    to 
non-combustible    bins   or    boxes    with    outside    vents    through    screens. 

(c)  Conditions     whkh     approach     those     favorable     for     explosive     mixtures 
should    be    subject    to    a    special    investigation. 

(d)  The    dust    from    sand-papering    machines,    granulators    and    pulverizers, 
bufling    or    polishing    wheels,    emery    wheels    and    from    other    machines    pro- 
ducing   a    very    fine    dust,    shall    have    a    suction    system    independent    of    the 
cyclone,    which    connects    with    the    refuse    vault. 

The  dust  should  be  settled  by  spraying  in  an  enclosed  chamber  of  in- 
combustible material,  thus  eliminating  the  hazard  of  the  dust  room.  Dust 
from  the  machines  may  also  be  discharged  directly  into  running  water  if 
suitable  provision  is  made  for  its  collection  and  removal. 

(e)  For    mills,    such    as    malt,    cereals,    sugar,    celluloid,    etc.,    it    is    recom- 
mended   that    an    explosion    flap    be    provided    in    a   metal   pipe    leading   outside 

'of    the    building   so    that   in    case   of   an   explosion    in    the    mill    the    flap    opens 
and  the  explosion  spends  itself  outside  the  building. 

9.  VAULTS,      (a)   Vaults  for  shavings,  refuse,  etc.,  shall  be  located  outside  of 
building.      Walls,    floor    and    roof    shall    be    of    brick    or    other    approved    fire- 
resisting  material. 

(b)  Openings,    if    any,    between    vault    and    boiler    room    should    not    exceed 
9    square    feet,    and    bottom    of   opening   be    not    less    than    6    inches    above    the 
level    of    boiler    room    floor.      Openings    to    be    located    at    least    8    feet    from 
the    firing    door    of    boiler,    preferably    at    right    angles,    and    protected    by    a 
standard    automatic    fire    door. 

(c)  Roof    of    vault    to    be    provided    with    proper    ventilating    opening    not 
less    than    6    inches    in    diameter.      As    a    protection    from    the    weather    this 
opening    may    be    fitted    with    a    suitable    metal    ventilator. 

(d)  Vaults    shall    be    protected    by    approved    automatic    sprinklers.      Where 
such  protection  is  not  available,  steam  jets  may  be  installed  for  fire  extinguish 
ing  purposes. 

(e)  Where    dust-producing    machines    are    used    only    on    a    small    scale,    the 
dust  or  refuse  may,  by  special  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having 


2io  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

jurisdiction,  discharge  into  a  substantial  metal  dust  box,  or  other  approved 
receptacle  located  outside  the  building,  in  lieu  of  a  vault.  The  receptacle 
to  have  a  hinged  door  or  cover,  which  will  readily  open  and  vent  a  fire 
or  explosion  within. 

(f)  A  water  tank  may  be  used  in  lieu  of  the  dust  box.  In  such  cases 
the  tank  should  be  provided  with  water  supply,  overflow  and  drain  pipes. 
On  the  water  supply  pipe  a  proper  float-controlled  valve  shall  be  installed 
to  maintain  a  constant  water  level.  It  is  recommended  that  the  end  of  duct 
be  submerged  into  the  water  at  least  one  inch. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES 

The  storage  and  handling  of  explosives  is  seldom  found  in  city 
risks,  being  usually  restricted  to  one  or  two  classes  of  occupancies. 
In  general,  the  best  safeguard  to  throw  around  them  is  to  put 
the  handling  and  keeping  of  explosives  in  charge  of  only  careful 
men  of  known  character,  who  understand  the  danger  of  the  sub- 
stance handled;  this  fitness  of  the  employee  is  of  vital  importance. 

In  general,  storage  of  explosives  should  not  be  near  places  of 
assembly,  as  often  the  panic  of  the  people  in  such  a  place  will 
cause  more  loss  of  life  than  the  actual  explosion. 

Some  fireworks,  as  given  below,  are  very  dangerous  and  should 
be  prohibited  in  any  place.  In  general,  the  firing  off  of  fireworks 
is  dangerous  both  to  life  and  property,  and  for  several  years  a 
country-wide  campaign  has  been  carried  on  by  various  organiza- 
tions to  have  laws  adopted  prohibiting  it ;  in  several  cities  such 
laws  have  been  passed  and  in  other  places  or  States  rigid  limita- 
tions have  been  put  on  the  size  and  explosive  contents  of  various 
fireworks.  A  more  general  prohibition  should  be  made  throughout 
the  country,  until  only  public  displays,  under  men  holding  certifi- 
cates of  fitness,  are  allowed. 

HANDLING  AND  STORAGE* 

Explosives    belonging   to   the    various   classes   are    as    follows: 

Class  I  or  Forbidden  Explosives 

(a)  Liquid  nitroglycerin. 

(b)  High    explosives   containing   over    60    per   cent   of    nitroglycerin    (except 
gelatine    dynamite). 

(c)  High     explosives     having     an     unsatisfactory     absorbent     or     one     that 
permits   leakage   of   nitroglycerin   under   any    conditions   liable   to  exist    during 
transportation    or    storage. 

(d)  Nitro   cellulose   in   a    dry   condition,    in    quantity   greater   than    ten    (10) 
pounds    in    one   exterior   package. 

(e)  Fulminate   of   mercury    in   bulk   in    a   dry    condition,    and    fulminates   of 
all    other    metals    in    any    condition,   except    as    a    component    of   manufactured 
articles    not     hereinafter    forbidden. 

(f)  Fireworks   that   combine   an   explosive   and   a   detonator   or   blasting   cap. 

(g)  Fireworks    that     will    ignite    spontaneously     when    subjected     to     forty- 
eight    consecutive    hours    in    the    presence    of    moisture    to    the    temperature    of 
boiling  water. 

(h)  Firecrackers  whose  dimensions  exceed  five  inches  in  length  or  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or  whose  explosive  charges  exceed  forty- 
five  grains  each  in  weight. 

(i)   Toy  torpedoes   or   caps   exceeding   one   and   one-half   inches   in   diameter, 

*Abstracted  from  a  suggested  ordinance  issued  by  the  National  Board  of 
Kire  Underwriters. 


212  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

or  containing  more  than  an  average  of  thirty-five  hundreths  of  a  grain  of 
explosive  composition  per  cap. 

(j)  Fireworks  that  can  be  exploded  en  masse  by  a  commercial  detonator 
placed  in  one  of  the  units  or  by  the  impact  of  a  rifle  bullet  or  otherwise. 

(k)  Fireworks  containing  a  match  tip  or  head,  or  similar  igniting  point 
or  surface,  unless  each  individual  tip,  head  or  similar  igniting  point  or  sur- 
face is  entirely  covered  and  securely  protected  from  accidental  contact  or 
friction  with  any  other  surface. 

Clas-s  II  or  Dangerous  Explosives 

Black     Powder. 

High   explosives    (except   as   described   in   Class   I). 

Blasting    caps    (including    detonators    and    electric    detonators). 

Smokeless    powder    for    small    arms. 

Wet    fulminate    of    mercury. 

Ammunition    for    cannon    with    explosive    projectiles. 

Explosive    projectiles. 

Detonating    fuses. 

Class  III  or  Less  Dangerous  Explosives 

Ammunition    for   cannon    (except    as    described   in    Class    II). 

Smokeless  powder  for  cannon. 

Fireworks. 

Class  IV  or  Relatively  Safe  Explosives 

Small    arms    ammunition    (blank,    ball    or    shot). 

Primers. 

Fuses    (except    as    described    in    Class    II). 

Safety    fuse. 

Safety    squibs. 

DISTANCES  OF  FACTORIES  AND  MAGAZINES,  FROM  BUILDINGS,  ETC. — All  fac- 
tory buildings  and  magazines,  in  which  Class  II  explosives  are  had,  kept  or 
stored,  must  be  located  at  distances  from  neighboring  buildings,  highways 
and  railroads  in  conformity  with  the  following  quantity  and  distance  table. 

Whenever  the  building,  highway  or  railroad  to  be  protected  is  effectually 
screened  from  the  factory  building  or  magazine  where  Class  II  explosives 
are  stored,  either  by  natural  features  of  the  ground  or  by  an  efficient  arti- 
ficial barricade  of  such  height  that  any  straight  line  drawn  from  the  top 
of  any  side  wall  of  the  factory  building  or  magazine  to  any  part  of  the 
building  to  be  protected  will  pass  through  such  intervening  natural  or 
efficient  artificial  barricade,  and  any  straight  line  drawn  from  the  top  of 
any  side  wall  of  the  factory  building  or  magazine  to  any  point  twelve  feet 
above  the  center  of  the  highway  or  railroad  to  be  protected  will  pass  through 
such  intervening  natural  or  efficient  artificial  barricade  the  applicable  dis- 
tances as  prescribed  may  be  reduced  one  half. 

Except  in  a  dwelling,  school,  theatre  or  other  place  of  public  amusement 
or  assembly,  the  following  storage  is  permitted: 

(a)  One   second   class   magazine   containing   not   more    than    fifty   pounds    of 
explosive   if  placed   on   wheels   and   located   not   more   than   ten    feet    from,   on 
the  same  floor  with,  and  directly  opposite  to  the  entrance  on  the  floor  nearest 
the  street  level. 

(b)  One    second    class    magazine    containing    not    more    than    one    thousand 
blasting    caps,    if    placed    on    wheels    and    located    on    the    floor    nearest    the 
street   level. 


STORAGE  OF  EXPLOSIVES 


2J  3 


Magazines  in  which  Class  II  explosives  may  be  kept  or  stored  must  be' 
constructed  as  follows: 

(a)  Magazines  of  the  first  class  are  those  containing  explosives  in  amount 
exceeding  fifty  pounds.  They  shall  be  constructed  of  brick,  concrete,  iron 

QUANTITY  AND    DISTANCE  TABLE 


Column  1 

Column  2 

Column  3 

Column  4 

Quantity  that  May  be  Kept  or  Stored  from 
Nearest  Building,  Highway  or  Railroad 

Distance 
from 

Distance 
from 

Distance 

Nearest 

Nearest 

from 
Nearest 

Blasting  and  Electric 

Other  Explosives 

Building 

Railway 

Highway 

Blasting  Caps 

, 

Number 
Over 

Number 
Not  Over 

Pounds 
Over 

Pounds 
Not  Over 

Feet 

Feet 

Feet 

1,000* 

5,000 

30 

20 

10 

5,000 

10,000 

60 

40 

20 

10,000 

20,000 

120 

70 

35 

20,000 

25,000 

50* 

145 

90 

45 

25,000 

50,000 

50 

100 

240 

140 

70 

50,000 

100,000 

100 

200 

360 

220 

IK) 

100,000 

150,000 

200 

300 

520 

310 

150 

150,000 

200,000 

300 

400 

640 

380 

190 

200,000 

250,000 

400 

500 

720 

430 

220 

250,000 

300,000 

500 

600 

800 

480 

240 

300,000 

350,000 

600 

700 

860 

520 

260 

350,000 

400,000 

700 

800 

920 

550 

280 

400,000 

450,000 

800 

900 

980 

590 

300 

450,000 

500,000 

900 

1,000 

1,020 

610 

310 

500,000 

750,000 

1,000 

1,500 

1,060 

640 

320 

750,000 

1,000,000 

1,500 

2,000 

1,200 

720 

360 

i,ooo;ooo 

1,500,000 

2,000 

3,000 

1,300 

780 

390 

1,500,000 

2,000,000 

3,000 

4,000 

1,420 

850 

420 

2,000,000  . 

2,500,000 

4,000 

5,000 

,500 

900 

450 

2,500,000 

3,000,000 

5,000 

6,000 

1,560 

940 

470 

3,000,000 

3,500,000 

6,000 

7,000 

1,610 

970 

490 

3,500,000 

4,000,000 

7,000 

8,000 

,660 

1,000 

500 

4,000,000 

4,500,000 

8,000 

9,000 

1,700 

1,020 

510 

4,500,000 

5,000,000 

9,000 

10,000 

,740 

1,040 

520 

5,000,000 

7,500,000 

10,000 

15,000 

,780 

1,070 

530 

7,500,000 

10,000,000 

15,000 

20,000 

,950 

1,170 

580 

10,000,000 

12,500,000 

20,000 

25,000 

2,110 

1,270 

630 

12,500,000 

15,000,000 

25,000 

30,000 

2,260 

1,360 

680 

15,000,000 

17,500,000 

30,000 

.  35,000 

2,410 

1,450 

720 

17,500,000 

20,000,000 

35,000 

40,000 

2,550 

1,530 

760 

40,000 

45,000 

2,680 

1,610 

800 

45000 

50000 

2,800 

1  680 

840 

50,000 

55,000 

2,920 

1,750 

880 

55000 

60000 

3,030 

1  820 

910 

60,000 

65ioOO 

3,130 

1,880 

940 

65000 

70000 

3,220 

1  940 

970 

70,000 

75;000 

3,310 

1,990 

1,000 

75000 

80000 

3  390 

2,040 

1,020 

80,000 

85,000 

3,460 

•  2,080 

l|040 

85  000 

90000 

3  520 

2,120 

1^060 

90,000 

95IOOO 

3J580 

2,150 

l|080 

95,000 

100,000 

3,630 

2,180 

1,090 

100,000 

125,000 

3,670 

2,200 

1,100 

125,000 

150,000 

3,800 

2,280 

1,140 

150,000 

175,000 

3,930 

2,360 

1,180 

175000 

200000 

4  060 

2  440 

1,220 

200,000 

225,000 

4,190 

2,520 

1  ,260 

225  000 

250,000 

4,310 

2  590 

1,300 

250,000 

275,000 

4,430 

2,660 

1^340 

275,000 

300,000 

4,550 

2,730 

1,380 

*  May  be  kept  in  second  class  magazines  inside  buildings. 

214  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

or  wood  covered  with  iron,  or  other  fireproof  material  having  bullet  resisting 
qualities,  and  shall  have  no  openings  except  for  ventilation  and  entrance. 
The  doors  of  such  magazines  must  at  all  times  be  kept  closed  and  locked, 
except  when  necessarily  opened  for  the  purpose  of  storing  or  removing 
explosives  therein  or  therefrom,  by  persons  lawfully  entitled  to  enter  the 
same.  Every  such  magazine  shall  have  sufficient  openings  for  ventilation 
thereof,  which  must  be  screened  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  sparks  of  fire  through  the  same.  Upon  each  side  and  each  end  of  such 
a  magazine,  or  if  barricaded  With  an  artificial  barricade  then  upon  its 
barricade,  there  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  conspicuously  posted  a  sign,  with 
the  words,  "  EXPLOSIVES— DANGEROUS,"  legibly  printed  thereon  in 
letters  not  less  than  six  inches  high.  No  matches  or  fire  of  any  kind  shall 
at  any  time  be  permitted  in  such  magazine.  Magazines  itl  which  more  than 
fifty  pounds  of  explosives  are  kept  or  stored  must  be  detached  from  other 
structures.  The  total  amount  of  Class  II  explosives  in  any  two  or  more 
magazines,  which  are  located  within  two  hundred  feet  of  each  other,  must 
be  considered  in  determining  the  lawful  distances  for  such  magazines  to  be 
from  buildings,  highways  or  railroads. 

(b)  Magazines  of  the  second  class  are  those  containing  explosives  in 
amount  not  exceeding  fifty  pounds.  They  shall  be  made  of  fireproof  material, 
or  wood  covered  with  sheet  iron,  and  except  when  necessarily  opened  for 
use  by  authorized  persons,  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  securely  locked.  Upon 
each  such  magazine  there  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  conspicuously  posted  a 
sign,  with  the  words,  "  EXPLOSIVES— DANGEROUS,"  legibly  printed 
thereon,  and  not  more  than  two  such  magazines  shall  be  had  or  kept  in 
any  building. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  MAGAZINES. — It  shall  be  unlawful  to  place,  keep  or  store 
any  blasting  caps  or  detonators  of  any  kind  in  the  same  magazine  together 
with  explosives. 

All  magazines  must  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  grit,  paper,  rubbish  and 
empty  packages. 

All  magazines  must  be  kept  locked  except  when  being  inspected  or  when 
explosives  are  .being  placed  therein  or  removed  therefrom. 

When  any  kind  of  explosive  is  removed  from  the  magazine,  the  oldest 
of  that  particular  kind  must  always  be  taken,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  magazine  keeper  to  see  that  this  is  done. 

Packages  pf  explosives  in  a  magazine  must  be  neatly  piled  .in  such  a 
way  that  all  of  them  may  be  easily  examined,  and  packages  of  high  ex- 
plosives must  always  be  placed  right  side  up. 

It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  cap  a  cartridge  within  a  radius 
of  fifty  feet  of  a  magazine,  or  in  any  case  to  cap  more  cartridges  than 
necessary  for  immediate  use. 

No  artificial  light  shall  be  used  in  magazines  except  portable  electric  safety 
battery  lamps. 


CHEMICAL   FIRE   AND   EXPLOSION   RISKS 

In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  .the  degree  of  fire  or  explosion  risk 
attaching  to  establishments  it  is  necessary  to  investigate : 

1.  The  danger  each  of  the  raw  materials  is  capable  of  producing 
during  storage   or  while   in  use; 

2.  The  same  characteristic  of  the  intermediate  and  final  products ; 

3.  The   various   processes   employed:    firing,   nitrating,   oxidizing, 
reducing  (with  hydrogen),  impregnating,  burning,  briquetting,  car- 
buretting,    carbonizing,    kilning,    drying,     fulminating,     gasification, 
lacquering,  refining,  distilling,  subliming,  vulcanizing,  charring,  cal- 
cining,   incinerating,   etc.; 

4.  The   progress   of    the   different   operations,   whether   turbulent, 
accompanied  by  the  formation  of  dangerous  by-products  and  waste 
products,  or  the  liberation  of  gas,  vapor,  or  dust; 

5.  The  treatment,  purification,  or  storage  of   waste  products  or 
spent  raw  materials,  with  a  view  to  their  use  over  again  (recovery 
or  revivification)  ; 

6.  The  working  temperatures  during  the  various  stages  of  opera- 
tions. 

The  degrees  of  fire  risk  always  differ  and  can  only  be  accurately 
defined  by  a  careful  examination. 

Substances  of  different  kinds  must  not  be  stored  together  indis- 
criminately; but  due  regard  must  be  paid  to  their  mutual  compati- 
bility. For  instance,  the  substances  mentioned  in  the  following  list 
may  cause  outbreaks  of  fire  if  stored  in  contact  with  one  another. 
For  the  sake  of  brevity  only  one  example  is  given  (in  the  principal 
list)  in  the  case  of  groups  of  similar  materials,  thus : 

Organic  substances  comprise  all  kinds  of  coal,  peat,  flour,  starch, 
sugar,  herbs,  fruit,  seeds,  bran,  grist,  chaff,  straw,  concentrated 
fodder,  artificial  fertilizers  (except  those  of  a  purely  mineral 
nature),  wood,  cork,  horn,  paper,  millboard,  rags,  fibres,  textiles, 
wool,  silk,  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  leather. 

Dusty  substances:  All  pulverulent  materials  that  readily  form 
clouds  of  dust:  like  flour,  lampblack,  bronze  powders,  all  kinds  of 
fibrous  waste,  shearing  fluff. 

Dangerous  liquids:  All  liquids  that,  at  the  ordinary  temperature, 
liberate  inflammable  vapors  which  form  explosive  mixtures  with 
air,  namely,  carbon  disulphide,  ether,  acetone,  alcohol,  wood  spirit, 
lacquers,  varnishes,  benzol,  petroleum  spirit,  illuminating  oils. 

215 


2i6  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Carriers  of  Oxygen:  All  substances  that  are  chemically  highly 
charged  with  oxygen  or  ozone  and  will  part  with  this  when  a 
favorable  opportunity  occurs  and  hence  exhibit  the  same  danger- 
ous properties  as  oxygen.  When  the  liberation  of  oxygen  by  these 
compounds  is  effected  in  an  atmosphere  of  inflammable  gases  or 
vapors,  or  in  direct  contaqt  with  organic  substances,  like  resins, 
ethereal  oils,  or  mineral  oils,  and  the  temperature  is  merely  slightly 
elevated,  an  immediate  ignition  of  these  substances  may  occur,  if 
the  circumstances  are  favorable.  Certain  carriers  of  oxygen  will 
ignite  organic  substances  even  at  the  ordinary  temperature. 

The  most  important  carriers  of  oxygen  are  enumerated  below,\ 
the  temperatures  or  other  conditions  at  which  they  liberate  the 
oxygen,  and  therefore  become  dangerous,  being  also  mentioned. 

Perchloric  acid,  at  the  slightest  opportunity,  even  during  storage, 
with  violent  explosion. 

Permanganic  acid,  on  gentle  warming,  any  organic  matter  present 
being  thereby  ignited. 

Potassium  permanganate,  in  a  warmed  solution ;  dry,  at  240°  C. ; 
when  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  it  will  ignite  all  inflammable 
gases,  vapors,  ethers,  etc.  The  dry  salt  tends  to  ignite  spon- 
taneously when  suffused  with  glycerin. 

lodic  acid  and  periodic  acid,  at  300°  C. ;  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature in  presence  of  organic  matter. 

Persulphuric  acid,  analogous  to  hydrogen  peroxide. 

Potassium  or  ammonium  persulphate,  at  100°  C. ;  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  when  dissolved  in  water. 

Potassium  perselenate  liberates  oxygen  when  the  solution  is 
warmed. 

Chloric  acid  ignites  organic  matter  on  simple  contact  at  ordinary 
temperature. 

Chromic  anhydride  at  250°  C.  detonates  and  ignites  organic  sub- 
stances when  suffused  with  alcohol. 

Chlorates  liberate  oxygen  in  an  explosive  manner  under  the 
influence  of  friction,  shock,  concussion,  or  heat  (about  800°  F.). 
When  mixed  with  potassium  cyanide,  oxygen  is  immediately  dis- 
engaged with  explosion. 

Nitrogen  pentoxide    (nitric   anhydride),   with  violence   at  50°    C. 

Sulphur  heptoxide  disengages  oxygen  very  violently  during  stor- 
age, when  dissolved  in  water  or  warmed. 

Bismuth  pentoxide  (bismuthic  anhydride),  when  heated,  or 
treated,  with  strong  acids. 

Calcium  hypochlor'ite  ("chloride  of  lime"),  when  gently  warmed 
or  exposed  to  direct  sunlight. 


CHEMICAL  FIRE  AND  EXPLOSION  RISKS  217 

The  following  substances  may  be  classed  as  carriers  of  oxygen 
that  liberate  that  element  at  high  temperatures  only: 

Barium,  lead,  manganese,  potassium  and  sodium  peroxides; 
potassium  perchlorates ;  all  nitrites;  ozone;  oil  of  turpentine,^  and 
colophony. 

Disinfectants. — The  carriers  of  oxygen  are  largely  used  as  dis- 
infectants, for  the  destruction  of  organic  matter,  and  in  bleaching. 
For  these  purposes  preference  is  mainly  given  to  hydrogen  peroxide 
(which  is  explosive)  and  sodium  peroxide. „  When  sprayed,  or  in 
the  form  of  vapor  and  mixed  with  dust,  carriers  of  oxygen  or 
ozone  augment  the  danger  of  explosion  by  increasing  the  inflam- 
mability, heat  of  combustion,  and  explosive  power  of  the  dust. 

Dangerous  Combinations 

The  substances  in  italics  should  not  be  stored  with  those  men- 
tioned after  them  in  each  section  of  the  following  list: 

Organic  Substances,  with  nitric  acid,  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone, 
peracids,  picrates,  chlorates,  liquid  air,  fulminates,  fats  or  oils. 

Lampblack  or  Carbonaceous  Substances,  with  fats,  oils,  sulphur, 
metallic  sulphides,  or  carriers  of  oxygen. 

Metals  in  Powder,  Bronzes,  with  damp  substances,  water,  dusty 
materials,  mineral  acids,  ethereal  or  fatty  oils,  oil  of  turpentine, 
carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  liquid  air,  peracids,  or  flowers  of  sulphur. 

Peracids,  with  organic  substances,  sulphur,  metallic  powders, 
bronzes,  carbon,  or  dangerous  liquids. 

Resins,  Turpentine,  Ethereal  Oils,  with  iodine  or  chlorine,  min- 
eral acids,  carriers  of  oxygen,  or  dangerous  liquids. 

Carriers  of  Oxygen,  Liquefied  Oxygen,  Ozone,  with  fulminates, 
chlorates,  organic  substances,  picrates,  bronzes,  metallic  powders, 
dangerous  liquids,  carbon,  lampblack,  resins,  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  nitric  acid,  or  dusty  substances. 

Dangerous  Liquids,  with  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  liquefied 
oxygen,  oil  of  turpentine,  ethereal  oils  or  peracids. 

Carbides  and  Quicklime,  with  water,  damp  substances,  or  acids 
of  any  kind. 

Strong  Nitric  Acid,  with  oil  of  turpentine,  hydriodic  acid,  organic 
substances,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  car- 
bides, metallic  powders,  bronzes,  strong  sulphuric  acid,  fulminates, 
picrates,  or  chlorates. 

Strong  Sulphuric  Acid,  with  strong  nitric  acid,  saltpetre,  sub- 
stances impregnated  with  saltpetre,  metallic  powders,  bronzes,  car- 
bides, picrates,  fulminates,  or  chlorates. 

Carbon  Disulphide,  with  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  or  liquefied 
oxygen. 


218  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Fulminates,  Picrates,  Chlorates,  with  mineral  acids,  organic  sub- 
stances, sulphur,  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  or  liquefied  oxygen. 

Dusty  Materials,  with  metallic  powders,  bronzes,  carriers  of  oxy- 
gen, ozone,  or  liquefied  oxygen. 

Sulphur,  Metallic  Sulphides,  with  carbon,  lampblack,  fats,  oils, 
chlorates,  or  phosphates. 

Water  (Solutions),  Damp  Substances,  with  quicklime,  carbides, 
metallic  powders,  bronzes,  light  metals. 

Phosphorus,  with  chlorates,  carriers  of  oxygen,  ozone,  or  sulphur. 

Nitrates  and  Substances  Impregnated  with  Saltpetre,  with  .sul- 
phuric acid. 

Fats,  Oils,  with  organic  substances,  lampblack,  carbon,  metallic 
sulphides,  or  pyrites. 

Materials  which  Should  be  Isolated.— The  following  substances 
should  be  isolated  during  storage :  all  those  spontaneously  igniting 
or  explosive;  all  firework  charges,  nitrated  cellulose,  fulminates, 
detonating  compounds,  chlorates,  picrates,  peracids,  igniting  pellets, 
gunpowders,  metallic  nitrides,  nitrogen  iodide,  chloride,  fluoride, 
and  bromide,  the  dangerous  peroxides  (e.  g.,  hydrogen  peroxide 
and  potassium  peroxide),  liquefied  gases,  acids  and  phosphorus. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION 

The  processes  and  conditions  which  may  incite  to  spontane- 
ous heating  or  spontaneous  ignition,  taken  in  the  widest  sense, 
according  to  Von  Schwartz,  are: — 

Predominantly  in   the  case  of 

1.  Moisture     ~| 

2.  Bacterial    activity     i-  Agricultural  products,  fodder,  manures. 

3.  Germination     J 

4.  Storage    in    large    heaps Agricultural     products,     coal,     tobacco, 

oleaginous    substances. 

5.  Protracted   drying    Wood,  organic  substances. 

6.  Contained  sulphur    Lampblack,  coal. 

7.  Contained   finely   divided   carbon .  .    Metallic  sulphides. 

8.  Contained   fat  or  oil Organic      substances,      fibres,      colours 

(paint),  clothing. 

9.  Occlusion  of  oxygen    . Coal,  etc.,  metals. 

10.  Absorption  of  moisture    '. Quicklime,  potass'ium,  sodium,  carbides. 

11.  Fineness  of  division    Metals,  bronzes,' varieties  of  dust,  fats, 

oils. 

12.  Recent  calcination Carbonised     substances,     metallic     pow- 

ders, metallic  sulphides,  lampblack. 

13.  Exposure  to  the  sun Phosphorus   in   fragments,   oxyhydrogen 

gas. 

14.  Concentration    of    the    sun's    rays 

(burning    glasses,    lenses,    glass 

bricks) All   readily   ignitible   substances. 

15.  Friction,   pressure,    shock,    fall Numerous     detonating,     explosive     sub- 

stances (spontaneous  ignition  being 
here  generally  modified  into  explo- 
sion). 

1 6.  Electricity   (sparks)    Explosive    vapour    mixtures,    dry   clean- 

ing works,   resinous  bodies. 

17.  Air   - Phosphuretted  hydrogen,  and  numerous 

compounds  (ethyl-,  methyl-  and 
propyl-compounds) ,  pyrophorus 

substances. 

1 8.  Contact  with  spongy  metals  (plati- 

num black)    Hydrogen    gas,    oxyhydrogen    gas,    coal 

gas. 

Periods  of  Development. — The  examples  numbered  1-9  mostly 
exhibit  slow  development  (chronic  spontaneous  ignition),  those 
numbered  10-14  progress  with  moderate  rapidity;  15-18  are  sudden 
and  of  explosive  character  (acute). 

The  period  of  development  in  cases  of  chronic  spontaneous  igni- 
tion may  extend  over  two  or  three  months;  in  many  cases  a  good 
deal  depends  on  the  bulk  of  the  stored  mass;  where  this  amounts 

219 


22O  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

to  some  hundreds  of  tons,  as  in  the  case  of  bran,  cereals,  etc., 
spontaneous  ignition  may  sometimes  take  two  to  three  months 
before  becoming  apparent  externally. 

Causes. — Many  of  the  fires  originating  in  warehouses  are  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  spontaneous  combustion  resulting  from  the 
saturation  of  the  fibre  with  oil  from  the  seed,  expressed  by  the 
process  of  baling  and  handling,  and  the  numerous  fires  in  cotton 
gin  houses  may  be  largely  due  to  the  ignition  of  cotton  saturated 
with  oil  from  the  cotton-seed  expressed  during  the  process. 

The  presence  of  as  little  as  3  to  5  per  cent  of  fat  or  oil  may 
cause  fibrous  material  to  ignite  spontaneously.  Inasmuch  as  8  to 
10  per  cent  of  oil  will  remain  even  after  pressing  oily  or  greasy 
fibrous  material  it  is  evident  that  the  hazard  exists  until  the 
material  is  thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing  or  a  solvent.  The  prin- 
cipal items  tending  to  induce  heating  are :  The  porosity  of  the 
fibre,  i.  e.,  the  amount  of  fatty  or  oily  surface  it  presents  to  the 
air;  the  affinity  of  the  fat  or  oil  for  oxygen;  the  possibility  of 
loosing  heat  to  or  taking  up  heat  from  some  outside  source ;  the 
pressure  under  which  the  substance  is  kept,  and  the  presence  of 
oxygen  carriers. 

Mineral  Oils. — The  mineral  oils  have  practically  no  affinity  for 
oxygen  and  can  therefore  be  used  without  objection  for  oiling 
fibrous  materials,  except  when  the  mineral  oil  is  impure,  consisting 
of  a  heavy  oil  containing  paraffin,  and  the  impregnated  material 
is  hung  on  steam  pipes,  boilers,  stoves,  or  in  contact  with  some 
other  warm  object,  or  exposed  to  heat  for  some  time;  or  when 
the  oil  is  strongly  contaminated  with  sulphur  or  iron  sulphide, 
usually  found  in  distillation  products  of  lignite  or  coal. 

Lubricants. — In  general  lubricants  of  animal  origin  (tallow,  lard, 
train  oil,  neats-foot  oil)  have  the  greatest  cooling  effect  on  axles 
and  shafts,  but  render  the  cleaning  rags  liable  to  spontaneous 
ignition. 

Lubricants  of  earthly  origin  (petroleum,  shale  oil  and  paraffins) 
have  the  smallest  cooling  effect,  but  only  become  a  source  of 
danger  to  the  cleaning  waste  under  special  circumstances. 

Lubricants  of  vegetable  origin,  and  of  a  non-drying  character, 
stand  between  the  other  two  kinds  in  respect  of  cooling  prop- 
erties; but  are  the  most  dangerous  of  all  in  connection  with  fibrous 
materials.  The  danger  of  spontaneous  ignition  may  be  diminished 
by  an  addition  of  25-50  per  cent  of  mineral  oil,  provided  the  min- 
eral oil  is  free  from  paraffin  and  sulphur  impurities. 

Oils  and  Fats. — Because  of  the  differences  in  fibrous  materials 
and  the  effect  that  local  conditions  have,  no  exact  classification 
of  oils  and  fats  as  to  their  power  of  imparting  a  tendency  to  spon- 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  221 

taneous  ignition  can  be  made.  In  general,  the  amount  of  iodine 
absorbed  by  100  grams  of  fat  gives  a  fair  representation  of  their 
danger. 

Iodine  Iodine 

Vegetable    Fat.                           Value.  Animal    Fat.  Value. 

Linseed   oil    1 70        Codliver    oil    140 

Hemp  oil    150         Seal    oil    127 

Nut  oil    146        Japan   liver   oil    120 

Poppy    oil    1 38        Goose    fat   71 

Olein 138         Bone    fat    68 

Cottonseed    oil    108        Hog  fat,   American    62 

Sesame    oil     106        Hog  fat,  German 58 

Rape  oil    101         Tallow     42 

Ground-nut   oil    96        Mutton    tallow    42 

Castor    oil    84        Wool    fat    36 

Olive    oil    82         Butter    fat    30 

Palm    oil    52 

Cocoa  butter    36 

Palm    kernel   oil    14 

Cocoanut  oil    9 

Linseed  oil  is  therefore  the  most  dangerous,  and  its  danger  is 
increased  when  boiled  into  varnish.  The  rancidity  of  oils  and  fats 
increases  the  danger  from  spontaneous  heating  and  rancid  animal 
fats  and  oils  are  more  dangerous  than  pure  vegetable  oils. 

Heat  Dangerous. — The  sun  and  heat  must  be  carefully  excluded 
wherever  oiled  fibres  are  in  question,  and  suitable  provision  must 
be  made  to  ensure  cooling.  Where  the  application  of  warmth  is 
necessary  to  a  manufacturing  process,  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  accurately  check  the  temperature  by  the  aid  of  a  thermometer; 
testing  with  the  hand  is  insufficiently  reliable. 

Kissling  found  that  fibres  soaked  with  linseed  oil,  and  exposed 
to  direct  sunlight,  became  heated  to  266°  F.  in  4  hours,  and  after- 
wards took  fire;  sheltered  from  the  sun's  rays,  the  temperature 
did  not  exceed  78°  F.  in  the  same  time. 

Spontaneous  ignition  is  favored  by  carbonization  of  the  fibre, 
or  the  presence  of  carbonaceous  substances,  because  of  the  in- 
creased absorptive  power  for  oxygen,  holding  more  of  that  gas 
in  their  pores. 

The  application  of  pressure  increases  the  hazard,  as  the  more 
tightly  any  substance  is  packed  and  compressed,  the  better  is  it 
enabled  to  retain  warmth. 

Prevention  of  Ignition. — There  are  no  direct  means  of  pre- 
venting spontaneous  ignition  in  oiled  fibres;  impregnation  with 
antipyrenes  renders  the  fibres  uninflammable,  but  not  the  fatty 
matter,  since  this  latter  cannot  be  impregnated,  and  charring  will 
occur,  even  though  fire  be  prevented. 

The  best  preventive  of  the  danger  involved  consists  in  the 
employment  of  good  oil,  free  from  rancidity:  pure  vegetable  oil 
mixed  with  20-30  per  cent  of  pure  mineral  oil.  Coal-tar  oils  cannot 


222  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

be  recommended,  owing  to  their  irregular  composition  (presence 
of  sulphur),  and  animal  oils  are  better  avoided. 

Safeguards. — Oiled  fibrous  material  should  be  kept  in  approved 
waste  cans  (see  page  224),  kept  away  from  all  sources  of  heat, 
protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  burned  or  removed  to  a 
safe  place  every  night.  All  operations  with  oiled  materials  should 
be  under  thorough  supervision,  and  the  temperatures  carefully 
checked. 

Storage  Hazards. — Fats  and  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  and  some 
of  the  higher  grades  of  refined  mineral  oils  introduce  very  little 
hazard  in  their  storage,  as  the  flash  point  is  low  and  the  danger 
of  ignition  slight.  However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  at  high 
temperatures,  usually  over  450°  F.,  they  give  oft  vapors  which  take 
fire  spontaneously  when  heated  to  about  20°  F.  above  their  tem- 
perature of  formation,  and  these  vapors  may  become  explosive 
when  mixed  with  the  right  proportion  of  air.  The  danger  of  leak- 
age impregnating  fibrous  material  sufficiently  to  cause  spontaneous 
combustion  is  also  a  hazard  to  be  guarded  against;  the  use  of 
sawdust  to  absorb  such  leakage  is  very  unwise. 

Storages  of  fats  and  oils  of  this  character  in  congested  dis- 
tricts or  in  the  main  parts  of  a  plant  are  very  objectionable  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  in  extinguishing  them  when  ignited  from 
some  outside  cause.  The  containers  will  be  ruptured  by  the 
internal  pressure  of  the  vapors  ^liberated  by  heat,  and  the  contents 
spread  for  considerable  distances. 

Burning  Temperatures.— At  the  following  temperatunes  the 
oils  specified  will  go  on  burning: 

Olive    oil     at  662°  F.  Linseed    oil     at  662°    F. 

Rape   oil    , at  662°  F.  Engine    oil     at  275-^  "°   F. 

IFempseed    oil     ,.  .  .  .at  329°  F.  Spindle    oil    (light)     at  505°    F. 

Poppy   oil at  662°  F.  Spindle    oil    (heavy)     at  550°   F. 

Sesame    oil    at  662°  F. 

Fat  Rendering. — The  recovery  of  fat  by  melting  (rendering) 
and  the  cooking  or  refining  of  the  oils  of  high  flash  point  are 
dangerous  if  direct  fire  heat  is  employed;  superheating,  ebullition 
attended  by  decomposition,  or  the  formation  of  inflammable  vapors 
may  easily  lead  to  an  outbreak  of  fire.  The  danger  is  diminished, 
to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  use  of  steam  heat. 

The  dangerous  vapors  liberated  must  be  rendered  harmless  by 
conducting  them  into  a  fire,  where  they  will  be  consumed,  or  by 
condensation  or  proper  ventilation  to  the  outside  air;  as  the 
vapors  are  explosive  when  under  pressure  the  pipes  and  vessels 
used  in  a  condensing  system  must  be  fitted  with  safety  valves. 

Use  of  Solvents. — The  risks  are  far  greater  in  works  where 
the  fat  and  oils  are  extracted  with  solvents  instead  of  by  pressing. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  223 

In  addition  to  ether,  naphtha,  carbon-disulphide  and  alcohol,  all 
very  dangerous  solvents,  there  are  other  less  dangerous,  and  even 
harmless,  such  as  carbon  tetrachloride,  ammonia,  chloroform,  ben- 
zol soaps  and  oxgall,  but  unfortunately  their  solvent  power  is  rela- 
tively insignificant,  and  they  are  seldom  used. 

Fat  Extraction. — The  apparatus  used  in  extracting  fat  is  now- 
adays of  very  perfect  construction,  as  indeed  is  essential  in  view 
of  the  dangerous  materials  employed ;  but  though  they  offer  a 
certain  guarantee  of  safety,  the  claims  of  absolute  security,  some- 
times preferred  by  the  makers,  are  not  in  harmony  with  truth. 
In  addition  to  the  general  requirements  given  on  pages  137  to 
145  in  regard  to  the  handling  of  the  readily  inflammable  solvents, 
it  must  be  expressly  prescribed  that  no  pressure  must  be  allowed 
to  obtain  within  the  extraction  apparatus,  even  when  the  solvents 
are  in  ebullition,  since  any  appreciable  pressure  on  the  vapor  of 
the  solvents  increases  the  explosibility  and  the  danger  of  a  violent 
explosion. 

The  apparatus  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  separation  of  the 
raw  material,  solvent  and  fat  must  be  effected  in  a  single  train 
of  operations  within  the  apparatus,  and  without  any  part  of  the 
latter  or  its  appurtenances  requiring  to  be  opened. 

Charred  Wood. — Wood  which  has  been  for  a  length  of  time  in 
contact  with  pipes  containing  hot  water  or  steam  seems  to  be 
reduced  gradually  to  a  condition  favoring  spontaneous  ignition. 
The  destruction  of  the  English  House  of  Parliament  and  many 
other  fires  have  been  attributed  to  this  cause. 

From  statistics  as  to  fires  in  dry-kilns  and  dry-rooms  it  appears 
evident  that  wood  subjected  continuously  to  heat  for  a  given  length 
of  time  gets  into  a  condition  where  it  ignites  spontaneously;  this 
indicates  the  necessity  of  discontinuing  the  use  of  wood  in  rooms 
subject  to  high  temperatures. 

In  newer  wooden  structures  the  most  dangerous  are  those  com- 
posed of  wood  that  still  continues  to  exude  resin,  which  chars 
more  easily  than  the  wood  itself. 

Pipes  Should  be  Insulated. — The  best  way  to  prevent  injury 
to  wood  and  other  organic  substances  by  the  influence  of  pipes, 
etc.,  conveying  steam,  hot  gases  and  hot  liquids,  is  by  using  some 
good  insulating  material  (non-conductor  of  heat). 

Certain  paints — lead  paints  and  asphaltum— applied  to  steam 
pipes  increase  the  loss  of  heat  as  much  as  25  per  cent;  the  pipes 
become  hotter,  the  radiation  of  heat  more  extensive,  and  the  danger 
correspondingly  increased. 


224  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Waste  Cans* 

1.  SIZE. — To    be    not    smaller    than    n    inches    diameter    and    n    inches    deep 
inside,  nor   larger  than   22  x  25   inches   inside,   if  used   for  oily   waste.      Inside 
diameter    to    be    not    less    than    90    per    cent   of    height    excluding    legs.      It    is 
desirable  to  use  a  number  of  smaller  cans,  rather  than   fewer  large  ones. 

2.  BODY. — For    cans    nxn     inches    inside,    not    less  '  than    No.    26    gauge, 
U.    S.    Standard    (.0187   inch),  galvanized   iron   or  steel  and  increase   thickness 
one    number    in    gauge    for   each    3-inch    increase    in    diameter. 

3.  LEGS. — To  be  made  of  band  iron  not  less  than  12  gauge,  U.   S.   Standard 
(.1093   inch),   %-ihch  wide,    riveted   to   side  and  bottom   of  can,   two   rivets   at 
each  end,   and  not  less  than  3   inches  high  for  cans    n  x  n    inches,  three  legs 
on  each  can;   for  larger  sizes,  not  more  than  4  inches  high,  gauge  and  width 
increased   in   proportion   to  size  of  can,   using   1 1  x  1 1    inches   as  base. 

4.  COVER. — To  be  in  two  sections,  width  of  one  section  to  be  equal  to  about 
one-third    the    diameter    and    riveted   to    the    can    with   the    movable    lid    perma- 
nently and   freely  hinged  to   the   rigid  section   without  soldering,   and  to   have 
a  device  to  prevent  opening  more  than  a  60  degree  angle  from  horizontal  and 
weighted   sufficiently   to   make   closure   positive   and   automatic.      Iron   to   be   of 
at  least  two  numbers  heavier  than  the  body,  lid  to  extend  beyond  the  body  of 
the  can,  finished  with  a  hemmed  or  wired  edge  and  made  rigid  by  two  strips 
of    band   iron    %  x  i    inch,    riveted   inside   lengthwise   and   outside   crosswise   re- 
spectively  in    the   middle   of   the   lid,   the   outer   end   bent    upward   at   an   angle 
of  about   45    degrees. 


SELF-CLOSING  OILY  WASTE  CAN. 

5.  HANDLES. — To    be   riveted    to   the    rigid   portion    of  the   coyer   and   prefer- 
ably made  from  band  iron  %  x  i   inch  bent  to  form  a  stop   for  the  lid.      Side 
handles  must  be  supplied  on   cans  larger  in\  diameter  than    16   inches. 

6.  Construction. — Can  to  be  assembled  with  all  seams  lock-jointed  or  riveted 
and   attachments   riveted   on,      Body  of  can  to  be  wired  at  top   with   wire  not 
smaller   than    No.    9   for  can    nxii    inches,   proportionally    heavier    for   larger 
cans,  or  finished  with  band  iron  of  equivalent  strength. 

7.  Marking.- — Each    can    to    be    plainly    and    permanently    marked    with    its 
trade-name  and  the  name,   initials  or  trade-mark  of  the  manufacturer. 


'As  recommended  by  the   National   Board  of  Fire   Underwriters. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  225 

NOTE. — Waste  cans  are  required  for  all  oily  waste,  and  recommended  for 
clean  waste. 

It  should  be  the  practice  to  empty  oily  waste  cans  and  burn  the  contents 
every  evening.  Oily  waste  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  cans  over  night. 

( 

Ash  Cans  and  Refuse  Barrels* 

8.  Size. — To    be    determined    by    necessities    of    risk,    but    not    smaller    than 
12x12  inches. 

9.  Body.-^Not    less    than    No.    24   gauge,    U.    S.    Standard    (.025    inch),    for 
average   size   of   15  x  26   inches   used  for  general   purposes,   and    No.   20    (.0375 
inch)     for    bottom.      To    increase    one    number    in    thickness    for    each    3-inch 
increase   in   diameter. 

10.  Flanges. — To  be  reinforced  top  and  bottom  by  flanges  riveted  on,  of  not 
less    than    No.    12    (.109    inch)    iron.      Flange    at    bottom    to    be    of    height    to 
insure  air  space  of  2  inches  between   lowest  point  of  bottom  and  the  floor. 

Flange  at  bottom  to  be  perforated  at  intervals  with  i/srinch  holes  to  vent 
the  space  formed  by  flange. 

To  be  reinforced  by  vertical  ribs,  made  of  angles,  channels,  sheet  metal 
bosses,  corrugated  or  strap  iron.  If  made  30  per  cent  heavier,  reinforcement 
not  required. 

u.  Handles. — To  be  of  wrought  or  malleable   iron,  securely  riveted  to  can. 

12.  Covers. — Must    have    covers,    to    be    loosely    fitting    over    outside    of    can 
to    take   up    irregularity   of   top   of   can   due    to   service,    and   to   have   flange    2 
inches    deep. 

13.  Engineers'  Ash   Cans. — Should  be  of  not  less  than  No.    16    (.0625   inch) 
iron,  and  flanges  not  less  than  ^-inch  thick,  and  bottom  flange  to  be  of  such 
width  as  to  admit  of  2  inches  clear  air  space,  and  to  be  ventilated. 

14.  Marking. — Each   can   must   be   plainly   and   permanently  marked  with   its 
trade-name   and   the   name,   initials  or  trade-mark   of  the  manufacturer. 


*As  recommended  by  the  National   Board  of  Fire   Underwriters. 


CONSTRUCTION 

PLANNING 

In  the  planning  of  building  operations  the  prevailing  .  thought 
is  generally  devoted  to  the  economic  conditions.  Plans  are  often 
formulated  which  may  seem  economical  from  a  certain  stand- 
point, but  when  the  many  conditions  involved  in  building  opera- 
tions are  considered  that  which  may  first  appear  as  economy 
is  in  reality  false  economy;  true  economy  involves  not  only  the 
needs  of  the  structure  for  which  purpose  it  is  intended,  but  in 
making  the  best  use  of  the  available  building  materials  as  well  as 
properly  determining  the  best  type  of  construction,  suitable  for 
the  location  of  the  structure. 

Alterations  or  additions  of  any  magnitude  require  the  same 
forethought  as  new  structures  and  by  properly  studying  the 
conditions  the  property  as  a  whole  would  be  improved. 

The  planning  of  structures  should  involve  not  only  their  present 
requirements  but  the  possibility  of  future  extensions. 

The  defence  against  fire  should  be  formulated  from  the  beginning 
in  the  planning  of  all  structures,  it  is,  therefore  necessary  to  thor- 
oughly consider  the  nature  of  all  surrounding  buildings  or  the 
possibility  of  future  buildings  being  erected  on  adjacent  ground; 
such  conditions  will  determine  the  selection  of  proper  materials 
for  wall  or  cornice  construction,  as  well  as  planning  the  proper 
window  and  door  openings  and  the.  proper  protection  of  the  same ; 
these  features  govern  the  exposure  charges  of  the  Fire  Insurance 
Underwriters,  and  unless  provision  is  made  in  the  plans  for  the 
exposure  conditions,  future  expense  arises  not  only  in  correcting 
structural  defects,  but  in  the  continued  additional  expense  in  insur- 
ance premiums. 

In  planning  manufacturing  properties  time  is  well  spent  in 
studying  the  arrangement  of  the  processes  to  be  incorporated  in 
the  structures  in  order  to  prevent  the  principal  hazards  from  en- 
dangering the  main  values.  There  is  hardly  any  step  in  the  design- 
ing of  a  structure  of  any  kind  which  does  not  have  a  certain  bear- 
ing, direct  or  indirect,  from  a  fire  protective  standpoint.  It  is 
possible  to  design  .and  construct  any  class  of  structure  in  a  thor- 
oughly economic  manner  if  proper  study  is  exercised  in  the  plan- 
ning and  if  provision  is  made  for  the  fire  protective  features. 

226 


PLANNING  227 

Accept  the  evidences  of  the  destruction  that  is  continually  taking 
place  from  fire  in  all  classes  of  structures;  plan  the  structure  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  will  be  a  permanent  investment,  and  arrange 
and  protect  the  property  in  such  a  manner  that  fire  can  cause  only 
a  minimum  of  damage,  remembering  that  fire  resisting  structures 
also  resist  depreciation. 

Secure  the  rates  of  insurance  on  various  kinds  of  structures 
before  selecting  your  building  materials  or  perfecting  the  plans. 
Faulty  planning  and  construction  are  directly  responsible  for  the 
enormous  fire  waste,  and  it  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that 
with  the  proper  planning  of  the  constructive  features  the  ultimate 
costs  are  less  than  in  buildings  of  inferior  construction. 

Absolute  fireproof  buildings  do  not  exist,  but  fire  resisting 
buildings  do,  and  the  amount  of  resistance  depends  on  the  intensity 
and  duration  of  a  fire  and  on  the  materials  entering  into  the 
construction. 

The  general  layout  of  the  building  and  proper  insulation  of 
certain  parts,  such  as  the  stairs,  elevators  and  portions  likely  to 
admit  a  draught  to  adjacent  stories  are  features  which  should 
receive  special  study  in  planning  structures. 

Fire  cut-offs  should  receive  special  attention  in  planning,  and 
be  arranged  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fires  over  large  areas.  Metal 
structural  work  should  be  properly  protected  against  fire  and  a 
careful  study  should  be  made  of  the  proper  materials  to  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 

Those  conditions  which  are  conducive  to  cleanliness  and  the 
proper  planning  to  assist  in  maintaining  this  feature  are  equally 
important  from  a  commercial  standpoint  as  well  as  a  safeguard 
against  fire. 

As  the  fire  protective  devices  differ  in  various  classes  of  struc- 
tures it  is  important  to  seek  the  co-operation  of  the  insurance  under- 
writers. If  owners,  architects  and  engineers  would  confer  with  the 
insurance  organizations  before  their  plans  have  reached  an  ad- 
vanced stage  much  valuable  information  would  be  given  which 
would  not  only  assist  in  securing  improved  construction  and  fire 
protection,  but  reduce  the  cost  of  fire  insurance  which  is  a  direct 
yearly  tax  not  only  to  the  owner  but  the  occupants. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  property  owner  to  protect  the  life  and 
limb  of  the  public,  whether  such  properties  be  used  for  churches, 
schools,  places  of  public  assembly,  tenements,  mercantile  buildings 
or  factories,  and  only  such  persons  who  have  made  a  study  of 
the  science  of  the  prevention  of  loss  by  fire  in  connection  with  the 
other  requirements  of  their  profession  should  be  entrusted  with 
the  planning  of  such  structures. 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION 

Nothing  develops  structural  defects  as  much  as  fire,  and  as  all 
classes  of  structures  have  been  subjected  to  this  test,  comparisons 
between  good  and  bad  types  of  construction  can  readily  be  based 
on  actual  facts.  Some  types  of  construction  may  be  judged  de- 
fective for  certain  classes  of  buildings  owing  to  the  surroundings, 
nature  of  the  occupancy,  and  the  height  of  the  structure,  whereas 
the  same  type  of  construction,  under  different  conditions,  would 
not  be  called  defective  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  occupancy,  the 
possibility  of  no  danger  from  the  surroundings  and  adequate  fire 
protective  devices. 

Any  class  of  structure  which  admits  of  rapid  combustion  or 
deterioration  under  fire  or  the  elements,  is  defective,  likewise  a 
structure  in  which  fire  cannot  be  fought  to  advantage,  is  defective. 

Common  defects  in  structures  are  often  latent  from  the  time  the 
building  has  been  under  construction  and  if  discovered  at  all  it  is 
generally  too  late  to  rectify  the  errors,  as  the  damage  occasioned 
by  fire  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  structure  is  ruined  beyond  repair. 
Structural  defects  are  to  be  found  in  all  portions  of  buildings ;  any 
local  defects  may  subject  the  entire  structure  to  ruin. 

Defective  Foundations. — The  stability  of  a  structure  is  primarily 
dependent  upon  its  foundations,  and  as  the  foundations  generally 
exist  at  such  locations  where  it  is  difficult  to  regularly  examine 
the  conditions  from  time  to  time  it  is  of  vital  importance  to 
arrange  for  the  proper  determination  of  the  sustaining  strength 
of  the  soils  and  the  proper  type  of  foundation  planning  .to  suit 
this  condition.  It  should  always  be  considered  that  fire  under  cer- 
tain conditions  can  exist  in  out  of  the  way  places,  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult or  impossible  to  reach  the  seat  of  fire,  by  hose  streams,  or 
oheihicais;-  It  is  therefore  important  to  use  only  such  structural 
materials  as  will  offer  the  maximum'  resistance  to  fire,;  as  well  as 
other  depreciable  influences.  Foundations  not  only  include  the  sup- 
ports of  the  structure  itself,  but  of  the  internal  appurtenances,  'such 
as  boilers,  ovens,  fireplaces,  chimneys,  heating  apparatus,  arid  various 
forms  of  machinery  which  by  unequal  settlement  or  disintegration 
of  the  materials,  lead  to  unobserved  open  joints  or  cracks  through 
which  sparks  or  hot  gases  may  pass  and  communicate  fire  to  the 
contents  of  the  building;  or  as  frequently  happens,  back  of  wood 
furring  which  is  used  for  plastering  or  interior  finish. 

228 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  229 

Hot  bearings  of  machinery  frequently  arise  from  settlement 
caused  b;-  defective  foundations.  Improper  footings,  supports  or 
foundations  for  superimposed  loads,  such  as  merchandise,  special 
ma'chinery,  chimneys,  water  tanks  or  conditions  due  to  periodical 
vibration  are  conducive  to  the  destructive  influences  of  deteriora- 
tion and  fire.  Columns  are  often  thrown  out  of  alignment,  impor- 
tant structural  members  arc  sheared  or  deprived  of  proper  bearings, 
the  result  being  that  a  light  shock  or  fire  of  small  magnitude  would 
tend  to  wreck  the  entire  structure. 

Stonework. — The  use  of  limestone,  bluestone  and  granite  should 
be  avoided  in  connection  with  supporting  columns,  bond  stones  or 
lintels,  as  in  case  of  fire  and  the  application  of  water,  stonework 
often,  no  matter  how  substantially  built,  rapidly  disintegrates  and 
wrecks  the  entire  structure.  Granite  piers  have  been  known  to  dis- 
integrate into  the  consistency  of  sand.  Stone  lintels  should  never 
be  used  over  large  or  important  door  or  window  openings. 

Chimneys  and  Flues. — The  defective  flue  is  especially  disastrous 
in  dwellings,  as  the  plastering  of  the  interior  walls  or  partitions 
prevents  the  observation  of  the  common  defects.  Flues  built  in 
connection  with  walls  are  likely  to  become  defective,  as  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  wall  is  to  settle,  owing  to  the  unequal  loading  on 
the  foundations,  the  result  being  that  -the  wall  will  crack  from 
flue  to  joist  and  at  the  point  of  contact,  probably  the  crack  will  fill 
with  soot,  and  in  time  there  is  a  likelihood. of  a  spark  igniting  the 
soot  in  the  crack,  the  fire  in  turn  finding  its  way  to  a  dried  out 
joist  or  timber  which  is  susceptible  to  ignition.  In  such  thoroughly 
concealed  spaces  the  spark  of  fire  will  glow  into  a  flame,  which 
forces  its  way  along  the  joist  or  back. of  the  furring,  burning  there 
until  it  bursts  forth  in  a  number  of  places,  causing  a  destructive 
fire.  Poor  masonry  work,  thin  walls,  lack  of  properly  mixed  mortar 
and  open  joints  are  common  defects.  Flues  arranged  on  corbels 
formed  in  walls  are  especially  subject  to  cracking.  The  running 
of  floor  timbers  into  flue  walls  or  arranging  such  timbers  directly 
against  flue  walls  is  bad.  Negligence  in  not  providing  masonry 
trimmer  arches  for  hearths,  fireplaces  or  grates  is  a  common  defect 
and  is  often  found.  It  is  very  important  to  safeguard  the  header 
and  trimmer  timbers  adjacent  to  all  flues,  stacks,  fireplaces,  or  where 
there  is  any  danger  from  heat  or  sparks. 

Stovepipes. — As  stovepipes  frequently  cause  fires,  every  pre- 
caution should  be  taken  to  provide  for  the  proper  support  of  stove- 
pipes, which  should  be  substantially  made.  The  joints  of  stovepipes  < 
should  be  thoroughly  riveted  and  no  solder  should  be  used.  Long 
stovepipes  are  dangerous.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  avoiding 
open  joints  where  stovepipes  enter  chimneys  as  leaks  at  such  points 


230  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

are  dangerous.  Stovepipes  should  not  be  run  through  combustible 
walls,  partitions,  floors,  ceilings  or  roofs.  Where  such  conditions 
cannot  be  overcome,  double  metal  thimbles  with  air  spaces  around 
them  of  at  least  one  inch  should  be  provided. 

Steam  Pipes  in  contact  with  woodwork  cause  the  wood  to 
carbonize  and  it  is  then  subject  to  rapid  combustion.  Without 
proper  metal  collars,  there  is  danger  from  dirt,  rags,  etc.,  accumu- 
lating in  the  exposed  space  around  the  pipe,  which  is  further  con- 
ducive to  fire. 

Furnaces  in  low  basements  where  the  top  of  furnace  is  close 
to  the  joists  or  other  woodwork  are  especially  dangerous.  This 
comment  will  also  apply  to  stoves  where  there  is  always  the  pos- 
sibility of  overheating,  exposing  such  woodwork  to  rapid  combus- 
tion. Proper  protection  should  be  provided  with  incombustible 
materials,  which  at  the  same  time  will  provide  suitable  insulation 
agains%t  radiated  heat.  Or,  preferably,  the  woodwork  should  be 
entirely  eliminated  in  the  vicinity  of  stoves,  whether  at  sides,  back 
or  at  the  hearth. 

Hollow  spaces  and  wood  furring  are  dangerous  as  the  spaces 
form  flues  through  which  fire  rapidly  flashes,  and  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  reach  the  seat  of  fire  with  fire  protective  apparatus.  Fire 
stops  should  be  provided  at  all  floors  and  metal  or  non-combustible 
furring  should  be  used  instead  of  wood. 

Hollow  and  concealed  spaces  in  floors  and  walls,  especially 
in  buildings  constructed  of  wood,  are  dangerous,  as  not  only  do 
such  spaces  harbor  vermin,  but  form  many  flues  or  passages  open 
for  the  communication  of  fire  through  all  portions  of-  the  building. 
Fire  in  such  spaces  is  difficult  to  locate  and  hard  to  extinguish. 
Fires  in  steep  roof  with  concealed  spaces  therein  are  especially 
difficult  to  fight. 

Boxed  cornices  are  dangerous,  as  they  admit  of  fire  com- 
municating to  all  portions  of  the  -  roof,  the  hollow  spaces  making 
it  difficult  to  locate  the  seat  of  fire  as  well  as  to  extinguish  it. 

Inaccessible  spaces  under  floors  are  responsible  for  the  rapid 
spread  of  fire,  as  it  is  impossible  to  direct  hose  streams  to  advan- 
tage in  such  spapes.  A  frequent  custom  is  to  build  floors  some 
distance  above  the  ground  level,  supporting  the  joists  or  floor  beams 
on  piers  and  girders.  Cracks  or  openings  are  likely  to  exist  in  the 
floor  allowing  a  draught  to  convey  fire  through  and  under  the  floor 
which  will  continue  to  burn  often  unobserved  until  the  entire  floor 
is  wrecked.  Such  spaces  harbor  vermin,  filth  and  rubbish  all  of 
which  are  conducive  to  fire  hazard,  and  the  existence  of  such  spaces 
is  also  favorable  to  dry  rot  or  rapid  deterioration  of  the  constructive 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  231 

timbers.  The  effect  of  a  small  fire  under  such  conditions  is  often 
disastrous.  It  is  preferable  from  an  economic  standpoint  alone  to 
avoid  the  existence  of  such  spaces  under  all  floors  and  platforms. 

Dry  Rot. — This  condition  should  ever  be  guarded  against  in 
all  forms  of  timber  construction.  Green  timber  is  especially  sub- 
ject to  this  result  of  fermentation.  Seasoned  timber  is  affected 
by  the  lack  of  proper  circulation  of  air,  and  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  secure  ventilation  around  wood  work,  where  beams  enter 
walls.  The  use  of  plaster  of  paris,  cement  and  similar  materials 
which  are  absorbents  of  moisture  should  be  guarded  against  in 
connection  with  wood  work,  and  such  materials  should  never  be 
brought  in  direct  contact  with  wood  work.  Lime  mortar  is  con- 
sidered preferable. 

Built  up  beams  or  girders  with  spaces  between  the  timbers, 
are  especially  subject  to  the  destructive  action  of  fire.  Should 
fire  gain  headway  in  such  inaccessible  spaces,  it  is  impossible  to 
reach  the  seat  of  the  fire  by  sprinklers,  or  hose  streams,  especially 
if  the  hose  streams  are  directed  from  the  outside  of  the  building. 

Exposed  Structural  Metal  Work. — In  buildings  or  rooms 
where  the  contents  are  of  a  combustible  nature,  exposed  structural 
metal  work  constitutes  a  structural  defect,  as  steel  or  wrought  iron 
when  subject  to  a  mild  fire  rapidly  fail  by  buckling,  expansion  or 
bending.  Steel  begins  to  lose  its  strength  at  a  temperature  of  500 
degrees. 

The  use  of  metal  rods  in  connection  with  timber  construction  is  a 
serious  defect,  especially  when  used  with  wood  girders.  A  common 
method  of  securing  long  spans  in  wood  girders  is  to  strengthen 
the  timbers  with  truss  rods;  spans  of  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet 
are  frequently  planned.  The  timbers  under  such  conditions  without 
the  reinforcing  truss  rods  would  ordinarily  support  but  a  fractional 
portion  of  the  load.  The  main  carrying  capacity  being  imposed  on 
the  metal  rods,  any  failure  of  the  rods  would  naturally  result  in  the 
destruction  of  the  entire  girder.  There  .ire  a  number  of  ways  in 
which  fire  can  wreck  such  a  girder.  The  primary  result  of  fire 
on  such  construction  is  the  expansion  of  the  rods,  and  as  no  pro- 
vision can  be  made  in  this  form  of  construction  for  eliminating 
expansion  of  the  metal,  the  rods  in  question  readily  detach  them- 
selves from  the  struts,  posts  or  chairs  leaving  the  timbers  unsup- 
ported. The  results  of  deflection  and  vibration  are  readily  mani- 
fested in  such  types  of  construction,  and  unforeseen  weaknesses 
can  develop  at  the  joints  or  threaded  ends  of  the  rods  which 
when  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire  rapidly  lead  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  entire  girder. 


232  FIRE  PREVENTION  ANT*  PROTECTION 

The  use  of  iron  rods  for  the  support  of  hanging  galleries  or 
intermediate  floors  should  be  avoided. 

Supporting  and  Cut-Off  Walls. — A  defect  frequently  existing 
in  such  walls  is  the  lack  of  proper  structural  material  at  certain 
places  to  retard  the  progress  of  fire  from  one  building  to  another. 
Poor  mortar  joints  are  often  responsible  for  the  communication 
of  fire  through  intended  fire  stops.  Beams  and  joist  are  often 
extended  into  cut-off  walls  in  such  a  manner  that  little  or  no  space 
exists  between  the  ends  of  timbers  on  either  side  of  the  wall,  with 
a  result  that  the  burning  or  falling  timbers  allow  direct  communi- 
cation for  fire  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  wall.  This  condition 
frequently  exists  at  roofs  where  extra  wood  strips  or  timbers  are 
often  inserted  into  so-called  fire  walls  for  the  support  of  roofing 
or  arranging  flashings. 

Wood  girders  over  door  openings  in  division  walls  should  be 
avoided ;  the  nearer  the  division  wall  is  self-sustaining  without 
the  introduction  of  beams  or  supporting  members  built  into  the 
same  the  more  substantial  and  effective  the  wall  becomes  as  a.  fire 
retardant. 

Open  elevator  wells,  stairways  and  belt  holes  through  floors 
are  structural  defects  in  all  classes  of  buildings  irrespective  of  the 
type  of  construction.  With  such  features  the  entire  building  is 
subject  to  draughts  and  the  progress  of  fire  cannot  be  confined  to 
a  limited  area;  fire  under  such  conditions  will  quickly  flash  from 
story  to  story  and  soon  be  beyond  control.  Such  conditions  are  also 
conducive  to  the  so-called  dreaded  back  draft  or  smoke  explosions, 
which  are  due  to  the  subsequent  ignition  of  the  volumes  of  sus- 
pended carbon  and  gases  arising  through  the  building. 

Varnished  woodwork  or  hardwood  finish  is  undesirable  from 
a  fire  protective  standpoint,  as  fire  will  rapidly  flash  over  surfaces 
thus  treated.  Mills,  offices  and  places  of  public  assembly  should 
be  free  from  such  conditions.  Woodwork  thus  finished  is  often 
supported  by  wood  furring  with  the  existence  of  hollow  spaces. 
This  type  of  construction  admits  of  the  rapid  progress  of  fire,  and 
such  conditions  have  defied  trie  efforts  of  fire  departments  to  save 
life  and  property. 

Sheet  metal  nailed  to  woodwork  for  protection  of  the  wood 
against  fire  gives  a  false  sense  of  security,  as  the  metal  conveys 
the  heat  to  its  wood  backing  and  ignition  of  the  latter  would  be 
hidden  by  the  metal  facing.  Nails  readily  pull  out  and  fire  can 
work  through  the  joints  or  cracks  and  ignite  the  woodwork.  Fire 
under  such  conditions  is  difficult  to  fight.  Metal  work  is  not  an 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  233 

insulator  against  heat  and  anything  but  a  short  flash  fire  is  liable 
to  cause  the  woodwork  to  ignite. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  protect  exposed  woodwork,  only  such 
materials  should  be  used  as  are  incombustible  and  will  provide 
insulation  against  heat. 

Quick  Burning  Construction. — Manufacturing  and  mercantile 
buildings,  schools,  or  places  of  public  assembly  should  never  be 
constructed  with  light  floor  or  roof  timbers.  A  frequent  custom 
is  to  arrange  light  joists  or  rafters  from  two  to  three  inches  in 
width  spaced  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart.  This  form 
of  construction  admits  of  serious  fire  loss  due  to  the  numerous 
exposed  surfaces  to  which  a  fire  could  readily  communicate.  The 
spaces  between  these  joists  act  as  flues  in  which  fire  cannot  readily 
be  extinguished  especially  by  outside  hose  streams,  the  result  being 
the  seat  of  fire  cannot  be  reached,  and  if  fires  under  such  conditions 
are  not  extinguished  in  their  incipiency  the  results  are  disastrous. 

The  sheathing  of  the  underside  of  joist  with  wood  or  plaster 
aggravates  the  above  conditions. 

Where  timber  enters  into  building  construction  it  is  preferable 
to  arrange  the  same  in  heavy  solid  Amasses  in  order  to  expose  the 
least  number  of  corners  or  projections  to  fire. 

Misplaced  Fire  Escapes. — It  is  a  common  error  to  locate  fire 
escapes  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
fire  bursting  from  windows,  and  many  fire  escapes  are  so  arranged 
that  flames  coming  from  a  single  window  along  the  line  of  fire 
escape  cuts  off  every  chance  for  those  above.  Correctly  placed 
a  fire  escape  should  be  upon  a  blind  wall  wherever  possible,  with 
approaches  or  bridges  at  each  story  running  to  and  opening  upon 
it.  This  feature  should  receive  particular  consideration  in  factory 
buildings,  schools  and  places  of  public  assembly.  The  laws  of 
some  municipalities  require  smoke  proof  fire  towers  which  are  the 
correct  solution  of  the  problem  of  safe  exits. 

Exposure  Conditions. — In  order  to  overcome  structural  de- 
fects which  may  develop  from  outside  sources,  the  exteriors  of 
structures  should  be  constructed  with  due  consideration  of  the 
nature  of  the  surroundings.  Fire  may  enter  through  exterior  doors 
and  windows  or  skylights  unless  these  features  are  properly  de- 
signed. Wood  or  combustible  cornices  readily  communicate  fire 
from  exterior  sources  and  they  should  never  be  designed  for  struc- 
tures to  be  erected  in  congested  districts.  The  construction  of  bay 
windows  or  windows  with  large  glass  nreas  should  be  avoided 
where  there  is  danger  of  fire  communicating  from  the  exterior. 
Large  wood  cupolas,  wood  ventilators  or  monitors  should  not  be 
arranged  on  roofs  where  fire  could  communicate  to  the  same.  The 


234  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

use  of  cut  stone  work  and  ornamental  terra  cotta  should  be  avoided 
in  built-up  districts  or  where  fire  could  damage  the  same.  Shingle 
or  other  combustible  roofs  are  frequently  found  where  external 
fires  can  readily  communicate  to,  and  destroy  property.  Such  roofs 
should  not  be  used  after  the  completion  of  the  building,  in  which 
event  such  defects  as  above  outlined  cannot  be  overcome  or  pro- 
tected against  fire  after  the  completion  of  the  building,  in  which 
even  such  defects  form  a  fixed  charge  upon  the  property  and  con- 
tents thereof  as  long  as  the  structure  exists. 

Conditions  conducive  to  rapid  deterioration  constitute  struc- 
tural defects  which  should  be  guarded  against  in  the  selection  of 
building  materials  or  the  assembling  of  the  same. 

Climatic  conditions  have  a  direct  effect  on  materials  and  should 
be  considered.  The  action  of  moisture,  gases,  steam,  and  radiated 
heat  from,  furnaces  or  boilers  have  injurious  effects  on  structures 
which  are  often  overlooked,  and  as  a  result  serious  conditions  are 
likely  to  ensue,  especially  in  types  of  construction  where  thorough 
periodical  examination  of  the  structural  members  is  not  feasible. 

It  frequently  develops  that  serious  results  ensue  from  the  deteri- 
oration or  disintegration  of  apparently  minor  structural  members; 
this  especially  applies  to  structural  metal  works  which  is  susceptible 
to  rapid  deterioration  if  not  properly  protected.  Wrought  iron  and 
steel  are  liable  to  be  thoroughly  consumed  by  rust  and  the  action 
of  this  disintegrating  influence  is  first  apparent  at  points  where  two 
surfaces  come  together  as  in  joints  in  Z  or  angle  columns.  It  is 
therefore  important  to  provide  for  the  avoidance  of  concealed 
spaces  in  structural  metal  work  and  to  design  such  members  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  guard  against  the  promotion  of  rust  and  its  conceal- 
ment. The  covering  of  metal  work  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as 
will  protect  the  same  from  rust;  the  painting  of  iron  preserves  it 
only  as  long  as  the  oil  of  the  paint  lasts.  The  protection  of  metal 
work  should  not  be  attempted  with  such  materials  as  absorb  moist- 
ure. Steam  pipes  should  never  be  placed  and  concealed  near 
wrought  iron  or  steel  columns,  as  escaping  steam  or  condensation 
is  liable  to  cause  and  hasten  rusting.  Cast  iron  should  not  be  used 
for  beams  or  lintels  as  it  is  brittle  and  will  not  withstand  shock 
or  vibration.  When  used  in  columns  defects  in  the  castings  should 
be  guarded  against,  as  frequently  the  castings  are  thin  on  one  side 
and  thick  on  the  other  which  is  due  to  the  floating  of  the  cores 
in  the  moulds.  While  cast  iron  is  not  as  susceptible  to  rust  as 
steel  and  wrought  iron,  the  action  of  fire  thereon  should  be  guarded 
against  by  proper  fireproofing  materials. 

Defective  Fire  Doors  and  Fire  Shutters. — Fire  doors  and 
.shutters  are  subject  to  rapid  deterioration  if  not  properly  installed 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION 


235 


1 


"Truss  Rods  in  connect 
leavind   twnbers 

-  DEFECTIVE 


ion  w'tth    Supporting  Yimbers  expand  under  heat 
unsupported. (of ten  used  to  secure  lor>4  Spans) 


CONSTRUCTION  - 


^'rloor  Pbnk. 


Inaccessible  Space-,  between 
bu'dt  up  t'mnberi,  used  for 


and 

'«    wals 


. 

partitions 


Spaces  m  floors 


No   RirApet  Fire  Wals 
befeweervbuHdihis   .X-RC 
rrrttuTrrnwrLrrjfiar  tlrm 


KX^      ^    SuPP'Ttd 

^by  joist  and  by 
corbelind  out  Bie 


FIGURE  14 


236  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

and  inspected  at  frequent  intervals.  There  are  many  fire  doors 
and  fire  shutters,  so-called,  which  are  absolutely  of  no  use  in  fur- 
nishing protection  for  the  door  or  window  openings.  Not  only 
are  doors  and  shutters  frequently  improperly  constructed  but  are 
ineffectively  installed  or  not  properly  looked  after  from  time  to 
time.  Frequent  defects  in  fire  doors  and  shutters  consist  of  the 
improper  jointing  of  the  tin  work  and  improper  method  of  nailing 
under  the  seams.  These  are  defects  which  often  cannot  be  observed 
at  a  casual  inspection,  but  can  only  be  detected  by  opening  up  the 
seams.  Exposed  nails  in  the  tin  work  are  always  defects.  Doors 
are  often  hung  on  light  or  in3ecure  tracks  or  hinges,  the  condition 
being  aggravated  by  the  presence  of  wood  work  used  in  support- 
ing or  blocking  up  the  tracks;  combustible  door  sills,  improper 
guides  and  stops  all  tend  to  reduce  the  effectiveness  of  these  struc- 
tural features.  Fire  shutters  secured  to  wood  window  frames  fre- 
quently exist  and  are  about  as  useful  as  no  form  of  protection. 
Consideration  of  Occupancy. — There  is  no  feature  of  more 
importance  in  the  construction  of  a  building  than  the  thorough 
consideration  of  the  proposed  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 
Correct  constructive  features  differ  with  different  classes  of  build- 
ings and  locations.  Common  defects  in  construction  are  the  im- 
proper arrangement  of  the  rooms  or  grouping  of  buildings  which 
contain  the  hazardous  features,  or  the  exposing  of  valuable  con- 
tents to  the  resultant  conditions  of  smoke,  fire  and  water ;  the 
improper  use  of  constructive  materials  to  withstand  depreciation, 
or  the  action  of  gases,  steam,  etc.,  in  connection  with  the  internal 
appurtjenances ;  the  lack  of  properly  planned  ventilating  ducts  or 
flues  ofteji  requires  the  marring  of  structural  features  and  the  cut- 
ting of  unnecessary  holes  through  walls  and  floors,  and  proper 
provision  •  for  wire  or  pipe  shafts  is  often  overlooked  in  the  con- 
structive process.  Improper  supports  for  machinery  or  concentrated 
loads  often  require  the  addition  of  structural  members  which  can- 
not be  installed  without  detracting  from  the  original  type  of  con- 
struction. The  arrangement  of  structural  features  to  suit  the  special 
conditions  of  fire  protective  devices  should .  not  be  overlooked,  as 
excessive  costs  can  often  be  avoided,  if  future  fire  protective  devices 
are  considered  in  connection  with  the  constructive  materials. 

HEAT 

From  scientific  tests  the  following  conclusions  have  been  reached 
relative  to  the  temperatures  developed  by  fire  under  various  condi- 
tions, and  these  results  should  serve  as  a  guide  in  determining  t'he 
class  of  materials  or  type  of  construction  to  suit  various  require- 
ments : 


DEFECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  237 

The  heat  developed  by  a  common  wood  fire  is  about  1000°   F. 

The  heat  developed  by  a  charcoal  fire  is  about  2200°  F. 

The  heat  developed  by  a  coal  fire  is  about  2400°   F. 

The  heat  of  a  burning  structure  is  at  least  1000°  F. 

A  mild  external  fire  develops  at  least  1200°  F.  for  one  hour; 
700°  to  1000°  F.  for  about  one-half  hour  indicates  a  mild  condition 
such  as  would  generally  occur  in  an  office  building  or  dwelling 
where  such  structures  are  under  the  protection  of  a  public  fire 
department. 

A  conflagration  develops  at  least  2500°  F.  for  a  period  of  six 
hours.  Oil  fires  or  fires  in  lard  refineries  are  extremely  severe, 
developing  temperatures  as  high  as  4000°  F. 

TEMPERATURES 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  temperatures  developed  in 
iron  and  clay  working  industries: 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit 

Shale Drain  tile Bottom  kiln   1600 

Composition Earthenware    Kiln  best  heat 1860 

Fire  clay Stoneware    Hottest  part  of  kiln . .  2922 

Fire  clay Stoneware    Hottest  part  cooling. .  1900 

Fire  clay Stoneware    Bottom  best  heat i^^o 

Fire  clay Scvver  pipe Kiln  best  heat 1920 

Fire  clay Prick  and  terra-cotta.  .  Kiln  best  heat 2200 

Shale Sewer  pipe Kiln  best  heat 1 862 

Fire  clay Paving  brick Kiln  best  heat 1920 

Shale Paving  brick   Kiln  best  heat 1800 

Boiler   Under Under  stoker  arch .  . .  2295 

Ingot On  table Being  rolled 1950 

Ingot Heating  furnace Ready  for  rolling.  ...  2120 

Bessemer  steel    Pouring    Ingot 2550 

Open  hearth  steel Pouring    Ingot ...".....  2620 

Blast   furnace    In  furnace Ready  for  tap 2660 

Blast  furnace    Mill  Iron    Running    2225 

Blast  furnace    Bessemer  iron Running    2295 

Open  hearth  and  blast  furnaces  develop  temperatures  in  molten 
metal  up  to  3000°  F. 

Good  Portland  cement  is  manufactured  at  temperatures  from 
2600°  to  3000°  F. 

Sand  does  not  fuse  until  a  temperature  of  above  2900°  F.  is 
reached. 

Temperature   of  glass   melting   furnace 25oo'to  2600°  F. 

Melted  glass    2400° 

Annealing   bottles    1 100° 

Bright   iron   becomes   yellow   at 400° 

Bright    iron   becomes   red   at 500° 

Brieht   iron   becomes   indigo   at 550° 

Bright   iron   becomes   gray   at '. 750° 

Tin    melts    at 445° 

Lead  melts  at 612° 

Zinc  melts  at 775° 

Copper   melts   at 1885  to  2000° 

Cast   iron  melts  at 1900  to  2200° 

Wrought  iron  melts  at 2500  to  2912° 

Platinum   melts   at 3227° 

Steel  melts  at 2500  to  2790° 

Aluminum    (cast)    n  5  7  ° 


238  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

COMBUSTION 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Kerl,  the  initial  heat  or  tem- 
perature to  be  reached  to  allow  the  particles  of  carbon  to  properly 
ignite  with  those  of  oxygen  is  as  follows : 

Peat 437°  R 

Pine 563°  F. 

Soft  coal  619°  F. 

Charcoal  made  by  low  heat,  say  280°,  will  ignite  at 360°  F. 

Charcoal  made  by  higher  heat,  say  750°,  will  ignite  at.  .-.  .  380°  F. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  ALL  FORMS 
OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

Wood  in  the  form  of  small  units  is  highly  combustible  and 
has  no  fire  resisting  qualities;  in  bulk  or  heavy  timbers  it 
burns  slowly  after  the  outside  has  become  charred,  as  the  char- 
ring acts  as  a  non-conductor  to  the  heat  Large  timbers  have  with- 
stood the  direct  action  of  fire  without  impairing  the  strength  of 
the  floor  construction  whereas  structural  steel  under  similar 
conditions  has  utterly  failed. 

The  inflammability  of  timber,  is  in  proportion  to  the  structural 
compactness  of  the  pores,  timber  of  the  character  of  oak  being  less 
readily  inflamed  than  pine. 

Fire  resisting  wood  has  been  successfully  used  in  the  navy 
department  of  the  United  States  Government,  and  is  acceptable 
as  a  fire  retardant  under  certain  conditions  under  the  New  York 
Building  Code.  Severe  tests  have  been  made  on  properly  treated 
wood  which  indicated  its  merits  as  a  non-inflammable  material, 
but  as  the  expense  of  properly  treating  wood  is  considerable,  and 
as  a  number  of  faulty  processes  have  been  usejl,  the  use  .of  fire 
resisting  wood  has  not  been  extensive,  nor  has  its  effectiveness  been 
proved  by  the  ageing  of  the  wood  so  treated  and  the  possible 
chemical  changes  due  to  varying  atmospheric  conditions. 

Certain  kinds  of  treated  woods  are  likely  to  absorb  moisture, 
or  the  wood  fibres  might  become  weak  or  brittle;  under  such 
conditions  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  wise  to  consider  wood 
so  treated  as  a  constructive  material. 

The  tests  of  treated  and  untreated  woods  show  that  the  tend- 
ency of  untreated  woods  to  burn  is  ten  to  twenty  times  that 
of  treated  woods. 

The  fireproofing  of  wood  is  most  successfully  accomplished  by 
the  processes  which  thoroughly  impregnate  all  the  pores  to  the  heart 
of  the  timber  using  such  chemicals  as  are  not  hygroscopic  or  efflores- 
cent in  character.  The  chemicals  used  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as 
will  not  corrode  structural  metal  work  used  in  connection  with  the 
timbers,  and  only  such  chemicals  should  be  used  as  will  admit  of 
the  cremation  of  the  wood  without  flame. 

Compounds  of  ammonia  have  been  successfully  used  as  the  ready 

239 


240  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

volatility  by  heat  of  such  compounds  produces  gases  which  do  not 
support  combustion  or  burn  of  themselves. 

"  Fireproof "  paints  are  used  extensively  for  the  protection 
of  wood  work  but  their  effectiveness  is  limited  and  depreciates  in 
time;  as  a  protection  to'  wood  work  such  paints  have  been  known 
to  resist  the  action  of  a  mild  fire  for  periods  of  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes.  Paints  in  the  form  of  tungstate  of  soda  and 
asbestos  paint  are  extensively  used.  Silicate  of  soda  and  lime 
wash  applied  in  alternate  coats  will  decrease  the  probability  of 
ignition  to  wood  work  in  the  case  of  incipient  fires. 

The  formula  for  whitewash  as  adapted  by  the  United  States 
Government,  when  properly  applied  to  wood  work,  affords  a  good 
fire  retardant. 

Whitewash — Formula  Recommended  by  the  Lighthouse  Board 
of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department. — Slake  one-half 
bushel  of  unslacked  lime  with  boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered 
during  the  process;  strain  it  and  add  a  peck  of  salt  dissolved  in 
warm  water ;  add  three  pounds  of  ground  rice,  put  in  boiling  water 
and  boil  to  a  thin  paste ;  add  one-half  pound  powdered  Spanish 
whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear  glue  dissolved  in  hot  water.  Mix 
these  well  together  and  let  the  mixture  stand  for  several  days. 
Keep  the  wash  thus  prepared  in  a  kettle  or  portable  furnace,  and 
when  used  put  it  on  as  hot  as  possible  with  painter's  or  whitewash 
brushes. 

Where  possible  the  coatings  should  be  applied  by  a  hand  brush 
rather  than  by  a  spraying  machine,  thus  effecting  a  better  surface, 
and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  whitewash  off  of  the 
sprinkler  heads. 

STONEWORK 

In  considering  the  resistive  qualities  of  various  kinds  of  stone,  it 
is  necessary  to  determine  the  conditions  due  not  only  to  the  influence 
of  heat,  but  the  resultant  disintegration  due  to  a  rapid  change  of 
temperature  which  is  likely  to  ensue  from  the  action  of  the  water 
thrown  in  hose  streams  on  the  heated  stone  in  case  of  fire. 

A  stone  which  under  certain  conditions  may  stand  up  very, well 
will  disintegrate  under  other  conditions.  Some  stone  or  granites 
act  badly  on  fast  cooling,  yet  under  the  combined  action  of  flame 
and  water  have  suffered  little  damage.  Sudden  cooling  is  con- 
ducive to  disintegrating  the  general  forms  of  stonework,  damage 
being  more  pronounced  in  rocks  of  coarser  texture.  The  more 
compact  and  hard  the  stone  the  better  it  will  resist  extreme  heat; 
the  greater  the  absorption  the  greater  will  be  the  effect  of  heat. 
A  very  porous  sandstone  will  be  reduced  to  sand,  and  a  stone  in 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL        241 

which  the  cement  is  largely  limonite  or  clay  will  suffer  more  than 
one  held  together  by  silica  or  lime  carbonate. 

Limestones  up  to  the  point  where  calcination  begins  (600° 
to  800°  F.)  will  be  little  injured,  but  above  that  point  they  fail 
badly  owing  to  the  crumbling  caused  by  flaking  of  the  quicklime. 

Marble  behaves  similarly  to  limestone  but  on  account  of  the 
coarseness  of  texture  also  cracks  considerably. 

Sandstone  will  stand  up  fairly  well  at  temperatures  from 
800°  to  1000°  F.  but  cracking  can  be  expected  along  the  bed  of  the 
stone,  and  the  stability  of  structural  members  would  be  endangered 
if  the  stone  had  not  been  properly  set.  At  1500°  F.  severe  injury 
could  be  expected,  as  there  is  no  possibility  of  local  expansion  or 
contraction  without  rupture. 

Granite. — Crumbles  rapidly,  disintegrates  and  cracks  under 
normal  degrees  of  heat,  which  is  due  to  the  coarseness  of  texture 
and  the  differences  in  the  co-efficients  of  expansion  of  the  various 
mineral  constituents.  Some  minerals  expand  more  than  others  and 
the  strains  occasioned  thereby  will  tend  to  rupture  the  stone  more 
than  where  the  mineral  composition  is  simpler. 

BRICKWORK 

Brickwork  of  properly  burned  brick,  and  properly  laid  up  in 
strong  mortar,  with  good  solid  well  filled  joints  constitutes,  a  form 
of  construction  which  in  point  of  efficiency  cannot  be  excelled  as  a 
fire  resistive  material.  This  is  due  to  the  homogeneous  texture  and 
the  joints  which  makes  it  possible  for  each  joint  to  assist  in  taking 
up  the  expansion  stresses  without  rupturing  the  main  body  of  the 
brickwork.  When  used  as  fireproof  coverings  the  expansion  stresses 
are  not  severe  as  the  homogeneous  nature  of  the  material  prevents 
a  rapid  change  of  temperature  between  the  exposed  face  and  the 
interior  side  of  the  brickwork,  thus  eliminating  the  destructive  ex- 
pansion stresses.  Hard  dense  bricks  will  spall  on  the  exposed  sur- 
face whicn  does  not  to  any  extent  affect  the  efficiency  as  a  protective 
covering. 

The  fire  resisting  property  of  bricks  depends  chiefly  upon  the 
amount  and  relative  proportions  of  the  silica  and  alumina  contained 
in  the  clay  from  which  the  bricks  are  made ;  the  greater  the  pro- 
portion of  alumina  to  silica  the  greater  is  the  infusibility  of  the 
clay.  The  most  refractory  bricks  are  however  not  the  strongest 
for  structural  purposes.  The  best  bricks  for  building  purposes 
should  be  burned  just  short  of  vitrification. 

Fire  brick  has  not  been  excelled  as  a  resistive  material  to 
high  temperatures.  The  linings  of  steel  melting  furnaces  which 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

are  constructed  of  this  material  are  required  to  insulate  up  to  300© 
degrees  of  heat ;  the  brickwork  in  such  cases  is  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  inches  in  thickness,  which  insures  the  proper  insulation; 
at  the  same  time  the  expansion  stress  in  the  brickwork  is  very 
slight, 

CONCRETE  BLOCKS 

The  proper  manufacture  of  concrete  blocks  is  an  art  accomplished 
by  few  at  the  present  time.  Walls  constructed  of  concrete  block 
have  passed  through  mild  fires  without  damage,  but  the  percentage 
of  failures  is  considerable.  A  good  type  of  construction  for  small 
buildings  or  where  high  temperatures  or  long  continued  fires  are 
not  likely  to  occur,  is  >  of  well  made  concrete  blocks.  Cement  blocks 
should  not  be  usgid  for  fire  walls  or  where  conditions  are  such 
that  they  would  be  subject  to  severe  fire.  •;.•»!: 

Hollow  blocks  of  concrete  as  set- in  the  walls  or  floors  of  a  build- 
ing usually  present  but  one  surface  or  face  to  the  direct  attack  of 
fire  and  the  consequence  is  that  one  side  or  face  of  the  block 
expands  rapidly  under  the  influence  of  heat,  while  the  other 
three  sides  receiving  much  less  heat  do  :npt.  expand  nearly  as 
rapidly,  with  the  result  that  the  hottest  side  breaks  away  from  the 
others. 

TERRA  COTTA 

The  fire  resistive  qualities  of  terra  cotta  are  governed  by  the 
nature  of  the  clays  entering  into  its  composition,  the  method  of 
burning,  arrangement  and  thickness  of  the  webs  and  cellular  con- 
struction, the  size  of  the  units  or  blocks  and  the  manner  of  setting 
the  material  in  connection  with  the  structural  frame  of  the  build- 
ing. The  structural  defects  of  terra  cotta  can  readily  develop  in 
a  fire  of  no  great  magnitude  and  the  ultimate  efficiency  of  the 
material  can  only  toe  secured  by  the  proper  care  in  manufacturing 
and  installation. 

Terra  cotta  should  be  of  adequate  thickness  and  weight,  with 
heavy  webs  and  partitions ;  the  corners  should  be  arranged  with 
well  rounded  fillets  and  the  blocks  should  be  substantially  con- 
structed. For  effective  coverings  the  minimum  thickness  of  the 
material  should  not  be  skimped.  The  disastrous  results  to  terra 
cotta  as  a  fire  protective  material  have  been  due  to  the  insufficient 
thickness  of  the  material,  and  the  method  of  installation.  In  many 
cases  terra  cotta  lias  been  but  a  thin  veneer  without  protecting  the 
structural  metal  work  against  fire.  Webs  of  tiles  should  be  at  least 
one  and  one-half  inches  thick  with  interior  angles  rounded  to  a 
radius  of  two  inches.  A  weakness  from  a  fire  protective  stand- 
point is  frequently  developed  in  buildings  of  irregular  form  where 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL         243 

the  beam  lines  and  side  walls  or  girders  intersect  at  acute  angles. 
Much  difficulty  is  experienced  and  much  imperfect  work  in  the  set- 
ting of  tile  often  results  in  the  patching  out  of  cut  pieces  of  tiling 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  out  the  irregular  angles  and  intersections. 

The  chief  weakness  in  terra  cotta  has  been  due  to  the  large  size 
units  employed  and  the  thin  exposed  webs  which  are  incapable  of 
sustaining  the  expansion  stresses.  With  a  rapid  change  of  tem- 
perature thin  webs  have  not  the  required  resistive  qualities,  per- 
mitting fractures  and  ultimate  failure.  The  damage  by  lire  to 
the  soffits  of  terra  cotta  arches  is  due  to  the  unequal  expansion 
between  the  shells  and  webs  of  the  arch  blocks,  the  shells  re- 
ceiving much  more  heat  than  the  webs. 

Semi-porous  terra  cotta  properly  made  of  fire  clay  can  be  heated 
to  redness  and  plunged  into  water  without  disintegration  and  with 
the  proper  application  of  same,  structural  metal  work  can  be  effec- 
tively protected  against  severe  fire. 

IRON  AND  STEEL 

Cast  iron,  steel,  and  wrought  iron  appear  to  increase  in  strength 
in  temperatures  up  to  about  400°  F. ;  as  the  temperature  rises  above 
this  point  the  strength  is  rapidly  depreciated ;  this  is  especially  the 
case  with  wrought  iron  and  steel. 

Structural  steel  at  about  575°  F.  loses  about  10%  of  its  strength. 

Structural  steel  at  about  750°  to  800°  loses  about  50%  of  its 
strength. 

Structural  steel  at  about  1000°  to  1200°  loses  about  75%  of  its 
strength. 

Hard  steel  has  a  higher  resistance  to  heat  than  soft  steel ;  experi- 
ments by  Howard  prove  that  o.io  per  cent,  carbon  steel  had  a 
strength  of  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch  at  1000°  F.  and  0.60  to 
i. oo  per  cent,  carbon  steel  had  the  same  strength  at  1600°  F.  Steel 
columns -will  yield  under  loads  at  from  1000°  to  1200°  F.  Cast 
iron  has  stood  up  to  1300°  to  1500°  F.  for  a  short  time  but  the 
throwing  of  water  on  cast  iron  when  highly  heated  may  cause  it 
to  crack  or  fly  to  pieces.  Cast  iron  columns  should  not  be  used  in 
high  buildings  as  their  failures  are  usually  complete,  which  results 
in  a  sudden  total  collapse  of  the  sections  supported.  Beams  or 
girders  cannot  be  rigidly  attached  to  such  columns  and  defects  in 
the  material  cannot  readily  be  detected.  Wedges  and  blocking 
pieces  are  frequently  introduced  in  connection  with  cast  iron  col- 
umns for  the  purpose  of  tracing  up  the  structure.  Such  a  feature 
is  often  unobserved  until  the  action  of  fire  or  shock,  which  usually 
results  disastrously. 


244  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Irregular  heating  of  structural  steel,  such  as  may  take  place 
when  a  beam  or  girder  is  partly  encased  in  a  wall,  or  when  the 
lower  portion  of  the  structural  metal  work  is  unprotected,  pro- 
duces a  dangerous  condition  as  the  excessive  internal  strains 
tend  to  induce  twisting  and  distortion  or  the  stresses  due  to 
expansion  may  be  sufficient  to  throw  the  walls  of  a  building. 

COMPOSITION  FIRE  RESISTIVE  MATERIALS 

Resistive  materials  such  as  plasters  having  gypsum  as  a  base 
offer  a  great  degree  of  resistance  to  heat.  With  proper  compound- 
ing of  such  materials  and  when  the  blocks  or  slabs  are  properly 
arranged  they  afford  good  barriers  against  fire.  Gypsum  retains 
its  cohesive  power  when  subjected  to  high  temperatures  and  to  hose 
streams;  if  however  such  a  condition  is  present  for  any  length  of 
time  the  calcined  surface  of  the  material  may  be  washed  away 
without  a  total  disintegration  or  breaking  up  of  the  material. 

Asbestic  plasters  when  laid  on  a  solid  foundation  are  a  good 
fire  resistant,  the  customary  thickness  being  from  three-quarters 
to  one  inch. 

..,.:;: 

Asbestos  building  lumber  is  used  extensively  for  shingles  and 
siding,  and  is  considered  superior  to  wood  when  arranged  in  con- 
nection with  proper  supporting  members. 

Composition  wood  is  made  from  ground  straw  or  straw  board 
with  a  cement  or  composition  binder,  the  materials  being  subjected 
to  heavy  pressure,  and  forming  a  compact  board,  which  is  non- 
combustible  and  is  considered  a  good  non-conductor.  If  the  mate- 
rial is  of  sufficient  thickness  it  is  but  slightly  affected  by  high 
temperature  and  a  subsequent  application  of  water. 

Plaster  of  Paris. — While  plaster  of  paris  is  a  well-known 
non-conductor  of  heat,  such  compositions  absorb  moisture  rapidly 
and  dry  slowly;  they  soften  under  fire  streams  and  are  rapidly 
disintegrated. 

Air  spaces  in  connection  with  fireproofing  if  arranged  in  such 
a  manner  that  flues  will  not  exist  for  the  conveying  of  the  heat 
or  gases,  that  is  if  such  spaces  are  "  dead,"  afford  good  protection 
to  structural  metal  work,  as  such  spaces  will  permit  the  transmis- 
sion of  heat  only  by  radiation,  a  much  slower  process  than  by  direct 
contact.  When  designed  so  as  to  form  two  or  more  thicknesses  of 
insulating  material  with  air  spaces  intervening  the  efficiency  is 
largely  increased.  Wire  lath  and  cement  or  plaster  arranged  on 
suitable  furring  provides  a  very  good  protective  material.  v 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL        245 

WIRED  GLASS  WINDOWS 

Wired  glass  in  approved  metal  frames  is  an  excellent  fire  retard- 
ant;  although  it  will  crack  under  the  influence  of  fire,  it  will  retain 
its  position  when  subjected  to  a  rapid  change  of  temperature  due 
to  the  application  of  water.  Under  the  continued  application  of  heat 
as  would  be  present  in  a  conflagration,  the  glass  could  radiate  suffi- 
cient heat  to  destroy  combustible  materials  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
within  the  room  they  are  intended^  to  protect.  Wired  glass  windows 
form  the  best  known  safeguard  for  the  prevention  of  fire  spreading 
from  one  floor  to  another  through  the  outside  window  openings, 
especially  in  buildings  of  non-combustible  or  fireproof  construction, 
and  of  several  stories  in  height. 

EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  CONCRETE 

Good  Portland  cement  is  manufactured  at  temperatures  of  from 
2600°  to  3000°  F.  The  fire  resistive  qualities  of  concrete  are  gov- 
erned by  the  nature  of  the  cement,  sand  and  stone,  the  proper  pro- 
portioning and  mixing  of  these  materials  and  the  care  exercised  in 
applying  the  concrete  mixture  in  the  construction  work. 

Cement  varies  in  its  chemical  properties,  and  may  to  all  outward 
appearance  seem  good,  but  the  only  safeguard  where  cement  is  to 
be  used  for  structural  purposes,  is  to  subject  it  to  a  physical  test. 
Failures  have  been  caused  by  a  low  percentage  of  lime  in  the  cement, 
a  specific  gravity  below  normal  with  an  undue  amount  of  volatile 
matter  in  the  cement.  The  strength  of  concrete  is  due  to  the  hydra- 
tion  of  cement  which  in  setting  takes  up  a  certain  amount  of  water 
in  crystallization  which  is  essential  to  its  strength.  At  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  600°  F.  this  water  begins  to  be  driven  off  and  the 
cement  loses  its  strength.  When  dehydration  is  complete  the 
strength  is  gone.  However,  the  dehydration  being  a  slow  process, 
and  as  the  dehydrated  material  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  the 
interior  of  the  mass  is  thus  slow  to  dehydrate.  Twenty  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  concrete  represents  the  amount  of 
moisture  which  is  chemically  combined  in  the  proper  setting  of 
cement ;  dehydration  represents  the  evaporation  or  driving  off  of 
this  vapor  from  the  pores  of  the  concrete.  It  frequently  happens 
that  concrete  is  laid  in  places  where  it  is  to  be  exposed  to  a  tem- 
perature of  from  400°  to  500°  F.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
concrete  will  stand  this  temperature  provided  it  has  previously  been 
allowed  to  thoroughly  harden.  If,  however  it  is  subjected  to  any 
such  temperature  as  this  within  a  short  time  after  being  laid,  the 
effect  is  to  dry  it  out,  -not  leaving  sufficient  moisture  present  for  its 
proper  hardening. 

Concrete  will  resist  extremely  high  temperatures  for  brief  periods. 


246  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

say  four  to  five  hours.  Stone  concrete  subjected  to  temperatures  up 
to  2000°  F.  and  suddenly  cooled  by  hose  streams  has  been  known 
to  disintegrate  to  a  depth  of  i%  inches  from  the  surface,  the  inte- 
rior of  the  mass  being  intact.  Concrete  under  long  continued  tem- 
perature of  over  700°  F.  will  ultimately  disintegrate.  Concrete  will 
resist  500°  F.  for  an  indefinite  period  if  mixed  with  proper  propor- 
tions of  good  sand  and  trap  rock.  The  question  as  to  the  superior 
qualities  of  cinder  concrete  as  a  fire  retardant  is  one  that  has  re- 
ceived considerable  attention. 

Cinder  concrete  is  known  to  have  undergone  temperatures 
of  2000°  F.  and  when  suddenly  cooled  by  hose  streams  none  of 
the  material  was  dislodged,  the  theory  being  that  the  cement  and 
cinders  being  chemically  similar  the  masses  bind  together  upon 
the  application  of  heat.  It  should,  however,  be  considered  that 
cinder  concrete  has  but  half  the  compressive  strength  of  good  stone 
concrete,  and  ultimately  the  strength  of  cinder  concrete  when  sub- 
jected to  high  temperatures  would  be  proportionally  weakened. 

Gravel  concrete  will  crack  and  crumble  in  pieces  long  before 
trap  rock  or  cinder  concrete  will  develop  any  weakness  under  the 
same  temperatures.  The  relatively  large  coefficient  of  expansion 
of  quartz  or  flints,  which  form  the  integral  part  of  gravel,  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  breaking  down  of  the  concrete  mixture  when 
subjected  to  high  temperatures. 

Trap  rock  concrete  is  considered  as  a  whole  superior,  as 
Feldspar  which  is  one  of  the  predominant  minerals  has  a  coefficient 
of  expansion  of  but  one-half  of  that  of  quartz. 

Limestone  Concrete. — Pure  limestone  is  considered  a  very 
good  aggregate  and  will  not  decompose  until  after  the  cement  loses 
its  resistive  qualities. 

Reinforcing  Metal  in  Concrete. — The  experiments  of  reinforc- 
ing metal  in  concrete  indicate  that  where  the  reinforcing  metal  is 
exposed  in  the  progress  of  a  fire,  only  so  much  of  the  metal  as 
is  actually  bare  to  the  fire  is  seriously  affected  by  it.  Portland 
cement,  concrete  and  steel  are  acted  upon  by  temperature  precisely 
to  a  similar  degree,  expanding  and  contracting  in  a  uniform 
manner,  or  the  coefficient  of  expansion  and  contraction  of  concrete 
and  steel  are  to  all  practical  purposes  the  same.  The  adhesion 
between  the  concrete  and  steel  affords  a  powerful  resistance  to 
sudden  cooling.  The  inherent  strength  of  well  mixed  concrete  and 
its  ability  to  sustain  a  heavy  shock  or  impact  makes  it  important 
as  a  fire  resistive  material.  The  thickness  of  concrete  on  the  ex- 
posed sides  of  the  reinforcing  metal  to  properly  protect  the  same 
from  fire,  is  working  to  a  fixed  standard  among  the  best  informed 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL        247 

engineers.  The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  there  should  be  at 
least  »one  inch  of  concrete  between  the  nearest  point  of  a  bar  to 
the  ceiling  in  panels,  at  least  two  inches  below  the  steel  in  beams 
and  girders,  and  also  two  inches  of  concrete  outside  of  vertical 
bars  in  columns. 

In  designing  columns  many  engineers  figure  only  that  area  of 
the  column  inside  the  vertical  bars,  when  hooped,  as  carrying  the 
load,  or  if  hoops  are  omitted  and  but  light  reinforcement  is  used 
to  prevent  bending  stresses  to  add  an  extra  inch  beyond  that  needed 
to  carry  the  load,  all  around  the  outside,  which  might  be  burned 
away  without  endangering  the  Toad  carrying  capacity  of  the  balance 
of  the  column  within.  If  this  is  burned  off  it  can  be  plastered 
back  giving  the  column  the  same  fire  resisting  qualities  as  before. 
The  fire  resistive  qualities  of  concrete  structures  arc  also  governed 
by  the  protection  that  can  be  most  effectively  appKed  in  the  extin- 
guishing of  fire  that  might  originate  in  the  contents  within  such  a 
structure.  These  forms  of  structure  where  the  beam  and  slab 
arrangement  is  similarly  arranged  to  a  standard  mill  building,  admit 
of  the  possibilities  of  securing  the  most  effective  results  from  hose 
streams,  as  the  streams  can  be  directed  with  a  greater  force  and 
remaining  unbroken  thus  secure  the  maximum  horizontal  limit  of 
the  stream  where  it  hits  the  ceiling.  Sprinkler  protection  can  also 
be  arranged  effectively;  whereas  in  the  case  of  a  number  of  pockets 
being  formed  in  the  ceilings  by  small  intermediate  beams  there 
is  a  danger  from  the  heated  air  being  held  in  these  pockets,  which, 
under  certain  conditions,  transmits  the  heat  through  to  the  floor 
above. 

Some  Tests  on  the  Effect  of  Fire  on  Building  Materials 
At  the  recent  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Association  of 
Mutual  Insurance  Companies,  Mr.  James  E.  Howard,  engineer- 
physicist  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  read  a  paper  on  the  proper- 
ties of  building  materials  which  are  influenced  by  fire.  Among  the 
diagrams  he  presented  was  one,  Fig,  15,  showing  the  probable 
expansive  force  which  would  be  developed  by  confined  materials 
when  the  temperature  isa  raised.  The  figures  on  the  diagram  are 
based  on  the  moduli  of  elasticity  and  the  co-efficients  of  expansion 
of  the  materials.  A  range  in  temperature  of  160°  Fahr.  was  used, 
since  this  change  in  temperature  will  cause  an  expansion  in  a  steel 
bar  equal  in  amount  to  the  extension  which  it  will  display  under 
a  stress  of  30,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  that  is,  equal  to  the  exten- 
sion of  a  piece  of  mild  steel  at  its  elastic  limit. 

Three  predicted  values  are  given  for  brick,  to  represent  the  be- 
havior of  hard,  light  hard  and  salmon  brick.  The  very  low  value 
for  salmon  brick  is  significant. 


248 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Lime  mortar  is  very  compressible,  and  makes  a  good  cushion 
in  a  wall  for  the  stronger  brick  to  act  upon  when  heated.  Jhese 
expansive  forces  must  be  guarded  against  or  may  be  neglected 
according  to  the  kind  of  material  or  its  position  in  the  structure. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  range  in  temperature  here  considered, 
only  160°  Fahr.,  is  an  exceedingly  limited  one ;  if,  however,  these 
predicted  values  are  approximately  reached  the  gravity  of  thermal 
changes  in  causing  disrupting  forces  may  be  realized. 


Steel 

80000 

Pound*    per    *q.  In. 

Cast    Iron 
Granite 

mmamm 

'.  .1  1  J  .  ) 

••                                                              6270 
8200 



Marble 

S880 

dT         '  

Slate 

•Bnoon 

•••1HHHHH                'i*  "0 

"    " 

Sandstone 

J™ 

8200 

»eo 

..      ..    .. 

Bricks 

mmam 

I 

B                                                                         4660 

ttso 
141 

..         ..      ..     ,. 
..      ..     •• 

Neat 


Portland 
Cemei: 


•_1      -^'K:.ir 

• 
-:i',(ifi!:-r 

FIGURE  15 


8710. 


FIGURE  16 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL 
Portland    Cements. 


249 


L    CO, 


280  382 

Temp.    P. 


372  752 

FIGURE  17 


1112 


Another  of  Mr.,  Howard's  diagrams,  Fig.  16,  shows  the  relative 
expansion  of  a  number  of  building  stones  after  exposure  to  a 
temperature  of  about  400°  to  440°  Fahr.  The  open  lines  of  the 
diagram  indicate  the  approximate  expansion  of  the  stones  when 
heated,  while  the  portions  showing  full  lines  represent  the  per- 
manent expansion  which  remained  after  they  had  returned  to  the 
initial  temperatures.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  results  that  stones, 
when  even  moderately  heated,  do  not  return  exactly  to  their  primi- 
tive dimensions,  but  retain  as  a  permanent  set  some  of  the  expan- 
sion which  they  acquired  when  hot.  These  permanent  sets  are 
comparatively  small,  amounting  to  but  a  few  thousandths  or  ten- 
thousandths  of  the  length  of  the  sample,  but  nevertheless  from  the 
persistence  with  which  they  appeared  in  each  case  are  believed  to 
be  there. 

Still  another  diagram,  Fig.  17,  shows  the  loss  in  water  and  in 
carbon  dioxide  of  samples  of  ground  hydrated  cements.  One  Port- 
land and  two  natural  cements  are  represented,  also  a  composite 
cement,  Silica  brand,  made  of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  one 
and  a  half  parts  of  crushed  limestone.  Water  of  combination  was 
successively  driven  off  in  this  hydrated  material  as  the  temperature 
was  raised  from  230°  Fahr.  to  redness.  This  would  seem  to  indi- 


250 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


cate  a  want  of  stability  in  the  chemical  state  of  the  hydrated  cement 
or  a  state  the  equilibrium  of  which  is  d'^turbed  at  comparatively 
low  temperatures.  Hygroscopic  water  was  driven  off  by  initially 
heating  the  material  at  10°  Cent,  above  the  boiling  point.  The  large 
percentage  of  carbondioxide  driven  off  the  Silica  brand  of  cement 
was  due  to  the  limestone  entering  into  its  composition. 

In  this  connection  Mr.  Howard  said  that  cubes  of  neat  Portland 
cement,  which  were  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  1,000°  Fahr., 
within  a  short  time  thereafter  gradually  displayed  cracks  and 
eventually  broke  up  into  small  fragments.  The  heating  was  done 
slowly,  consuming  one  hour  in  raising  the  temperature,  maintain- 
ing the  maximum  temperature  for  a  period  of  one  hour,  and  then 
cooling  the  cubes  in  dry  powdered  asbestos.  This  careful  treat- 
ment was  adopted  so  as  to  avoid  destructive  internal  strains  by 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  the  object  of  the  test  being  to 
determine  the  effect  of  exposure  to  successively  increasing  tem- 
peratures without  endangering  the  integrity  of  the  cement  by 
violent  thermal  changes. 

Two  diagrams  were  prepared  to  show  the  results  of  some  tem- 
perature observations  taken  at  the  center  of  sticks  of  Douglas  fir. 
One  diagram,  Fig.  18,  gives  the  observations  on  sticks  exposed 
over  a  wood  fire  for  periods  of  2^2  hours  for  each  stick.  One  stick 
was  quenched  with  water  at  the  end  of  tin's  period  of  time,  another 
was  smothered  with  sand  and  ashes,  while  the  third  was  taken  from 
the  fire  without  quenching.  The  sticks  originally  were  10  in.  square 
by  4  ft.  long.  There  was  a  hole  bored  at  the  center  for  a  depth  of 
2  ft.  and  a  thermometer  inserted  in  this  hole  indicated  the  tempera- 
tures which  are  plotted  on  the  diagram. 


Time      Hour* 


FIGURE  18 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ox  BUILDING  MATERIAL        251 


It  will  be  noted  that  no  substantial  rise  in  temperature  was  felt 
at  the  center  of  the  sticks  during  the  first  hour  over  the  fire.  After 
this  there  was  a  rapid  rise,  which  continued  for  some  time  after 
the  sticks  had  been  quenched  or  withdrawn  from  the  fire.  The 
temperature  of  the  fire  was  estimated  to  be  1,380°  Fahr.  The  sticks 
were  burned  until  they  were  from  6  to  7  in.  square. 

Compression  tests  made  on  the  wood  after  scraping  off  the 
charred  portions  showed  the  unburnt  portions  to  have  retained 
their  strength  unimpaired.  In  fact,  the  thorough  drying  of  the  core 
was  to  its  advantage  apparently,  since  the  compressive  strength  of 
the  central  portions  gave  results  above  the  average  for  this  kind 
of  wood.  Some  long  leaf  pine  posts,  charred  by  a  fire  which 
occurred  in  the  upper  story  of  a  building,  also  displayed  compres- 
sive strength  equal  to  and  in  some  sticks  above  others  from  the 
same  building  which  had  not  been  charred. 


z 


No.   4. 


Quenc 


In    fife    fth. 


FIGURE  19 

The  second  diagram,  Fig.  19,  shows  other  sticks  of  Douglas  fir, 
which  were  also  exposed  over  a  wood  fire.  One  stick  was  quenched 
with  water  after  having  been  over  the  fire  for  \Y±  hours  and  imme- 
diately returned  to  the  fire,  which  operation  was  repeated  five  times  ; 
after  the  sixth  quenching  it  was  cooled  in  the  air.  The  other  stick 
was  exposed  to  the  fire  during  alternate  hours  for  three  hours,  then 
taken  from  the  fire  and  smothered. — From  The  Engineering  Record, 
Dec.  3,  1910. 

Structural  Steel  Protected  with  Terra  Cotta  or  Concrete  as 
Applied  to  Fireproof  Buildings. — The  use  of  structural  steel  in 
modern  building  construction  is  necessitated  by  the  commercial 
economics  which  impose  the  following  requirements:  ist,  The  maxi- 


252  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND,  PROTECTION 

mum  of  unencumbered  floor  space.  2nd,  The  maximum  of  height. 
3rd,  Abundance  of  natural  light.  4th,  The  resistance  to  destruction 
by  fire  and  the  elements.  The  congestion  of  business  centers  within 
confined  areas  which  involves  building  sites  having  large  values  is 
a  condition  which  is  arising  and  growing  in  all  quarters  of  the 
universe,  and  while  attempts  have  been  made  to  discourage  the 
erection  of  skyscrapers,  the  demand  for  high  buildings  is  on  the 
increase.  As  the  surroundings  of  modern  structures  in  built-up 
communities  will  prove  more  or  less  of  a  menace  for  many  years 
to  come,  the  elimination  of  conflagration  hazards  cannot  be  ex- 
pected in  this  generation ;  therefore,  the  modern  building  con- 
structed with  a  structural  steel  frame  should  not  only  be  immune 
from  the  conflagration  hazard  but  it  should  involve  such  features 
as  will  prevent  it  from  being  a  conflagration  breeder  or,  carrier. 
These,  requirements  are  not  unknown  quantities  at  the  present  time, 
as  the  reports  of  experts  relative  to  the  several  well  known  con- 
flagrations in  the  past  have  brought  to  light  the  structural  defects 
which  were  largely  conducive  to  the  disastrous  results  in  buildings 
of  structural  steel  covered  with  terra  cotra  or  concrete  and  which 
previously  were  thought  fireproof  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 

There  is  considerable  available  data  as  to  the  fire  resistance  of 
building  materials,  based  on  the  investigations  of  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters,  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  Department,  and  of  many  of 
the  larger  cities. 

The  degree  of  endurance  with  respect  to  fire  and  the  elements  is 
directly  proportionate  to  the  protection  afforded  to  the  structural 
frame  work  by  the  materials  which  are  supposed  to  afford  fire- 
proofing  qualities. 

Any  and  all  materials,  whether  terra  cotta,  concrete,  brick  or 
stone,  are  likely  to  fail  as  retardants  against  fire  if  proper  con- 
sideration has  not  been  given  to  these  questions,  and  the 
materials  chosen  and  assembled,  accordingly. 

The  reports  prepared  by  the  various  committees  of  the  National 
Fire  Protection  Association  bearing  on  the  several  conflagrations 
in  the  past  show  that  many  structural  steel  frames  were  not  only 
improperly  protected  by  unreliable  materials,  but  the  materials 
themselves  were  poorly  assembled.  The  building  laws  of  the 
larger  cities  are  sufficiently  flexible  to  admit  of  several  types  of 
materials  for  fireproofing  purposes.  As  the  deteriorating  effects 
of  moisture,  electrolysis,  vibration,  and  chemical  action  have  an 
important  bearing  on  the  resistive  qualities  of  structural  steel 
the  fireproofing -materials  should  be  governed  accordingly,  and 
only  such  materials  should  be  adopted  as  will  preclude  the  above 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL         253 

conditions  from  arising  within  the  structure  itself,  as  resultant 
effects  of  either  electrolytic  or  moisture  leakage  from  pipe  lines 
which  must  necessarily  exist  in  all  portions  of  the  structure. 

The-conclusions  set  forth  in  the  report  of  the  New  York  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  in  relation  to  the  Parker  building  fire  which 
occurred  on  January  10,  1008,  illustrate  fully  the  need  of  a  proper 
standard  and  enforcement  of  the  same,  in  the  design  and  construc- 
tion of  fire  resisting  buildings.  The  Parker  building  was  con- 
sidered on  a  par  with  average  representative  fire-proof  buildings; 
in  fact  many  structures  in  various  parts  of  the  country  which  are 
so  called  fireproof  are  to-day  inferior  to  this  example.  That  such 
a  building  should  meet  with  practical  destruction  from  a  fire  in  a 
city  where  the  fire  department  is  of  such  magnitude  is  almost 
inconceivable  to  the  general  public,  but  the  results  should  not  be 
surprising  to  the  layman  when  the  conclusions  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  which  follow  are  reviewed. 

i.  "  In  buildings  of  mercantile,  manufacturing  or  storage  occu- 
pancy, it  is  absolutely  essential  that  all  vertical  openings  be  thor- 
oughly enclosed  in  substantial  fireproof  shafts  having  standard  fire 
doors  at  all  openings,  or  so  arranged  that  the  shaft  is  without 
openings  directly  into  the  various  stories.  Unprotected,  vertical 
openings  through  buildings  are  the  greatest  factor  in  the  loss  of  life 
and  property  by  fire  and  the  proper  safeguarding  of  this  hazard 
demands  the  most* careful  attention  of  all  concerned. 

"  The  unprotected  vertical  openings  through  the  floors  furnished 
the  condition  which  was  the  main  cause  of  the  rapid  spread  of  fire 
and  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  Parker  building  and  its 
contents. 

"  High  buildings  filled  with  combustible  materials  and  having 
unprotected  vertical  openings  present  fire  conditions  which  are  very 
apt  to  be  beyond  the  control  of  fire  departments,  no  matter  how 
efficient  or  well  equipped.  Promptness  of  discovery,  nature  of  the 
contents,  proximity  of  the  fire  to  vertical  openings,  area  of  the 
enclosure  in  which  the  fire  occurs  and  distance  above  the  street, 
all  influence  the  chances  of  control  of  fire  in  such  buildings. 

"  That  the  danger  of  the  rapid  spread  of  fire  through  unprotected 
vertical  shafts  also  exists  to  a  very  considerable  degree  in  fireproof 
office  buildings,  is  evidenced  by  the  great  rapidity  with  which  sev- 
eral such  buildings  were  destroyed  in  the  San  Francisco  conflagra- 
tion. The  buildings  to  which  reference  is  made  were  not  subject 
to  general  conflagration  conditions." 

The  unprotected  floor  openings  in  the  Fquitable  building  played 
the  most  prominent  part  in  the  destructive  fire  by  making  possible 
the  quick  spread  of  the  flames  from  the  small  receiving  room  in 


254  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

the  basement  to  all  the  upper  floors.  The  use  of  a  few  fire  doors 
at  the  communications  with  the  dumb  waiter  shaft  would  have 
confined  the  fire  to  the  shaft  and  left  the  balance  of  the  building 
with  little  or  no  damage. 

2.  "  The  height  of  fireproof  buildings  of  mercantile,  manufactur- 
ing or  storage  occupancy  should  ,be   limited  to  correspond  to  the 
degree  of  protection  the  building  equipment  and  the  fire  department 
is  able  to  furnish.     In  other  words,  if  adequate  fire  protection  in 
any  building  is  not  available  above  a  certain  height,   the  building 
should  be  limited  to  such  height." 

The  fire  in  the  Parker  building  furnished  an  excellent  example 
bearing  on  this  question.  The  Equitable  building  fire  demonstrated 
fully  the  need  of  fire  protective  devices  such  as  automatic  sprink- 
lers, smoke-proof  stair  towers  in  combination  with  stand  pipe 
equipments,  one  or  more  interior  fire  walls  and  protection  against 
exposing  buildings. 

3.  "  Buildings   of   large   unbroken   floor   areas   filled   with   com- 
bustible contents  develop  the  severest  fires  and  constitute  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  sources  of  general  conflagration.     Floor  areas 
in  buildings  of  this  character  should  be'  sub-divided  by  substantial 
brick  fire  walls  sufficient  to  form  a  positive  barrier  to  the  spread 
of  fire." 

The  fire  in  the  Equitable  building  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the 
above  comments  can  apply  with  equal  force  to  office  buildings; 
corridor  partitions  in  every  fireproof  office  building  should  be 
effective  fire  stops,  utilizing  fire  doors;  any  glass  if  used  in 
transoms  should  be  wired  glass. 

4.  "  Fireproof  buildings,  no  matter  how  well  designed  and  con- 
structed, do  not  prevent  the  destruction  by  fire  of  contents  in  any 
story;  and  it  is  essential  that  high  buildings  of  mercantile,  manu- 
facturing   or    storage    occupancy    be    thoroughly    protected    by    a 
standard  equipment  of  automatic  sprinklers." 

In  the  design  of  such  structures  Mt  is  important  to  consider  the 
proper  location  arid  arrangement  of  the  water  supplies,  with  special 
reference  to  the  size  and  suitable  location  of  gravity  or  pressure 
tanks  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Underwriters. 

5.  "  Exterior   openings   in   buildings    should  be   thoroughly   pro- 
tected against  exposing  fires.     Universal  efficient  fire  protection   of 
exterior   openings   will   practically   eliminate   the   danger  of  confla- 
grations in  cities. 

"  Fires  in  buildings  containing  large  quantities  of  combustible 
contents  generate  large  volumes  of  gas  and  flame  which  must  find 
exit  through  the  windows.  The  necessity  for  effective  window  pro- 
tection to  prevent  sach  fires  from  re-entering  at  other  stories  was 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL        255 

again  demonstrated  at  the  Parker  building;  wired  glass  windows 
in  standard  metal  frames  are  particularly  well  adapted  for  protec- 
tion against  exposure  of  this  character,  but  should  not,  alone,  be 
depended  upon  at  points  where  the  exposure  from  the  exterior  is 
severe. 

"  Exterior  openings  in  buildings  can  be  effectively  protected 
against  exposing  fires  by  standard  fire  doors  and  shutters,  steel 
rolling  shutters,  wired  glass  in  standard  metal  frames,  open  sprink- 
lers, or  combinations  of  these  devices.  However,  the  fire  retardant 
qualities  of  these  various  devices  are  not  equal  and  their  selection 
for  use  should  depend  on  the  severity  of  the  exposure. 

6.  "  High  buildings  of  mercantile,  manufacturing,  or  storage  occu- 
pancy should  be  provided  with  large,  properly  enclosed  stairways 
in  sufficient  number  to  afford  a  safe  exit  at  time  of  fire.    Such  build- 
ings should  also  be  provided  with  outside  fire  escape  and  stand  pipe 
equipments. 

7.  "  Buildings  of  mercantile,  manufacturing  or  storage  occupancy 
should  be  provided   with   adequate   systems   of  inside   stand   pipes 
equipped  with  linen  hose  and  nozzles   suitable  for  fire  department 
use,  and,  in  addition,  a  smaller  linen  hose  and  nozzle  suitable  and 
safe  for  the  use  of  occupants.     These  equipments  should  be  acces- 
sible and  in  sufficient  number  to  effectively  cover  all  portions  of  the 
building.     They  should  extend  through  all   stories  and  should  be 
supplied  from  a  reliable  source  of  water  tinder  adequate  pressure, 
in  addition  to  Siamese  steamer  connections  on  the  outside  or  street 
level. 

"  Cast  iron  columns  should  not  be  used  in  high  buildings,  as  their 
failure  is  usually  complete,  and  results  in  sudden  total  collapse  of 
the  sections  ^  supported.  Girders  and  beams  cannot  be  rigidly 
attached  to  such  columns  and  defects  in  the  material  cannot  be 
easily  detected. 

"  Although  most  of  the*  columns  in  the  Parker  building  were 
intact,  the  failures  noted  were  responsible  for  the  loss  of  three  lives 
and  serious  injury  to  many  firemen,  the  destruction  of  large  por- 
tions of  the  building  and  the  loss  of  considerable  property  in  lower 
stories  which  would  not  otherwise  have  been  destroyed.  In  contra- 
distinction, the  failure  of  steel  columns  is  gradual  and  does  not 
often  result  in  the  total  collapse  of  the  sections  supported.  This 
was  fully  demonstrated  in  the  San  Francisco  conflagration,  where 
the  serious  deflection  of  hundreds  of  steel  columns  did  not  result 
in  the  total  collapse  of  floors,  except  in  one  or  two  instances." 

The  Equitable  building  fire  fully  demonstrated  the  failures  of 
cast  iron  columns.  There  were  three  separate  and  distinct  collapses 


256  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

of  portions  of  the  floors  and  the  initial  collapse  in  each  case  was 
apparently  due  to  the  failure  of  unprotected  cast  iron  columns. 

"  It  is  essential  that  all  structural  members  of  fireproof  buildings 
hex  protected  by  a  sufficient  mass  of  fireproofing  to  thoroughly  insu- 
late them  against  the  heat  which  would  lie  developed  by  the  rapid 
burning  of  all  materials  permitted  in  any  story  of  such  building. 
It  is  also  essential  that  all  fireproofing  be  firmly  anchored,  or  other- 
wise securely  held  in  position,  where  it  is  of  such  a  nature  or  so 
designed  that  it  will  become  loose  as  a  result  of  heat.  On  account 
of  their  great  importance  structurally,  columns  should  be  insulated 
by  at  least  four  inches  of  fireproofing ;  and  no  pipes  or  conduits 
should  be  placed  in  or  back  of  the  fireproofing  material.  On  account 
of  the  heavy  mass  of  fireproofing  with  which  girders  and  floor  beams 
are  in  contact  a  lesser  amount  of  protection  can  be  safely  employed 
at  the  soffits ;  generally  this  should  not  be  less  than  two  inches  for 
girders  and  one  and  one-half  inches  for  floor  beams.  /,' 

"  Buildings  of  large  area  and  buildings  in  which  large  quantities 
of  combustible  materials  are  stored,  require  heavier  and  more,  effi- 
cient fireproofing  than  buildings  of  moderate  area  and  those  con- 
taining limited  quantities  of  fuel.  The  tendency  has  been  towards 
lightness  and  cheapness,  and  fireproofing  is  often  reduced  to  a  point 
where  unsatisfactory  results  can  be  expected." 

There  is  always  the  possibility  of  a  quick  spreading  fire  even  in 
office  buildings;  the  Equitable  bilduing  fire  was  of  sufficient  in- 
tensity to  cause  the  deflection  of  wrought-iron  beams  with  only 
their  lower  flanges  unprotected. 

"All  floor  arches  should  be  provided  with  a  large  factor  of  safety 
so  as  to  safely  carry  the  imposed  loads;  not  only  under  ordinary 
conditions,  but  when  severely  exposed  by  fire.  The  arches  in  the 
Parker  building  were  weak,  particularly  the  wider  spans.  Many 
collapsed  as  a  result  of  the  impact  of  material  falling  from  the  upper 
floors,  thus  carrying  down  the  arches  in  several  floors  below.  In 
many  places  the  arches  were  knocked  through  by  heavy  safes  and 
machinery,  which  settled  or  fell  when  wood  floors  and  supports 
were  burned.  Quite  a  number  which  had  no  heavy  loads  above 
them  collapsed  as  a  result  of  fire.  The  majority  of  the  arches 
which  failed  were  on  the  six-foot  spans,  although  the  failures 
were  by  no  means  confined  to  these." 

In  the  Equitable  building  the  arch  spans  varied  from  3  to  5^2  feet; 
the  terra  cotta  was  10  inches  deep  and  the  material  and  w'ork- 
manship  of  the  arches  was  apparently  very  good.  As  a  result 
of  the  fire  scarcely  any  of  the  tile  was  cracked  off  the  lower 


EFFECTS  OF  FIRE  ON  BUILDING  MATERIAL        257 

web  of  the  arch,  except  where  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  burn- 
ing insulation  on  telephone  and  telegraph  wires  where  the  heat 
was  unusually  severe. 

"  Arches  of  all  forms  in  common  use  are  seriously  damaged 
when  directly  exposed  to  high  temperatures  of  long  duration.  In 
buildings  containing  large  quantities  of  combustible  material,  they 
should  be  so  designed  or  protected  against  fire  that  serious  struc- 
tural damage  will  be  prevented." 

Damage  by  ^fire  to  the  soffit  of  hollow  terra  cotta  arches  is  due 
to  the  unequal  expansion  between  the  shells  and  webs  of  the  arch 
blocks;  the  shells  receiving  very  much  more  heat  than  the  webs. 

"  This  is  an  inherent  weakness  and  cannot  be  remedied  by  any 
practical  increase  in  the  thickness  of  the  members.  Additional 
lower  cells  in  the  blocks  would  in  all  probability  prevent  serious 
structural  damage  and  permit  of  economical  repair." 

Substantial  suspended  metal  lath  arid  plaster  ceilings,  although 
resisting  fire  streams  poorly  after  exposure  to  fire,  afford  sufficient 
additional  protection  to  properly  designed  floor  arches. 

"  No  wood  or  other  combustible  material  should  be  employed  in 
the  construction  of  fireproof  partitions  and  all  metal  supports  or 
reinforcements  should  be  thoroughly  insulated  from  heat.  Fire- 
proof doors  and  wired  glass  in  standard  metal  frames  should  be 
used  at  necessary  openings  in  corridor  and  room  partitions.  Pro- 
vision for  expansion  in  the  material  used  and  in  metal  supports 
entering  into  the  construction  of  fireproof  partitions  is  essential,  par- 
ticularly where  hollow  terra  cotta  blocks  are  employed.  All  fireproof 
partitions  should  rest  on  solid  incombustible  material. 

"  The  unreliability  of  stair  and  elevator  enclosures  made  of  hollow 
terra  cotta  blocks  and  of  partitions  containing  wood  supports  and 
large  openings  with  wood  doors  and  ordinary  glass  was  again 
demonstrated  by  the  Parker  building  fire. 

"In  buildings  of  fireproof  construction  R!!  floor  surfaces,  doors, 
window  frames,  sash  and  other  trim  and  finish  should  be  of  incom- 
bustible material. 

"  The  support  of  heavy  safes  and  machinery  on  wood  floors  and 
wood  skids  in  fireproof  buildings  is  a  menace  to  both  life  and  prop- 
erty, and  should  be  absolutely  prohibited.  Heavy  shafting  should 
be  attached  to  ceilings  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  not  fall  as  a 
result  of  fire. 

"  Floors  are  seldom  designed  to  withstand  the  impact  resulting 
from  the  dropping  or  overturning  of  heavy  safes,  which  are  often 
supported  six  to  twelve  inches  above  the  floor  and  commonly  weigh 
from  three  to  six  tons.  These  loads  should  be  safely  distributed 
by  means  of  steel  framing  resting  on  non-combustible  material." 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  ALL  FORMS 
OF   BUILDING   MATERIAL 
DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDINGS 

The  present  values  of  buildings,  as  reduced  from  original  values 
by  depreciation,  are  more  difficult  to  determine  in  an  accurate  and 
satisfactory  manner  than  the  majority  of  problems  involved  in 
building  construction.  Frequently  this  subject  does  not  call  for 
consideration  on  the  part  of  property  owners  until  the  question 
arises  during  the  adjustment  of  fire  losses.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  respecting  properties  which  have  changed  ownership,  and  where 
different  conditions  in  the  nature  of  the  occupancy  have  transpired. 

There  are  so  many  influences  which  tenj  to  bring  about  deterio- 
ration in  structural  materials,  as  well  as  structures  in  their  entirety, 
that  the  question  of  depreciation  is  more  frequently  adjusted  by 
compromise  than  by  actual  computation  based  upon  a  percentage  of 
original  value.  Frequently  the  insurable  values  have  been  incor- 
rectly calculated,  because  of  the  want  of  proper  consideration  of 
the  question  of  depreciation ;  in  fact,  the  actual  profit  and  loss 
accounts  of  manufacturing  interests  can  only  be  justly  determined 
by  instituting  a  building  depreciation  fund,  in  connection  with  the 
machinery  depreciation  fund.  Such  a  fund  should  be  sufficient  at 
any  time  during  the  life  of  the  business  to  offset  the  depreciation, 
so  that  the  ca'pital  invested  in  the  provision  of  buildings  is  always 
realizable  at  the  full  amount  originally  invested  by  the  concern 
under  this  heading.  The  sum  invested  in  a  structure  should  be 
maintained  at  its  original  level,  partly  by  the  continued  existence 
of  the  structure,  which  should  stand  on  the  books  at  a  value,  depre- 
ciating year  by  year,  and  partly  by  cash  invested  which  would  repre- 
sent the  depreciation  in  value.  Such  funds  should  be  accumulated 
by  means  of  a  fixed  charge  upon  the  business  according  to  the  work 
done  within  the  building.  As  the  depreciation  fund  is  built  up,  it 
can  readily  be  determined  whether  the  building  has  declined  in  its 
earning  capacity  to  such  an  extent  as  to  warrant  its  replacement. 
Consideration  of  this  subject  might  also  tend  to  show  how  the  pro- 
ducts of  a  manufacturing  concern  could  be  produced  on  more  eco- 
nomical lines  than  was  possible  in  the  older  structure.  In  behalf 
of  the  management  the  existence  of  a  depreciation  fund  overcomes 

258 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL    259 

the  financial  difficulties  likely  to  accrue  in  the  question  of  modern- 
izing existing  manufacturing  conditions. 

Instirable  values  can  be  determined  in  a  more  accurate  manner 
if  a  depreciation  fund  be  maintained.  If  the  property  is  over- 
insured  there  is  a  loss  through  excessive  payments  for  insurance 
premiums,  and  where  such  conditions  are  manifested  in  the  course 
of  adjustments,  the  question  of  depreciation,  if  left  ttnconsidered 
by  the  owner,  becomes  aggravating  and  often  retards  the  progress 
of  what  might  otherwise  prove  a  mutuallv  satisfactory  adjustment 
of  values.  There  is  an  annual  depreciation  on  buildings  of  all 
descriptions,  in  addition  to  certain  charges  for  maintenance  and 
repairs.  Opinions,  however,  vary  as  to  the  amount  of  annual  depre- 
ciation for  different  types  of  structures  as  a  whole. 

Every  property  is  more  or  less  influenced  by  conditions  peculiar 
to  itself.  To  arrive  at  a  proper  understanding  of  depreciable  values 
it  requires  not  only  a  knowledge  of  materials  and  their  assembly, 
but  of  the  useful  life  of  a  building;  considering  the  purpose  for 
which  it  exists,  the  method  of  its  use  and  the  probable  length  of 
lime  that  it  may  be  expected  to  be  required  for  that  particular  pur- 
pose. Many  buildings  are  especially  designed  to  turn  out  a  certain 
product,  being  provided  with  special  appliances  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  that  product.  Such  buildings  would,  probably,  not  be 
readily  capable  of  adaptation  to  other  purposes;  and,  even  though 
substantially  constructed  of  brick,  stone  or  concrete,  it  would  be 
good  judgment  to  look  upon  them  as  falling  in  a  class  by  them- 
selves, instead  of  their  being  classified  strictly  according  to  their 
type  of  construction.  In  cases  of  this  character  it  would  be  wise 
to  consider  the  life  of  the  building  as  comparatively  short,  which 
would  naturally  mean  rather  heavy  depreciation. 

The  Home  Insurance  Company  of  New  York  has  conducted 
extensive  investigations  into  the  cost  of  building  in  various  parts 
of  the  country,  and  has  arranged  its  data  in  a  convenient  form  for 
architects  and  builders. 

In  addressing  this  to  architects  and  builders,  the  Home  Insur- 
ance Company  seeks  relation  with  the  twc  professions  that  have 
the  most  to  do  with  physical  constructions  that  make  for  its  interest. 
In  part,  it  says :  "Many  considerations  are  weighed  by  a  man  who 
sets  out  to  build  a  house;  if  a  dwelling  for  himself,  comfort  and 
beauty:  If  a  store,  convenience  and  suitableness;  if  a  factory, 
strength  and  adaptability.  But,  whatever  other  conditions  are  con- 
sidered, there  is  one  that,  first  and  last,  influences  and  generally 
dominates  and  controls,  and  that  is  the  cost.  That  must  always  be 
counted.  Is  it  always  counted  wisely?  What  is  the  true  economy 
in  house  building?  Admitting  that  a  good  building,  even  at  a 


26o  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION      T?OJ 

lower  insurance  rate,  is  better  for  us,  can  we  establish  that  it  is 
better  for  the  owner?  If  this  can  be  done,  will  it  not  be  your 
pleasure  and  to  your  advantage  to  advocate  a  wise  initial  outlay 
of  somewhat  larger  sums  for  buildings,  to  make  good  brick,  stone 
or  concrete  walls;  metal,  tile  or  slate  root's;  substantial  chimneys 
from  the  ground — condemning  and  opposing  the  use  of  poor  mate- 
rials as  not  only  inferior,  but  actually,  in  the  end,  more  expensive 
from  every  point  of  view? 

"Let  Us  assume,  for  the  sake  of  the  argument,  that  one  is  to  plan 
or  erect  a  two-story  building,  to  be  occupied  as  a  dwelling,  a  store 
or  a  factory,  to  be  25  feet  front  by  35  feet  deep,  making  an  area  of 
875  square  feet ;  the  first  floor  to  be  flush  with  the  ground  and  the 
height  of  the  building  to  the  eaves  to  be  22  feet;  having  a  pitched 
roof  with  peak  10  feet  above  the  eaves — producing  a  roof  area  of 
about  1,120  square  feet.  This  would  make  the  surface  of  the  four 
walls  amount  to  about  2,890  square  feet. 

"  We  have  secured  estimates  from  a  number  of  responsible 
builders  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  principally  South, 
made  as  though  for  a  prospective  customer,  for  (i)  the  walls, 
'(2)  the  roof,  (3)  one  chimney,  and  (4)  probable  depreciation 
of  .walls  and  roof  for  different  materials.  We  have  made  an 
average  of  the  figures  given  us,  and  in  this  way  believe  that 
they  should  be  approximately  correct. 


Estimated  Cost 

WALLS  (12  inches  thick): 

Stone  $1,301 .00 

(Estimates    are    for    rough    quarry    dressed    stone    rather 
than  fancy  cut  or  ornamental  work,) 

Brick   1,096 .  oo 

Reinforced   concrete    838 .  oo 

Wood 619.00 

'.;   i'  if:    '  !  •'?;•     ;t  !:•?:  •    ;        '    :\ 

ROOF: 

Tin   (painted) $120.00 

Slate    1 20 .  oo 

Tile    212.00 

Shingle • , . .. . . ', ,. . .  87 .  oo 

'•rft/rl   to  .'j ••-.«•  f.-f,    (•   }f    • 

CHIMNEYS: 

Assume  one  chimney  adapted  for  the  entire  building.  Difference  in  cost 
for  various  types: 

Brick. — Eight  inches  thick  from  the  ground;  three  feet  foundation,  eight 
feet  cellarway  (if  a  cellar  exists).;  40  feet  high  above  that;  total,  51  feet. 

Cost  with  one  straight  Flue  from  ground $66 .  oo 

Cost  with  two  straight  Flues  from  ground 88.00 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL    261 

Cost  of  Flue,  same  dimensions,  resting  on  second  story 

beams,  25  feet,  one  Flue $33 .  oo 

Cost  of  Flue,  same  dimensions,  resting  on  second  story 

beams,  25  feet,  two  Flues 46.00 

DEPRECIATION: 

Those  given  us  average  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 
Per  Annum 

Stone   Walls   i  % 

Brick  Walls    i  % 

Concrete  Walls    i  1-6 

Wood   Walls 2  8.10 

Tile   Roof    .• 12-3 

Tin  Roof 4  % 

Slate   Roof    I 

Shingle  Roof   8  % 

Wood  and  shingles  for  walls  and  roof  and  a  hung  chimney  have 
outset  advantages  in  cost.  That  is  why  these  types  prevail.  Are 
they,  however,  really  any  cheaper  at  the  end  of  twenty  years? 

A  good  chimney  resting  on  the  ground  is  essentially  a  measure 
of  safety  in  preventing  fires.  It  will,  moreover,  represent  a  slight 
saving  in  maintenance,  the  amount  of  which  can  not  be  stated 
exactly,  and  it  makes  a  material  saving  in  insurance  rate.  For  the 
standard  type  of  construction  (built  from  ground)  there  is  a  favor- 
able difference  in  rate,  running  from  10  per  cent,  upwards. 

If  stone,  brick  or  concrete  is  used  for  walls,  no  painting  is  needed. 
If  wood  is  employed,  it  should  be  painted  at  least  once  in  four  years. 
Cost  of  same,  say,  $60.  In  forty-six  years  this  alone  would  con- 
sume the  extra  cost  of  stone,  in  thirty-two  years  that  of  brick,  and 
in  fifteen  jears  that  of  reinforced  concrete. 

A  further  economy  in  brick  or  stone,  contrasted  with  wood,  is 
the  lessened  cost  of  heating.  The  ordinary  wood  house  develops 
cracks  an--l  openings  in  the  walls,  especially  around  the  window 
frames,  that  permit  the  escape  of  heat,  and  the  entrance  of  cold 
and  wind,  which  make  drafty  places  that  are  uncomfortable  in  cold 
weather  and  add  to  fuel  bills.  The  writer  has  in  mind  a  frame 
house  built  some  years  ago,  which  he  planned  to  construct  with 
brick  filling.  The  contractor,  with  probably  the  best  intention, 
recommended  to  omit  this.  It  saved  a  couple  of  hundred  of  dollars, 
and  as  an  offset  to  that  economy  (?)  it  would  be  safe  to  estimate 
that  $20  worth  of  coal  extra  is  needed  annually  to  keep  the  house 
warm,  besides  which,  in  extreme  weather,  the  rooms  facing  the 
cold  west  winds  can  not  be  made  comfortable  by  the  furnace,  no 
matter  how  hard  it  is  driven. 

In  addition  to  safety  and  preventing  loss  of  life  or  injury  by  fire, 
promoting  comfort  and  warmth  (with  saving  in  fuel)  in  winter, 


262  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

and  conversely  cooler  and  more  comfortable  in  summer,  which  are 

not  altogether  measurable  in  dollars  and  cents,  it  is  possible  to  make 

a  fairly  precise  and  accurate  equation  showing  the  benefit  of  a  mod- 
erate increase   in  first   cost  by  the  use   of  superior   materials   and 

methods  in  construction. 

FIRST/ AS  TO  LONGER  LIFE: 

STONE  WALLS  AND  TILE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimate,  $1,513.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  i%  per  cent,  walls,  i  2-3  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depre- 
ciation equals  $18.17. 

STONE  WALLS  AND  TIN  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimate,  $1,421.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  i%  per  cent,  walls,  4%  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depre- 
ciation equals  $19.59. 

STONE  WALLS  AND  SLATE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimate,  $1,430.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  i  V&  per  cent,  walls,  i  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depreciation 
equals  $15.93- 

STONE  WALLS  AND  SHINGLE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimate,  $1,388.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  i  l/s  per  cent,  walls,  8*4  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $21.82. 

BRICK  WALLS  AND  TILE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimate,  $1,308.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  il/s  per  cent,  walls,  i  2-3  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depre- 
ciation equals  $15.86. 

BRICK  WALLS  AND  TIN  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $1,216.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  1%  per  cent,  walls,  4%  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depre- 
ciation equals  $17.28. 

BRICK  WALLS  AND  SLATE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $1,225.00.  An- 
nual Depreciations,  i%  per  cent,  walls,  i  per  cent.  roof.  Annual  Depre- 
ciation equals  $13.62. 

BRICK  WALLS  AND  SHINGLE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $1,183.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  iys  per  cent,  walls,  8*4  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $19.51. 

CONCRETE-  WALLS  AND  TILE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $1,050.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  i  1-6  per  cent,  walls,  i  2-3  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $13.31. 

CONCRETE  WALLS  AND  TIN  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $958.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  i  1-6  per  cent,  walls,  4%  per  cent.  roof.  An- 
nual Depreciation  equals  $14.73. 

CONCRETE  WALLS  AND  SLATE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $967.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  i  1-6  per  cent,  walls,  i  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $11.07. 

CONCRETE  WALLS  AND  SHINGLE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $925.00. 
Annual  Depreciations,  i  1-6  i>er  cent,  walls,  8*4  per  cent.  roof.  An- 
nual Depreciation  equals  $16.96. 

FRAME  WALLS  AND  TILE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $831.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  2  8-10  per  cent,  walls,  i  2-3  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $22.28. 

FRAME  WALLS  AND  TIN  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $739.00.  Annual 
Depreciations,  2  8-10  per  cent,  walls,  4%  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $22.87. 

FRAME  WALLS  AND  SLATE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $748.00.  An- 
nual Depreciations,  2  8-io'per  cent,  walls,  i  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
;Depreciation  equals  $18.62. 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL    263 

FRAME  WALLS  AND  SHINGLE  ROOF.— Cost  per  estimates,  $>o6.oo. 
Annual  Depreciations,  2  8-10  per  cent,  walls,  8V4  per  cent.  roof.  Annual 
Depreciation  equals  $24.51. 

In  figures  of  cost  and  in  estimating  depreciation,  no  account  is 
taken  of  interior  work  nor  of  inside  wear  and  tear;  these  figures 
relate  only  to  outside  walls  and  the  roof. 

From  the  foregoing  we  select  for  illustration  three  types  of 
construction : 

Cost.  Depreciation.  Per  Cent. 

1.  Concrete    Walls,    Tile    Roof $1,050           $13-31  equals  i    27-100 

2.  Brick    Walls,    Slate    Roof 1,225              13.62  equals  i    n-ioo 

3.  Frame    Walls,    Shingle    Roof 706             24.51  equals  3  47-100 

Assume  cost  of  land  ($500)  and  interior  work  ($1,500)  to  be 
$2,000  additional  in  each  case,  and  that  each  house  rents  for  10 
per  cent,  oi  the  cost.  Result  at  end  of  twenty  years : 

1.  Concrete  Walls,  Tile  Roof.     Value  $3,050.     Rents  for  $305.00  per  annum. 
$305.00  x  20'  years,  equals  $6,100. 

Charge  $13.31   x  20  equals  $266.20         Depreciation. 

Charge     30.50  x  20  equals     610.00         Taxes,  say   i   per  cent,  on  value. 
Charge     24.29  x  20  equals     485.80         Ins.  Premiums  on  $2,550,  being  average 

for    three     occupancies     given.       Page 
$1,362.00  259. 

From  $6,100,  twenty  years'  income,  deduct  $1,362  charges,  leaving  $4,738; 
same  divided  by  20  gives  $236.90  per  annum  and  represents  7  77-100  per 
cent,  interest. 

2.  Brick    Walls,    Slate    Roof.      Value    $3,225.      Rents    for   $322.50   per   annum. 
$322.50  x  20  years,  equals  $6,450. 

Charge  $13.62  x  20  equals  $272.40         Depreciation. 

Charge     32.25  x  20  equals     645.00         Taxes,  say  i  per  cent,  on  value. 
Charge     25.96  x  20  equals     519.20         Ins.   Premiums  on  $2,725,  being 'average 

for    three     occupancies    given.       Page 
$1,436.60  '259. 

From  $6,450,  twenty  years'  income,  deduct  $1,436.60  charges,  leaving  $5,013.40; 
same  divided  by  20  gives  $250.67  per  annum  and  represents  7  77-100  per 
cent,  interest. 

3.  Wood  Walls,  Shingle  Roof.     Value  $2,706.     Rents  for  $270.60  per  annum. 
$270.60  x  20  years,  equals  $5,412. 

Charge  $24.51   x  20  equals  $490.20         Depreciation. 

Charge     27.06  x  20  equals     541.20         Taxes,  say    i    per  cent,   on  value. 
Charge     60.00  x     5  equals     300.00         For  outside  painting  every  4  years. 
Charge     20.or    x  20  equals     400.00         For  extra  cost  of  heating. 
Charge     44.26  x  20  equals     885.20         Ins.  Premiums  on  $2,206,  being  average 

for    three     occupancies    given.       Page 
$2,616.60  259. 

From  $5,412,  twenty  years'  income,  deduct  $2,616.60  charges,  leaving  $2,795.40; 

same  divided  by  20  gives  $139.77  per  annum  and  represents   5    16-100  per 

cent,  interest. 

In  a  hrick,  stone  or  concrete  house  the  reduction  of  concealed 
spaces  in  the  walls  is  a  material  advantage  in  excluding  rats  and 
other  vermin. 


264     j/j    FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  insurance  cost  is  also  a  factor  of  considerable  moment  in 
determining  the  ultimate  economy  of  good  construction,  and  in 
order  to  set  this  forth  fairly  we  have  averaged  rates  for  different 
constructions  in  Southern  towns  of  first,  second  and  third-class 
fire  protection,  also  towns  with  no  protection,  for  the  three  main 
divisional  occupancies,  being  (a)  dwellings;  (b)  stores;  (c)  fac- 
tories, selecting  for  the  latter,  sixteen  classes  of  factories  common 
in  the  South.  All  of  these  rates  are  basis  figures — that  is,  without 
any  charge  for  interior  or  protective  defects,  or  charge  for  exposure 
of  other  buildings.  Touching  the  exposure  charge  it  may  be  well 
to  state,  in  passing,  that  such  is  notably  less  to  brick,  stone  or 
concrete  buildings  with  metal,  tile  or  slate  roofs  than  to  frame, 
shingle  roof  buildings,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  former  are 
much  less  likely  to  be  ignited  by  a  burning  building  near  by  than 
the  latter.  The  insurance  rates  given  assume  also  that  standard 
chimneys  built  from  the  ground  -  exist  in  the  buildings,  otherwise 
an  additional  charge  of  about  n  per  cent,  applies  to  dwelling 
rates  and  from  10  cents  to  25  cents  per  $100  insurance  in  the  case 
of  stores  and  factories.  Our  estimates  show  an  excess  cost  of  $33 
for  a  chimney  with  one  flue,  built  from  the  ground,  over  a  hung 
flue.  In  an  ordinary  frame  dwelling  insured  for  $1,000  the  differ- 
ence in  premium  would  pay  the  extra  cost  in  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  years  (33)  and  in  proportionately  less  time,  according  to 
increased  value. 

The  insurance  rate  (and  charge)  on  a  building  extends  naturally 
to  the  contents  as  well.  In  many  instances  the  value  of  the  contents 
exceeds  the  cost  of  the  building  itself,  so  for  the  purpose  of  count- 
ing the  cost  of  poor  construction  it  is  proper  to  apply  the  insurance 
cost  to  what  is  in  the  building  as  well  as  to  the-  building  itself. 
Therefore,  it  follows  that  a  building  justifying  a  low  insurance  rate 
is  additionally  better  for  the  builder  if  he  is  to  be  the  occupant, 
and  if  built  to  be  let,  the  feature  of  a  minimum  rate  will  make  it 
rent  more  readily  and  to  better  advantage. 

On  the  score  of  annual  insurance  charge  on  building  and  con- 
tents the  advantage  of  good  construction  may  be  worked  out  as 
in  the  following  illustrations  for  (a)  dwelling;  (b)  store;  (c) 
factory. 

Reverting  to  the  building  we  have  assumed,  add  $1,500  as  else- 
where for  the  value  of  interior  work  (excluding  the  land), 
whence  we  get  values  for  buildings  for  the  three  types,  as  follows: 

Concrete  Walls  and  Tile   Roof $1,050  plus  $1,500  equals  $2,550 

Brick  Walls  and  Slate  Roof 1,225  plus     1,500  equals     2,725 

Frame  Walls  and  Shingle  Roof 706  plus     1,500  equals     2,206 

Assume  each  type  to  be  occupied  (a)  as  dwelling,  with  furniture 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL     265 

requiring  $1,500  insurance;  (b)  as  store,  with  stock  needing  $10,000 
insurance,  and  (c)  as  factory,  with  machinery  and  other  contents 
wanting  $15,000  insurance.  From  the  tables  of  average  rates  we 
calculate  insurance  premiums  as  follows: 

TYPE  No.  i 

(Reinforced  Concrete  Walls  and  Tile  Roof) 

Rate 

Per  Cent    Premium 
DWELLING: 

Building   $2,550.00     @   .49%          $12.63 

Contents 1,500.00     @  .49%  7.42 

$4,050.00  $20.05 
STORE: 

Building $2,550.00  @  .95              $24.23 

Contents 10,000.00  @i.oi%          101.25 

X  —  - 

$12,550.00  $125.48 
FACTORY: 

Building   $2,550.00  @i.4iV4         $36.01 

Contents 15,000.00  ©1.41^4         211.88 

$17,550.00  $247.89 

TYPE  No.  2 

(Brick  Walls  and  Slate  Roof) 

Rate 

Per  Cent    Premium 
DWELLING. 

Building $2,725.00     @  .49%          $13-49 

Contents f. 1,500.00     @  .49%  7.42 

$4,225.00  $20.91 
STORE: 

Building $2,725.00  @  .95             $25.89 

Contents 10,000.00  @i.oii4          101.25 

$12,725.00  $127.14 
FACTORY: 

Building $2,725.00  ©1.41  *4          $38.49 

Contents 15,000.00  (0)1.4114          211.88 

$17,725.00  $250.37 

TYPE  No.  3 

(Frame  Wails  and  Shingle  Roof) 

Rate 

Per  Cent    Premium 
DWELLING: 

Building $2,206.00     @  .882  $19.46 

Contents 1,500.00     @  .882  13.23 


$3,706.00 


$32.69 


266 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


STORE:  i 

Building $2,206.00  ©2.75  $60.67 

Contents 10,000.00  @2.68%  268.75 

$12,206.00  $329.42 
FACTORY: 

Building $2,206.00  ©2.38%  $52.67 

Contents 15,000.00  ©2.38%  358.12 


$17,206.00  $410.79 

DWELLING  Premium  on 

Type  Cost  of  Bldg.    Bldg.  &  Cont. 

No.    i.     Concrete  Walls  and  Tile  Roof $2,550.00  $20.05 

No.  2.     Brick  Walls  and  Slate  Roof 2,725.00  20.91 

No.   3.      Frame  Walls  and  Shingle  Roof 2,206.00  32.69 

Difference  in  premium  alone  will  pay  increased  cost  of  Type  No.   i   over  Type 

No.   3    ($344.00),  in  twenty-seven  years. 

Difference  in  premium  will  pay  increased  cost  of  Type  No.  2  over  Type  No.  3 
($519.00),  in  forty-four  years. 

STORES  Premium  on 

Type  Cost  of  Bldg.    Bldg.  &  Cont. 

No.    i.     Concrete  Walls  and  Tile  Roof $2,550.00  $125.48 

No.  2.     Brick  Walls  and  Slate  Roof 2,725.00  127.14 

No.  3.     Frame  Walls  and  Shingle  Roof 2,206.00  329.42 

Difference    in    premium    will    pay    increased    cost    of    Type    No.    i    over    No.    3 

($344.00),  in  two  years. 

Difference  in  premium  will  pay  increased  cost  of  Type   No.   2  over  Type  No.   3 
($519.00),  in  three  years. 

FACTORY  Premium  on 

Type  Cost  of  Bldg.     Bldg.  &  Cont. 

No.   i.     Concrete  Walls  and  Tile  Roof $2,550.00  $247.89 

No.  2.     Brick  Walls  and  Slate  Roof 2,725.00  250.37 

No.  3.     Frame  Walls  and  Shingle  Roof 2,206.00  410.79 

Difference    in    premium    will    pay    increased    cost    of    Type    No.    i    over    No.    3 

($344.00),  in  a  trifle  over  two  years. 

Difference  in  premium  will  pay  increased  cost  of  Type  No.   2  over  Type  No.   3 
($519.00),  in  3^4  years. 

We  believe  this  disproportion  between  initial  saving  and  inci- 
dental expense  later — permanent  and  continuous  cost  and  actual 
loss— could  be  carried  on  and  set  forth  indefinitely.  Cheap  plaster- 
ing on  furring  strips  and  wood  lath,  with  frequent  restoration  of 
fallen  ceilings  and  blemished,  cracked  walls — wood  window  frames 
that  shrink  away  from  studding,  with  consequent  drafty  rooms — 
lath  and  plaster  partitions  (harboring  rats  and  vermin)  in  place 
of  tile.  Many  interior  features  of  inferior  material  or  construction 
exist,  the  cost  of  which  in  comfort  and  health  is  great,  but  not 
readily  quotable  in  money  value. 

These  suggestions  and  figures  plainly  indicate  that  insurance  com- 
panies are  doing  all  in  their  power  to  encourage  good  construction 
and  the  safeguarding  of  hazards,  by  making  radical  and  substantial 
reduction  in  premium  rates  for  superior  conditions.  We  submit 


.  COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL    267 

that  we  are  employing  our  best  efforts  in  that  direction.     May  we 
have  your  active  co-operation  to  the  same  end? 

Important  as  all  this  is  to  us,  our  interest  is  almost  trivial  com- 
pared with  that  of  your  clients.  From  every  quarter  recitals  reach 
us  of  men  and  women  either  roasted  alive  in  flimsily  built  hotels, 
theaters,  stores  and  factories,  or  crushed  on  the  ground  below  after 
jumping  from  upper  windows  to  escape  a  worse  death,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  suffering  of  horses,  cattle  and  other  dumb  creatures 
destroyed  by  thousands  in  fire-trap  buildings.  The  1915  fire-  waste 
of  this  country  exceeded  $180,000,000.  It  is  a  safe  and  sober  state- 
ment that  half  of  this  would  be  saved  by  the  use  of  incombustible 
materials  for  walls  and  roofs,  and  by  substantial  chimneys  and  safe 
heating  arrangements.  Prevention  is  better  than  cure. 

THE  COST  OF  CONCRETE  BUILDINGS 

It  has  been  a  common  method  to  estimate  the  approximate  cost 
of  a  building  by  either  the  square  foot  of  floor  or  the  cubic  foot  of 
space  enclosed.  In  a  paper  published  in  The  Engineering  Record, 
Jan.  16,  1909,  Leonard  C.  Wason,  president  of  the  Aberthaw  Con- 
struction Co.,  Boston,  presents  numerous  comparative  costs  obtained 
through  his  own  experience  and  states  as  his  conclusion  that  "  after 
making  this  comparison  he  is  convinced  that  neither  method  is 
accurate  enough  to  put  much  reliance  on,  but  that  the  square  foot 
method  is  a  little  safer  than  the  other."  Four  of  the  tables  from 
his  paper  are  presented  herewith.  In  each  case  the  total  cost  in- 
cludes masonry  and  carpentry  work  without  interior  finish  or  deco- 
rating, plumbing  and  heating.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  put 
the  buildings  upon  a  comparative  basis  as  regards  the  amount  of 
work  done  on  each. 

The  first  table  consists  of  the  total  cost  of  actual  contracts  exe- 
cuted. The  second  table  consists  of  bona  fide  bids  on  complete 
buildings  on  which  Mr.  Wason's  company  were  not  the  lowest 
bidders,  but  where  the  difference  was  not.  as  a  rule,  very  great. 
The  third  and  fourth  tables  are  bona  fide  bids  on  work  by  another 
contractor  whose  experience  was  similar  to  that  of  Mr.  Wason's. 
As  a  rule,  cubic  foot  measurements  are  given  in  cents  only,  seldom 
being  carried  to  any  closer  subdivision.  In  reference  to  Table  4 
on  second  class  buildings,  it  will  be  noted  that  for  the  largest 
building  a  variation  of  one  cent  per  cubic  foot  amounts  to  over 
$28,000,  while  the  smallest  one  in  the  list  amounts  to  only  a  little 
over  $5,400.  Again,  on  the  last  three  item?,  the  cubic  foot  price  is 
practically  identical,  while  the  square  foot  measurements  correspond- 
ing, vary  by  more  than  100  per  cent,  with  no  easily  apparent  reason 
in  the  design. 


268 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


In  Table  3  another  discrepancy  is  noticed.  In  the  first  and  the 
last  items,  the  highest  and  the  lowest  per  cubic  foot  as  well  as  per 
square  foot,  are  on  office  buildings  of  similar  type  which  were  within 
one  mile  of  each  other  where  theie  is  no  apparent  reason  for  such 
discrepancy  in  the  design  or  difficulty  of  access  in  the  erection  of 
the  building.  It  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Wason  that  very  little 
reliance  be  placed  upon  this  class  of  estimates. 

Table  i. — Cost  of  Fireproof  Completed  Contracts 


Job 
KIND  OF  BUILDING.            cost. 
Offices  and  stores  $181,194 
Offices  and  stores  61.646 

Volume 
in  cu.  ft. 
1,365,830 
496,780 
112,440 
746,674 
312,000 
156,198 
149,250 
44,265 
9,734 
59,991 

Floor 
area  in 
sq.  ft. 
90,474 
39,840 
7,519 
49,546 
24,960 
10,806 
19,208 
2,982 
657 
5,243 

/—Unit  cost—  > 
Per      Per. 
cu.  ft.    sq.  ft. 
$0.133    $2.00 
.124      1.545 
.114      1.70 
.060        .902 
.127      1.60 
.085      1,23 
.134      1.04 
.153      2.26 
•373      5-45 
•333      3-82 
•373      3-82 
.06          .90 
.138       1.72 

Factory 

12  774 

Factory           .  . 

4/1.61:2 

Factory.  .  .  

m8^o 

Garage  

10,436 

Filter 

IQQQ? 

Fire  station  .. 

5,757 

Observatory  

"3,625 

Filter 

20076 

Highest  

Lowest  

Average.  . 

Table  2. — Cost  of  Fireproof  Complete  Buildings 


KIND  OF  BUILDING. 


Job 
cost. 


Storehouse $141,755 

Hospital 60,800 

Office  building 61,646 

Cold  storage   200,051 

Factory. 19,292 

Factory 141,529 

Storehouse 76,796 

Mfg.  building 91,377 

Office 136,880 

Factory 13,064 

Factory 75,604 

Factory 23,332 

Highest 

Lowest 

Average 


Volume 
in  cu.  ft. 

1714,448 

703,692 

496,780 

1,535,000 

212,400 

1,327,868 

1,140,000 

1,380,500 

693,840 

105,600 

1,211,364 

180,000 


Floor 

area  in 

sq.  ft. 

168,696 

57,654 

39,840 

154,000 

15,000 

106,022 

146,000 

00,240 

56,552 

8,800 

74.604 

i6,394 


/'—Unit  cost^ 

Per      Per. 

cu.  ft.    sq.  ft. 

$0.0827  $0.84 


.0865 
.124 

•  13 

.091 

.107 

.0685 

.067 

.197 

.124 

.0625 

.129 

.197 

.0625 

.1088 


1.05 

1-545 
1.30 
1.28 
1-335 

•575 

1. 01 

2.42 
1.485 

1. 01 

1.42 
2.42 

•575 
1.27 


COST  AND  DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL     269 


Table  3.—  Cost  of 

Fireproof 

Buildings 

Floor 

i  —  Unit  cost—  > 

Job 

Volume 

area  in 

Per 

Per. 

KIND  OF   BUILDING. 

cost. 

in  cu.  ft. 

sq.  ft. 

cu.  ft. 

sq.  ft. 

Office  building  

$70,690 

441,000 

35,854 

$0.159 

$1-97 

Cold  storage  

132,365 

1,016,400 

101,640 

•13 

1.30 

Hospital.  .  .  

44,451 

348,320 

34,832 

.127 

1.27 

Hospital  

51,574 

4M,732 

29,838 

.124 

1-73 

Bank  

65,580 

533,750 

.123 

Masonic  

180,197 

1,479,456 

.122 

.... 

Warehouse  

31,280 

259-700 

24,500 

.120 

1.28 

Garage  „  

59,105 

497,420 

.118 

Warehouse  

-V5,723 

2,597,000 

212,000 

.106 

1.30 

Hotel  

220,646 

2,116,106 



.104 

Hospital  

49,724 

485,789 

38,247 

.100 

1.30 

Office  

25,151 

264,687 

•095 

.  t  .  . 

Cold  storage  

82,711 

909,240 

66,745 

.091 

1.24 

Club  

43,586 

5i3,8o8 



.085 

Office  

60,003 

501-575 

67,400 

.084 

1.  12 

Highest  

•159 

1.97 

Lowest  

.084 

1.  12 

Average  

•113 

1-39 

Variation,  high  and  low. 

53-8% 

57-0% 

Table  4.  —  Cost  of  Mill 

Construction  or 

Second-class   Building 

Floor 

r-Unit  cost—  > 

Job 

Volume 

area  in 

Per 

Per. 

KIND  OF  BUILDING. 

cost. 

in  cu.  ft. 

sq.  ft. 

cu.  Tt. 

sq.  ft. 

Mill  

$66,516 

544,788 

44,172 

$0.122 

$1-51 

Warehouse  

337,000 

2.808,850 

.12 

Mill  

113,288 

,271,300 

129,920 

.0891 

•875 

Storehouse  

101,098 

,714448 

168,696 

059 

.60 

Mill.  

90,703 

1,622,128 

152,200 

.056 

.60 

Mill  

72,048 

,331,200 

83,200 

•054 

-865 

Mill  

85,754 

"752,609 

81.500 

.048 

1.05 

Mill  

122,128 

2,641,000 

98,059 

.046 

1-25 

Mill  

94,341 

2,036,731 

174,000 

.046 

•542 

Mill  

129,405 

2,867.535 

157,730 

-045 

.82 

Highest  

.122 

I-5I 

Lowest  

•045 

•542 

Average  

.069 

.90 

—  From 

The  Engineering 

Record, 

Feb.  27, 

I909- 

GYPSUM  AS  A  FIREPROOFING  MATERIAL 

Gypsum  is  used  as  a  fireproofing  material  in  the  form  of  blocks, 
plaster  board  and  plaster  on  metal  lath.  The  results  of  considerable 
experience  on  its  application  in  these  three  forms  are  available  and 
have  recently  been  .brought  together  by  Mr.  H.  G.  Perring  in  a 
pamphlet,  which  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  is  send- 
ing out.  Preceding  the  data  relating  to  actual  construction  with 
the  material  is  information  regarding  the  fire-resisting  qualities  of 
gypsum  from  which  the  following  notes  have  been  taken : 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  made  from  gypsum,  which  is  a  sulphate  of 
lime;  chemically,  a  hydrous  calcium  sulphate,  the  formula  of  which 
is  expressed  as  Ca  SO4  -f  2  H2O.  Interpreted,  this  formula  may  be 
expressed  as  32.5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  calcium  and  46.6  per  cent, 
sulphuric  acid  chemically  compounded  and  holding  20.9'  per  cent,  of 
water  of  crystallization.  Plaster  of  Paris  is  made  by  calcining  the 
gypsum  rock  to  drive  off  part  of  the  water  of  crystallization.  This 
material  has  the  valuable  quality  of  taking  up  water  and,  by  a 
crystallizing'  process,  becoming  again  converted  into  gypsum. 

Gypsum  is  a  soft  mineral,  ranking  number.  2  in  a  scale  of  10  in 
Moh's  scale  of  hardness.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.32  and  weighs 
145  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot. 

Plaster  of  Paris  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.81,  but  upon  setting 
with  water  returns  to  a  specific  gravity  of  2.32. 

Delicate  experiments  have  shown  that  plaster  in  setting  neither 
contracts  nor  expands. 

Plaster  has  been  generally  recognized  as  a  fireproofing  material 
in  Europe  for  many  years,  Mr.  Perring  states,  and  is  today  used 
almost  exclusively  for  partitions  and  to  a  great  extent  for  floors 
in  France  and  Gerrnany,  while  in  England  many  of  the  government 
buildings,  including  the  newer  portions  of  Windsor  Castle,  have 
partitions  of  plaster  block.  In  America,  despite  the  prejudice  against 
plaster  fireproofing,  over  1,000  -of  the  -large  fireproof  buildings  of 
the  country  have  been  fireproofed  cither  wholly  or  in  part  by  plaster 
in  the  form  of  plaster  blocks,  a  large  number  having  plaster  floors. 
Metal  lath  and  plaster  for  partitions  has  been  used  to  a  great  extent, 
and  in  the  smaller  buildings  plaster  board  and  plaster. 

Mr.  Perring  discusses  at  some  length  the  various  fire  test  require- 
ments and  gives  a  list  of  fire  tests  of  gypsum  products.  In  summar- 

270 


GYPSUM     AS    A     FlREPROOFING     MATERIAL  27! 

izing,  Mr.  Perring  treats  the  various  classes  of  gypsum  products 
hut  only  the  results  in  two  classes  are  repeated  here.  Plaster  blocks 
in  18  tests  of  fire  and  water  for  periods  of  from  I  to  2  hours  stood 
successfully,  resisting  the  passage  of  flame,  smoke  or  water,  and 
were  stable  and  strong  after  test.  These  tests  have  shown  that 
the  effect  of  a  fire  of  2  hours'  duration  is  but  little  greater  than 
that  of  i  hour.  The  effect  of  one  hour  of  high  temperature  fire 
is  to  recalcine  the  block  to  a  depth  of  about  ^  in.,  while  2  hours 
will  carry  the  recalcination  to  a  depth  of'><  inch.  The  effect  of  a 
stream  from  a  fire  hose  is  to  wash  off  this  recalcined  material.  In 
seven  tests  of  metal  lath  and  gypsum  plaster  the  effect  of  high  tem- 
perature fire  for  I  hour  was  to  recalcine  the  plaster  as  in  the  blocks 
to  a  depth  of  about  ^  to  ^  in.  The  application  of  water  from  a 
fire  hose  will  wash  off  this  recalcined  material  and  occasionally 
erode  the  material  sufficiently  to  expose  patches  of  the  metal. 

Few  fires  have  occurred  in  buildings  in  which  plaster  has  been 
used  for  fireproofing,  but  the  following  are  cited  as  indicating  more 
than  a  laboratory  test: 

On  Feb.  6,  1906,  at  9  o'clock  a  fire  occurred  in  the  Engineering 
Building  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia.  The 
fire  spread  so  rapidly  that  a  second  alarm  was  sent  in  15  minutes 
after  the  start  of  the  fire.  Two  fire  alarms  brought  out  nine  engine 
companies,  which  played  15  streams  of  hose  on  the  fire  until  2  a.  m., 
at  which  time  the  fire  was  considered  past  the  dangerous  point, 
and  all  but  one  engine  went  home,  the  remaining  engine  playing 
a  stream  of  water  upon  the  smoking  embers  until  7  a.  m.,  when  the 
fire  was  pronounced  completely  out.  The  building  was  erected  in 
1892.  had  brick  'exterior  walls  and  an  interior  construction  known 
as  mill,  or  slow-burning  construction ;  that  is,  the  column  and  gird- 
ers were  of  heavy  yellow  pine  timber  and  the  floor  of  3-in.  yellow 
pine.  The  trim  of  the  rooms  was  also  of  yellow  pine ;  a  structure 
well  calculated  to  burn  with  intense  heat  when  the  fire  was  well 
started.  The  partitions  were  fire-proof,  being  made  of  gypsum 
plaster  blocks  3-in.  thick.  Despite  the  incense  heat  and  the  many 
tons  of  water  thrown  into  the  building  the  partitions  remained 
intact  and  would  have  required  no  repairs  beyond  replastering  to 
fit  them  for  use  again.  These  partitions  prevented  the  spread  of 
the  fire  and  saved  a  considerable  portion  of  the  building  from  any 
damage  whatsoever,  preventing  the  loss  of  a  valuable  engineering 
library,  which  was  in  a  room  completely  shut  off  from  the  fire  by 
the  gypsum  tile  partitions. 

On  March  4,  1910,  a  fire  occurred  in  the  Alwyn  Court  fireproof 
apartment  house,  New  York  City.  The  interior  columns  were  fire- 
proofed  with  2-in.  U.  S.  Gypsum  Company's  composition  plaster 


272  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

blocks  with  an  air  space  between  blocks  and  columns.  Partitions 
were  of  3-in.  plaster  blocks  set  in  wood  frame  work  (wood  door 
"bucks").  The  hallways  were  formed  of  3-in.  composition  blocks 
with  kalamein  doors  to  apartments.  Many  of  the  rooms  contained 
an  unusual  amount  of  lumber  in  the  form  of  wood  trim,  parquet 
flooring,  side  and  ceiling  paneling  and  other  decorative  woodwork. 
The  following  extract  is  taken  from  the  report  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters : 

"  The  ninth  and  tenth  floors  in  the  duplex  apartment  were  gutted 
except  the  northerly  rooms  of  the  tenth,  which  were  badly  dam- 
aged. The  dining  room  and  reception  hall  of  west  apartment  on 
eleventh  floor  were  practically  gutted,  with  heavy  damage  in  kitchen 
and  moderate  damage  in  other  rooms.  In  the  west  apartment  on 
twelfth  floor  the  dining  room,  reception  hall  and  living  room,  in- 
cluding salon,  were  practically  gutted;  considerable  damage  in 
kitchen  and  maids'  room;  only  moderate  damage  in  northerly 
rooms.  The  west  apartments  immediately  below  the  floor,  where 
the  fire  started,  had  considerable  water  on  ceilings,  walls  and  floors ; 
part  of  ceiling  plaster  had  fallen  off  in  a  few  rooms.  There  was 
no  fire  and  but  little  water  damage  in  easterly  apartments,  includ- 
ing those  above  the  eighth.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  structural 
damage  to  the  steel  frame  or  its  fireproofing;  the  lower  flanges  of 
floor  beams  were  protected  only  by  plaster  finish,  which  fell  off  and 
exposed  the  flanges  to  considerable  heat,  but  no  deflection  of  .beam 
is  apparent.  The  channel  shaped  steel  lintels  over  dining  room 
windows  were  softened  by  the  heat  and  deflected,  particularly  those 
on  the  twelfth  floor.  The  3-in.  plaster  block  partitions  are  intact, 
except  around  the  doorways,  where  they  were  supported  by  wooden 
frame  work,  which  was  entirely  burned  away  and  caused  the  blocks 
to  fall." 

Analyzing  the  special  features  of  gypsum  plaster  in  general,  which 
make  the  material  desirable  as  fireproofing,  Mr.  Perring  draws  the 
following  conclusions: 

1.  Low  heat  conductivity  is  an  essential  point.     In  partitions  heat 
is  not  conducted  through  to  set  fire  to  furnishings  on  the  opposite 
side.    In  the  protection  of  structural  steel  work  the  steel  is  protected 
from 'the  weakening  action  of  hea^.     The  heat  penetrates  the  plaster 
at  such  a  slow  rate  that  in  fires  of  ordinary  duration  the  metal 
would  hardly  get  warm. 

2.  Tests  and  experiments  have  failed  to  indicate  any  appreciable 
expansion  of  plaster  under  heat  action. 

3.  Materials  of  a  nature  that  expand  under  heat  readily  contract 
when  water  is  applied  to  the  heated  surface.     This  contraction  is 
often  so  severe  as  to  cause  the  bursting  of  the  material.     Plaster 


GYPSUM    AS    A    FlREPROOFING     MATERIAL  273 

partially  recalcines  under  high  heat  action  and  the  subsequent  appli- 
cation of  water  removes  this  recalcined  portion,  but  generally  will 
withstand  severe  water  application,  there  being  no  indication  of 

bursting. 

4.  Any  material  to  be  used  for  fireproofing  must  not  burn  or  sup- 
port combustion.     Plaster  is  incombustible. 

5.  Lightness  is  essential  in  fireproofing,»  as  the  fireproofing  at  best 
is  dead  load  on  a  building  and  plays  no  part  in  the  support  of  the 
structure.     Plaster  is  the  lightest  practical  fireproofing  material. 

6.  Plaster  fireproofing  has  sufficient  strength  for  use  in  partitions 
and  column  covering,  and  in  fires  will  stand  up  reliably  against  the 
impact  of  fire  streams. 

7.  Plaster  is  adaptable  to  any  form  of  construction.     Where  used 
in  slabs  they  are  readily  sawed  or  cut  to  fi*  any  desired  location  and 
the  use  of  the  material  in  the  plastic  state  will  cover  any  possible 
condition  of  construction. 

8.  The  desirable  fireproofing  material  is  one  that  combines  all  the 
fireproofing  features  with  lew  cost.     Plaster  is  low  in  cost. 

Trim  can  be  nailed  to  plaster  fireproofing  without  the  use  of  wood 
blocks  or  grounds,  saving  the  cost  thereof  and  omitting  combustible 
material  from  the  building.  Plaster  blocks  or  boards  are  true  and 
even  and  reduce  the  cost  of  plastering  to  a  minimum.  The  blocks 
are  made  of  pure  gypsum  and  wood  fibre. 

Changes  in  partitions  can  be  made  with  a  minimum  of  dirt  and 
discomfort.  Where  a  door  is  to  be  cut  in  a  partition  a  hole  is  bored 
through  with  an  auger,  a  keyhole  saw  inserted  and  sufficient  cut 
made  to  insert  a  large  saw,  after  which  the  opening  is  neatly  cut, 
the  frame  inserted  and  the  trim  covers  the  edges  so  that  no  plas- 
tering beyond  the  pointing  up  around  the  door  buck  is  necessary, 
and  the  decorations  are  not  destroyed. 

The  blocks  should  be  laid  with  core  holes  horizontal,  with  joints 
broken  vertically.  They  should  be  laid  in  gypsum  mortar  consist- 
ing of  one  part  gypsum  plaster  mortar  and  three  parts  sand.  The 
joints  should  not  exceed  ^  in.  in  thickness. — From  The  Engineer- 
ing Record,  Dec.  3,  1910. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  report  that :  Non-bearing  corri- 
dor and  room  partitions  for  fire-proof  office  buildings,  hotels,  apart- 
ments, and  buildings  of  this  class,  made  of  listed  types  of  gypsum 
blocks  and  laid  with  vertical  joints  broken  in  gypsum  cement  mortar 
containing  not  to  exceed  3  parts  of  sand,  coated  on  each  side  with 
the  same  material  at  least  V2-inch  in  thickness,  and  set  on  non- 
combustible  foundations,  are  standard  for  corridor  and  room  par- 
titions not  exceeding  13  and  17  feet  in  height,  respectively,  for 
3  and  4-inch  thicknesses  of  block,  in  dry  locations  where  the  tern- 


274  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

peratures  do  not  exceed  200  d-jgrees  Fahr.,  but  not  for  enclosures 
to  stairways,  elevators,  or  vertical  communications  where  full 
protection  is  required. 

TYPICAL  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STUCCO   ON  METAL 

LATH* 

_ 

Foreword 

The  merits  of  the  stucco  house  are  now  so  well  recognized  that 
arguments  in  its  favor  seem  to  be  trite.  It  is  assumed  that  the 
prospective  builder  and  his  architect  want  a  stucco  exterior  and 
realizing  that  when  built,  the  house  will  look  as  substantial  .as  stone, 
brick  or  solid  concrete,  they  want  a  structure  that  will  age  slowly 
and  gracefully  through  decades — not  fail  perceptibly  from  year  to 
year. 

This  specification  is  offered  with  this  realization  promised  but  it 
must  be  borne  in  %  mind  that  poor  work  is  dear  at  any  price.  A 
faithful  observance  of  every  detail  will  give  results  gratifying  to 
the  architect  and  satisfactory  to  the  owner. 

Metal  Lath  is  recommended  because  wood  lath  absorbs  moisture 
required  by  the  mortar.  Wood  lath  drys  out  and  shrinks  away 
from  the  plaster  following  which  the  alternate  shrinkage  and  swell- 
ing resulting  from  moisture  causes  unsightly  cracks  and  finally 
failure.  Wood  lath,  also,  increases  the  fire  risk  and  it  will  harbor 
vermin. 

Metal  lath  in  combination  with  cement  plaster  is  "  reinforced 
concrete"  and  will  insure  an  unbroken  surface, — to  be  assured  of 
which  is  at  least  an  uncertainty  when  the  plaster  is  applied  direct 
to  a  wall  set  up  in  block  form.  The  air  space  afforded  by  metal 
lath  construction  is  the  most  efficient  insulation. 

A  careful  following  of  this  specification  will  absolutely  give  a 
construction  economical  and  enduring. 

Framing  and  General  Construction 

Flimsy  construction  in  framing  is  false  economy.  The  best  will 
prove  cheapest.  The  studs  spaced  12"  between  centers  wherever 
possible,  should  be  run  entirely  from  foundation  to  the  rafters  with- 
out any  intervening  horizontal  grain  in  the  wood.  These  studs  shall 
be  tied  together  just  below  the  second  story  joists  by  a  6"  board 
which  shall  be  let  into  the  studs  on  their  inner  side,  so  as  to  be 
flush  and  securely  nailed  to  them.  This  board  will  also  act  as  a 
sill  for  the  second  story  joists,  which  in  addition  will  be  securely 
spiked  to  the  sides  of  the  studs.  At  two  points  between  the  foun- 

*  Recommended  by  Associated  Metal  Lath  Manufacturers,  Youngstown,  Ohio. 


STUCCO  ON  METAL  LATH  275 

dation  and  the  eaves,  brace  between  the  studding  with  2"x3"  bridg- 
ing placed  horizontally  but  -with  the  faces  of  the  bridging  inclined 
in  alternate  directions  in  adjacent  spaces. 


.Pointed  Expanded  l*Jetal  Lath  Cement  Piaster  and 

Not  Less  than  3  Ibs  to  thp  sq  yd.  Stucco  f'n/sh-^ 


/r-_'  :    v  C nmped FurrTriq -f 


Detail  Showing  Section  of  &+er>or  \A/all 

All  roof  gutters  should  be  fixed  and  down  spouts  put  up  before 
the  plastering  is  done ;  the  down-spouts  should  be  temporarily  placed 
about  a  foot  from  the  wall  so  there  will  be  no  break  in  the  plaster- 
ing where  they  are  to  be  finally  fixed. 

Wood  copings  or  rails  for  tops  of  parapets,  balustrades,  etc.,  are 
not  so  good  as  cement  for  they  may  curl  up,  warp,  check,  crack, 
and  in  various  ways  fail  to  do  what  they  should — KEEP  WATER 
FROM  GETTING  BEHIND  THE  PLASTER.  This  also  applies  to  brick 
chimneys,  which,  when  plastered,  should  have  wide  and  tight  caps 
of  concrete  or  stone  to  prevent  water  running  behind  the  plaster. 

If  only  wood  sills  are  used,  they  should  project  well  from  the 
face  of  the  plaster  and  should  have  a  good  drip;  either  by  being 
placed  with  a  downward  slant  or  by  a  groove  rabbeted  in  the1  under 
side  of  the  sill  near  enough  to  its  edge  that  it  will  not  be  covered 
by  plaster.  THE  DRIP  is  AN  ESSENTIAL  OF  GOOD  STUCCO  CONSTRUC- 
TION THAT  CAN  NOT  BE  SLIGHTED.  IT  MUST  BE  USED  TO  PREVENT 
WATER  GETTING  BEHIND  THE  PLASTER. 

Lath  and  plaster  should  not  be  carried  all  the  way  down  to  the 
ground;  this  same  restriction  applies  to  brick  or  stone. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  all  trim  be  placed  the  proper  distance 
from  the  studding  or  furring  to  show  its  right  projection  after  the 
plaster  is  on.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  allow  too  little  for  the 
lath  and  plaster,  with  the  result  that  mouldings  which  should  :pro- 
ject  from  the  face  of  the 'wall  are  back  from  it  or  partly  buried 
under  the  plaster,  thus  missing  the  effect  desired.  About  \y2" 
should  be  allowed  for  the  lath  and  plaster,  making  sure  that  the 
projection  of  the  moulding  to  show  when  finished  is  not  measured 
in  as  part  of  this  thickness 


276  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Furring 

Use  painted  or  galvanized  steel  rods  or  painted  or  galvanized 
crimped  furring.  One-quarter  inch  is  best  and  it  should  not  be  over 
one-half  inch  at  the  most.  This  furring  is  to  be  applied  along  the 
face  of  the  studding  with  galvanized  staples. 

Insulation 

After  the  lath  on  the  outside  has  been  back-plastered  the  air 
space  may  be  divided  by  applying  heavy  building  paper,  quilting, 
felt  or  some  suitable  insulating  material  between  the  studs,  fasten- 
ing it  by  nailing  wood  strips  over  folded  ends  of  the  material.  This 
insulation  should  be  so  fastened  as  to  clear  the  2"  bridging,  leav- 
ing the  preponderance  of  the  air-space  on  the  outside.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  insulating  material  dear  of  the  outside  plaster 
and  to  make  tight  joints  against  the  wood  framing  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  spaces  and  against  the  bridging  where  the  3"  face 
intercepts. 

Corner  Bead 

If  corner  bead  is  not  used,  there  should  be  6",  strips  of  metal 
lath  bent  around  the  corners  and  stapled  over  the  lathing  unless  the 
sheets  of  metal  lath  as  applied  are  folded  around  the  corners. 

Even  though  corner  bead  is  used,  it  is  a  good  precaution  to  bind 
the  corners  in  this  way  and  apply  the  corner  bead  over  the  strips 
of  lath. 

Lathing 

The  lath  shall  be  painted  to  protect  it  until  it  can  be  applied  and 
covered  with  Portland  cement  plaster.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  expose  the  lath  to  the  weather  while  it  is  lying  about  the  building. 

Use  metal  lath  weighing  not  less  than  3  Ibs.  per  square  yard, 
spaced  at  12"  centers  and  fastened  horizontally  over  the  furring 
strips  with  galvanized  staples  1^/4  x  No.  14  gauge.  The  sheets  be- 
tween furring  are  to  be  tied  with  No.  18  gauge  galvanized  wire. 

Plastering 

Portland  cement  will  protect  metal  from  corrosion  absolutely  by 
reason  of  its  moisture-resisting  qualities.  Calcined  gypsum  should 
not  be  used  in  combination  with  Portland  cement,  as  the  gypsum 
will  destroy  the  productive  quality  in  the  cement ;  neither  should  it  be 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Portland  cement.  A  gypsum  plaster  may 
repel  moisture  for  a  time,  but  Portland  cement  actually  thrives  on  it. 

It  is  not  theory  only  that  Portland  cement  will  preserve  iron  or 
steel  indefinitely;  it  has  been  well  demonstrated  that  Portland 
cement  stucco  will  endure  in  any  habitable  climate.  The  first  and 
second  coats  should  be  of  good  thickness  and  the  finishing  coat 


STUCCO  ON  METAL  LATH  277 

should  have  with  it  a  mixture  of  waterproofing.     A  total  thickness 
of  plaster  of  about  il/2H  is  good  practice. 

It  is  aimed  for  the  first  and  second  coats  to  get  a  Portland  cement 
mortar  with  as  little  lime  in  it  as  will  make  it  work  properly. 
Clean  long  winter  cattle  hair  should  be  used. 

For  the  first  and  second  coats  and  back-plastering,  -mix  in  the 
following  proportions : 

Lime  Mortar.    2  barrels  of  hydrated  lime. 

i  yard  of  clean  sharp  sand  free  from  loam. 
4  bushels  of  cattle  hair. 

Made  up  at  least  3  days  before  using. 

Cement  Mortar.    2  parts  of  clean  sharp  sand  free  from  loam, 
i  part  Portland  cement. 

Mix  fresh  in  small  batches  as  used. 

The  Lime  Mortar  and  Cement  Mortar  should  be  mixed  and  tem- 
pered separately,  measured  carefully,  equal  parts  of  each  and  mixed 
well  together. 

In  plastering  over  the  face  of  the  stud,  the  plaster  should  be 
forced  well  through  the  lath  in  order  to  fill  entirely  the  space  be- 
tween the  lath  and  the  stud. 

The  back-plastering  should  be  a  heavy  coat  well  troweled  so  that 
the  lath  is  entirely  enveloped.  The  finish  coat  may  be  done  in  a 
way  to  get  any  one  of  the  many  surfaces  which  give  stucco  its 
charm ;  this  coat  should  contain  no  lime  as  it  makes  the  wall  more 
porous  and  if  a  lighter  color  is  wanted  than  can  be  gotten  with 
ordinary  cement,  a  white  Portland  cemenr  should  be  used. 

The  waterproofing  acceptable  to  the  architect  should  be  mixed 
with  the  last  coat  of  the  exterior  according  to  directions  given  by 
the  waterproofing  manufacturer.  The  lathing  and  plastering  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  wall  need  not  differ  from  ordinary  practice. 

The  exterior  plaster  must  not  be  allowed  to  set  rapidly;  if  neces- 
sary, hang  a  curtain  in  front  of  the  wall,  of  burlap  or  other 
material  that  can  be  kept  moist  for  a  couple  of  days.  Stucco 
should  never  be  applied  when  the  temperature  is  below  freezing. 

Stucco  on  Brick 

In  applying  stucco  over  brick  chimneys  a  y2"  painted  or  galvan- 
ized steel  furring  strip  not  lighter  than  22  gauge  should  be  fas- 
tened to  the  brick  at  12"  centers  with  galvanized  staples  2"  x  No.  9 
gauge  driven  into  the  mortar  joints.^  The  lath  is  fastened  to  the 
furring  with  No.  18  gauge  galvanized  wire,  run  through  under  the 
furring  and  the  same  material  used  for  lacing  the  onds  of  the 
sheets  together  between  furring  strips. 


278  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  same  mixture  for  plaster  is  recommended  for  this  work 
as  on  the  metal  lath  on  studding.  Before  plastering,  the  brick 
should  be  well  wetted  to  prevent  its  absorbing  the  moisture  from 
the  plaster  and  the  first  coat  should  be  forced  through  thoroughly 
so  that  the  entire  space  back  of  the  lath  is  filled  with  the'  Portland 
cement  plaster  and  the  lath  enveloped. 


. 

.       . 

. 
\ 


ASBESTOS* 

Asbestos  is  one  of  the  most  peculiar  and  marvelous  productions 
in  organic  nature.  Called  by  mineralogists,  asbestus,  the  name  in 
its  Greek  'form  signifies  unquenchable,  inextinguishable,  incon- 
sumable. 

It  has  been  called  a  "  mineralogical  vegetable."  In  mineralogy, 
three  minerals  are  classified  under  the  term  "  asbestos,"  namely, 
antophyllite,  amphibole  and  serpentine. 

ist.  Antophyllite,   which  is  not  used  commercially. 

2d.  Amphibole  or  hornblende  asbestos.  This  includes  various 
varieties,  among  which  are  actinolite  and  Italian  asbestos. 

3d.  Serpentine  asbestos,  which  has  three  fibrous  forms,  namely, 
picrolite,  soapstone  or  talc  and  chrysotile.  The  chrysotile  asbestos 
is  a  variety  found  in  the  Canadian  deposits  and  is  the  only  variety 
which  is  of  much  economic  value. 

In  appearance  and  mineralogical  character  these  varieties  are 
somewhat  different,  while  in  chemical  composition  they  are  very 
similar.  The  amphibole  varieties  being  silicate  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia and  alumina,  while  serpentine  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of  mag- 
nesia. The  following  is  about  the  average  chemical  composition 
of  the  Canadian  chrysotile  asbestos,  viz.: 

Silica    -. 40% 

Magnesia     42% 

Ferrous   oxide    3% 

Alumina     i  % 

Water     14% 

100% 

The  chemical  analysis  is  important  in  determining  the  value  of 
an  asbestos  deposit,  because  all  fibres  capable  of  being  spun  must 
analyze  about  as  stated.  The  percentage  of  water  has  apparently 
much  to  do  with  the  strength,  silkiness  and  flexibility  of  the  fibre. 
The  Canadian  chrysotile  asbestos  always  seems  to  contain  not  less 
than  13  per  cent  of  water,  while  all  the  harsh  and  more  brittle 
fibres  of  the  other  types  of  asbestos  contain  little  water,  varying 
from  i  per  cent  to  5  per  cent  consequently  they  are  of  little  or 
no  value. 

While  asbestos  in  one  or  other  of  its  varieties  has  been  found 
in  many  states  of  the  United  States,  in  Italy,  South  and  Central 
America,  China,  Japan,  Australia,  South  Africa,  and  other  parts 
of  the  world,  none  of  these  deposits  so  far  have  proved  to  be  of 
much  economic  value,  or  are  so  located  that  they  cannot  be  worked 
profitably. 

About  80  per  cent  of  the  world's  production  of  commercial  asbes- 
tos is  being  supplied  from  the  Canadian  deposits.  Russia  is  the 
next  largest  producer  of  commercial  asbestos  to  Canada. 

The  Canadian  developed  deposits  of  asbestos  are  located  south 
of  the  St.  LawTence  river  in  the  Eastern  Townships  of  the  Prov- 

*  Abstract  of  an  address  by  L.  R.  Hoff  before  the  Fire  Insurance  Society  of 
Philadelphia. 

279 


280  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

ince  of  Quebec — one  of  the  largest  being  four  miles  from  Dan- 
ville, in  the  County  of  Richmond,  on  the  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway.  The  others  being  situated  at  Thetford  Mines,  Black 
Lake,  Robertson  and  East  Broughton  in  the  County  of  Megantic, 
on  the  line  of  the  Quebec  Central  Railway. 

The  deposits  were  discovered  about  1877  and  the  gradual  de- 
velopment has  taken  place  since  then,  until  the  total  shipments  for 
the  year  ending  December  31,  1910,  amounted  to  80,000  tons,  valued 
at  over  two  and  a  half  million  dollars. 

The  chrysotile  asbestos  found  in  these  deposits  occurs  as  a 
fibrous  silky  product,  lying  in  narrow  veins  in  a  mass  of  serpentine 
rock.  The  veins  are  found  in  every  direction  throughout  the  entire 
mass  and  often  intersect  each  other  at  all  angles.  The  general 
tendency  of  the  veins,  however,  is  more  or  less  parallel  with  a  slight 
dip  downwards. 

The  fibres  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  walls  of  the  veins  and  vary 
in  length  from  two  and  one-half  inches  to  one-eight  inch  or  less. 
The  asbestos  in  the  vein  has  a  marked  wavy  lustre  of  a  greenish 
tint,  but  when  the  silky  fibres  are  separated  they  are  pure  white. 

Mining. — While  generally  referred  to  as  "  asbestos  mining,"  the 
Canadian  developed  deposits  are  nearly  all  worked  as  open  quar- 
ries. As  practically  the  entire  mass  of  rock  has  to  be  removed, 
quarrying  is  the  cheapest  method.  Unless  the  deposits  are  very 
rich  in  the  longest  grades  of  fibres,  underground  mining  is  too 
costly. 

The  different  quarries  vary  in  size  and  shape.  Some  of  the 
larger  ones,  at  present  Worked,  are  from-  1,000  to  1,500  feet  in 
length,  with  an  approximate  average  width  of  300  to  400  feet,  and 
in  some  instances,  a  depth  of  200  feet.  So  far,  the  depths  of  these 
Canadian  deposits  have  not  been  finally  determined,  but  asbestos 
has  been  found  at  a  depth  of  400  feet.  It  is  nearly  impossible 
to  test  by  diamond  drillings,  owing  to  the  fibrous  nature  of  the  rock. 

The  quarrying  is  usually  carried  on. by  a  series  of  benches  or 
terraces  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  trie  quarry.  Rock  drills, 
operated  by  compressed  air,  are  usually  used  for  drilling.  The 
depth  of  holes  drilled  range  from  eight  to  fifteen  feet,  according 
to  conditions. 

The  holes  are  filled  with  dynamite  and  exploded  by  electric 
batteries.  The  larger  pieces  of  sepentine  rock  resulting  from 
blasts  are  again  drilled  and  exploded  by  similar  process.  After  the 
rock  is  thus  broken  up,  it  undergoes  a  hand-sorting  process.  The 
pieces  of  rock  containing  veins  of  one-half  inch  or  more  in  length 
are  picked  out  and  the  longer  fibres  separated  by  "hand  combing." 
The  rock  containing  the  shorter  fibres  is  shovelled  into  boxes  or 
skips  to  be  sent  to  the  mills  for  mechanical  separation.  The  dead 
or  barren  rock  is  sent  to  the  dumps. 

Sorting. — What  is  known  as  No.  i  Crude  and  No.  2  Crude  is 
hand  picked,  sorted  and  dressed.  No.  I  being  fibres  of  three- 
quarter  inch  and  over  in  length.  No.  2  from  five-sixteenth  inch 
to  three-quarter  inch  in  length.  The  roughly  picked  longest  veins 
from  the  pits  are  broken  down  by  hammers  and  passed  over  screens 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  rock  particles  and  the  grading  as  No.  i 
and  No.  2  is  done  by  hand. 


ASBESTOS  281 

The  rock  containing  the  shorter  veins  is  sent  to  the  mills  for 
automatic,  mechanical  separation,  by  passing  through  a  series  of 
crushing  rollers. 

The  problem  of  separating  or  extracting  the  fibres  from  the  rock 
by  a  mechanical  process,  without  unduly  injuring  the  fibres,  has 
been  gradually  solved,  until  it  is  now  possible  to  get  them  free 
from  grit  and  particles  of  rock. 

The  rock  from  the  dumping  cars  is  delivered  into  ore  bins  or 
slides,  from  which  it  is  fed  into  crushers.  The  first  crushers  are 
usually  of  large  capacity,  with  feed  opening  from  24"  x  36"  to 
30"  x  15",  so  that  large  pieces  of  rock  can  be  fed  in.  From  the 
first  set  of  crushers  the  rock  passes  to  a  second  and  sometimes  a 
third  set  to  reduce  the  size.  The  serpentine  rock  usually  splits 
in  the  crushers  along  the  line  of  the  asbestos  vein.  Thus,  consid- 
erable asbestos  is  separated  from  the  rock  in  the  crushing,  but 
the  fibres  are  not  opened  up.  As  the  rock  is  frequently  wet,  it  is 
necessary  to  dry  it  before  the  fibres  can  be  opened  up  and  separated 
from  all  the  rock  particles. 

From  the  crushers,  the  rock  passes  through  driers  of  various 
description,  heated  by  hot  air,  steam,  etc. 

From  the  driers,  the  material  is  sometimes  carried  to  crushing 
rolls  or  is  passed  direct  to  some  form  of  fiberizer.  The  previous 
crushings  have  liberated  the  asbestos  veins  from  the  rock,  but 
fiberizing  machines  are  required  to  open  up  the  individual  fibres. 
The  fibres  arc  separated  by  means  of  air  currents,  created  by  the 
fast  revolving  beaters  which  quickly  discharge  the  silky  fibres, 
without  injuring  them. 

The  product  coming  from  the  fiberizers  consists  of  asbestos  fibre 
and  quantities  of  pulverized  rock.  The  next  process  is  the  separa- 
tion of  the  fibres  from  the  pulverized  rock.  This  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  screens  and  suction  fans.  The  material  from  the 
fiberizers,  after  going  through  revolving  sizing  screens,  is  delivered 
to  flat  vibrating  screens,  covered  with  wire  cloth  or  perforated 
plates.  These  screens  are  vibrated  and  set  at  a  slight  angle,  the 
vibrating  movement  causing  the  fibres  to  come  to  the  top  and  the 
pulverized  rock  is  shaken  through  the  meshes  of  the  screen.  When 
the  fibres  have  traveled  to  the  lower  end  of  the  screens,  they  are 
sucked  up  through  hoods  by  means  of  suction  fans,  which  deliver 
the  fibres  into  collectors,  from  which  they  pass  into  long  cylindrical 
grading  screens  which  separate  them  into  different  lengths  required 
by  the  manufacturers  and  then  bagged  ready  for  shipment.  The 
tailings  produced  in  the  milling  are  carried  away  either  by  narrow 
gauge  railroads  or  belt  conveyors. 

From  the  reports  published  by  the  Department  of  Mines  at 
Ottawa  and  Quebec  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1910,  the 
percentages  and  values  are  about  as  follows : 

Total  rock  mined,  2,000,000  tons. 

Total  asbestos  produced,  100,000  tons. 

Total    rock   milled,    1,500,000  tons. 

Percentages  of  asbestos  produced  to  tons  of  rock  mined,  5  per 
cent. 

Percentages  of  asbestos  produced  to  tons  of  rock  milled,  nearly 
7  per  cent. 

The  remarkable  qualities  of  asbestos  have  been  known  even 
before  the  Christian  era.  Pliny  refers  to  it  in  his  works  and  it 


282  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

was  undoubtedly  used  by  the  Greeks  for  cremation  cloths.  It  is 
also  believed  that  from  examination  of  the  wrappings  of  mummies 
in  good  state  of  preservation,  that  asbestos  cloth  was  used  to  some 
extent  in  this  connection,  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  fifty  years 
"that  it  has  been  commercially  considered  and  only  in  the  last 
twenty  years  become  such  an  important  factor  in  engineering  and 
industrial  construction. 

The  value  of  asbestos  is  graded  according  to  the  length  of  the 
fibres  and  in  exactly  the  same  ratio  are  graded  the  value  of  the 
manufactured  product.  I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  the  products 
manufactured  from  the  longest  fibres  constitute  the  greatest  bulk 
of  asbestos  commerce.  To  the  contrary,  from  the  medium  and 
short  fibres,  are  made  the  greatest  percentage  of  manufactured 
asbestos  products. 

Asbestos  Yarns  and  Cloth. — The  longest,  and  of  course  the  most 
valuable,  fibres  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  yarns  and  cloths 
for  numerous  purposes.  The  fibres  are  carded  and  spun  into  yarn 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  cotton  and  wool,  but  on  specially 
designed  machinery.  It  is  made  into  yarns  of  different  strengths 
and  diameters  and  twisted  into  various  plies,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

The  spinning  of  asbestos,  because  of  its  lack  of  the  microscopic 
barbs  found  on  wool  and  other  fibres,  has  presented  great  diffi- 
culties and  only  by  bringing  together  all  the  talent  of  textile  manu- 
facturers, has  it  been  possible  to  produce  the  splendid  product  of 
to-day. 

These  yarns  are  woven  into  cloths  of  various  weights,  thick- 
nesses and  density  of  weave,  according  to  the  mechanical  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  intended. 

They  may  be  plain  or  asbestos-metallic.  The  former  being  com- 
posed solely  of  asbestos;  the  latter  consisting  of  asbestos  yarn, 
twisted  around  the  strands  of  fine  brass  wire,  woven  into  cloth. 
The  plain  cloth  is  used  for  many  purposes,  the  more  important  of 
which  are  rod  and  valve  packings.  For  this  purpose  the  cloth  is 
coated,  or  as  technically  called,  frictioned  with  rubber  compound 
and  rolled  up  to  required  diameters  round,  or  calendered  where 
square  packing  is  required.  These  packings  are  furnished  in  coil, 
spiral  or  ring  form,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  engineers 
and  are  thoroughly  lubricated  and  graphited,  ready  for  use  when 
supplied  to  the  trade. 

.  The  cloth  with  wire  interwoven  in  the  strands  of  asbestos  is 
frictioned  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  the  packing  above 
described  and  may  be  used  flat  for  all  jointing  purposes  and  folded 
into  gaskets  for  all  sorts  of  conditions. 

By  the  way  of  digression,  asbestos  in  this  field  alone  has  made 
the  use  of  high  pressure  and  superheated  steam  a  success.  Its 
great  heat-resisting  properties  successfully  withstand  the  high  tem- 
peratures, without  in  any  way  affecting  its  serviceability,  whereas 
the  old  form  of  rubber,  cotton  and  flax  packings  would  soon  be 
charred  into  uselessness. 

Asbestos  cloth,  plain  or  wire  interwoven,  preferably  the  latter, 
is  almost  generally  used  as  a  fire  barrier  in  the  proscenium  openings 
of  stages,  where  it  is  raised  or  lowered  mechanically  or  manually, 
sliding  on  wire  ropes,  run  through  rings  on  the  sides  of  the  cur- 
tains, being  raised  bodily  into  the  gridiron  above  the  stage.  A 


ASBESTOS  283 

theatre  curtain  properly  constructed  and  installed,  will  be  a  posi- 
tive barrier  to  the  spread  of  flames  from  the' stage  and  affords  pro- 
tection to  life  and  property. 

Use  in  Filters. — Asbestos  is  one  of  the  greatest  known  filters 
and  is  used  extensively  in  all  filtering  processes,  either  in  fibre 
or  cloth  form,  more  especially  as  a  fabric,  because  in  this  form 
it  is  more  tractable. 

Chemical  plants  use  it  in  filtering  acid  solutions  where  organic 
fabrics  would  be  destroyed. 

It  has  made  the  many  wonderful  electrolytic  processes  possible. 
Here  it  is  used  as  diaphragms  in  the  cells  or  compartments. 

Most  of  the  large  portable  filters  of  potable  waters  are  based 
on  the  use  of  asbestos.  Water,  no  matter  how  discolored  by  dirt 
and  sediment,  can  be  made  as  clear  as  crystal  by  one  or  at  the 
most  two  filterings.  Further,  asbestos  cloth  in  one  of  the  most 
prominent  German  types  of  filters,  has  been  proved  to  greatly 
reduce  the  number  of  pathological  bacteria,  by  •  straining  them 
from  the  water  passing  through. 

Asbestos  cloth  is  made  up  into  gloves,  coats,  trousers,  leggins, 
etc.,  for  the  protection  of  workmen  in  electrical  furnaces,  blast 
furnaces,  glass  plants,  etc.  For  domestic  purposes,  into  pads  for 
protecting  table  tops  from  hot  dishes,  palm  covers  for  hot  irons, 
stove  polishers,  etc. 

Brake  Linings. — Some  three  or  four  years  ago,  it  was  discovered 
that  asbestos  possessed  unusually  high  frictional  properties  and  its 
introduction  into  the  lining  of  brakes,  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
the  increased  efficiency  of  automobiles,  as  well  as  stationary 
machinery,  such  as  hoists,  cranes  and  other  types  of  machinery, 
where  friction  clutches  or  brakes  are  used.  It  has  unusual  advan- 
tages over  organic  linings  as  well  as  iron,  in  that  it  withstands  the 
temperature  caused  by  the  friction,  without  disintegrating,  and  is 
immune  from  destruction  from  water  or  oil. 

The  medium  length  fibres  are  formed  by  various  processes  into 
all  forms  required  for  the  insulation  of  heated  surfaces,  such  as 
pipes,  boilers,  heaters,  air  ducts,  ceilings,  flues,  stack  linings,  etc. 

Felted  Insulation. — In  this  form  the  fibres  are  felted  together  by 
natural  felting  process  with  the  addition  of  sponge  or  certain  inert 
cementitious  materials,  which  -in  themselves,  possess  insulating 
values  and  are  fire  proof.  These  are  used  to  give  added  mechan- 
ical strength.  The  material  thus  felted,  is  moulded  into  cylindrical 
half  sections  for  pipes ;  sheets  and  blocks  for  larger  surfaces  and 
rolls  where  a  flexible  material  is  required. 

Magnesia  Insulation. — In  this  well-known  form  of  insulation, 
asbestos  fibres  are  moulded  as  a  bond  with  carbonate  of  magnesia 
in  proportion  of  85  per  cent  magnesia  carbonate  and  15  per  cent 
fibre,  into  forms  as  above  described,  with  the  exception  of  the 
rolls.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  is  used  because  of  its  lightness  and 
the  fact  that  like  sponge,  etc.,  in  combination  with  asbestos  fibre, 
it  produces  a  structure  with  an  infinite  number  of  dead  air  cells, 
the  basic  principle  of  all  insulation. 

Cellular  Asbestos  Insulation. — This  form  is  built  up  from  as- 
bestos felt  or  paper,  later  described.  The  felts  are  corrugated 
through  regular  corrugating  rolls  and  wound  over  a  mandrel  to 
the  required  thickness  for  pipe  covering  or  laid  up  in  sheets  or 


284  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

blocks,  fastened  together  by  means  of  fire-proof  glue,  a  silicious 
fire-proofing  material.'  These  cellular  products  in  the  cylindrical 
form  for  pipe  covering,  may  be  formed  with  the  cells  running 
lengthwise  with  the  section  or  circumferentially,  the  latter  being 
the  higher  insulator,  because  each  cell  is  closed  against  the  adjoin- 
ing one,  preventing  the  free  transmission  of  air  and  the  loss  of 
heat  by  radiation. 

Other  Forms  of  Insulation. — There  are  other  common  forms 
of  insulating  materials  made  from  asbestos,  which  are  known  as 
ordinary  moulded  coverings  composed  of  gypsum  or  plaster  of 
paris,  bounded  together  with  fibre.  These,  however,  are  the  older 
and  more  primitive  forms  and  because  of  low  insulating  value  and 
inefficient  mechanical  strength,  when  applied  to  heated  surfaces, 
are  being  abandoned  by  the  engineering  profession. 

Where  a  material  to  be  moulded  on  the  job  is  required,  various 
forms  of  cements  in  dry  form  are  furnished.  These  cements  are 
composed  of  a- percentage  of  asbestos  fibre  of  length  and  quality 
according  to  the  demands  of  the  trade  and  price  which  it  is  desired 
to  pay,  mixed  with  cementitious  fire-proofing  materials,  which  re- 
quire only  the  addition  of  water  and  can  be  applied  and  trowelled 
on  in  much  the  same  manner  as  Portland  cement. 

In  passing  it  might  be  interesting  to  state  that  engineering  au- 
thorities generally  concede  that  one  inch  of  high  grade  asbestos 
pipe  covering  on  150  pounds  steam  pressure  is  capable  of  saving 
approximately  85  per  cent  of  the  loss  caused  by  condensation  as 
compared  with  bare  pipes;  two  inches,  88  per  cent;  three  inches, 
90  per  cent. 

On  superheat,  it  has  been  found  that  a  covering  applied  to  the 
pipes,  consisting  of  rings  of  high  grade  insulation,  three  inches  wide 
on  eighteen  centers,  forming  a  one  inch  air  space,  over  which  are 
superimposed  two  layers,  each  one  inch  thick  of  regular  pipe  cov- 
ering, finished  with  a  thin  coating  of  cement,  has  an  efficiency  of 
88  per  cent  to  90  per  cent. 

Paper  Felt. — There  are  certain  grades  of  the  shorter  fibres  which 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  felts.  These  fibres  are 
mixed  in  a  beater  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  wood  pulp  and 
other  fibres,  passed  over  a  standard  type  of  paper  machine  adapted 
to  the  handling  of  this  particular  fibre  and  made  into  felts  of  thick- 
nesses from  one  one-hundreths  of  an  inch  up  to  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness. 

The  paper  felts  are  used  as  above  described,  in  the  manufacture 
of  cellular  asbestos  insulation  material,  fire-proof  paper  for  lining 
floors,  partitions,  etc.,  of  frame  buildings  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  asbestos  roofings.  The  short  fibres  are  also  mixed  with  certain 
cementitious  materials  and  made  into  asbestos  boards  of  various 
thicknesses  and  density,  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  card- 
board is  made,  on  what  is  known  as  a  board  or  wet  machine. 
These  card-boards  vary  in  thickness  from  one  thirty-second  of  an 
inch  to  one-half  of  an  inch  and  are  used  for  all  forms  of  fire 
proofing,  where  contained  between  other  members  in  construction 
and  no  great  mechanical  strength  is  required. 

Roofing  Material. — As  above  stated,  certain  grades  of  short 
fibres  of  asbestos  are  felted  into  paper,  that  is  afterwards  built 
up  into  asbestos  roofing.  For  this  purpose  a  specially  selected 


ASBESTOS  285 

superior  grade  of  shorter  fibres,  free  from  grit,  is  used;  made  on 
a  regular  paper-making  machine,  into  thin  felts,  which  are  satu- 
rated with  a  bituminous  material. 

For  this  purpose,  the  very  best  results  are  obtained  by  using  a 
natural  asphalt  with  non-volatile  oils  and  it  is  these  two  basic  ma- 
terials on  which  the  great  value  and  durability  of  asbestos  roofing 
depends. 

Asbestos,  as  is  generally  conceded,  is  not  subject  to  rot,  rust 
or  decay;  therefore,  it  possesses  all  of  the  much  desired  require- 
ments for  a  permanent  roofing  felt  and  all  that  it  needs  to  give 
it  an  indeterminate  life  without  cost  of  up-keep,  is  a  proper  water- 
proofing element.  Compounded  asphalts  combined  with  highly 
volatile  oils  while  they  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  asbestos 
roofing,  do  not  make  a  satisfactory  product. 

Asbestos  fibre  is  peculiar  to  itself  in  that  unlike  wool  or  other 
fibres  used  in  roofing  felts,  it  is  non-tubular,  therefore,  it  does  not 
take  the  oil  into  the  fibre  tubes  as  in  the  case  of  organic  fibres, 
but  each  fibre  is  individually  coated  on  the  outside  and  the  mass 
so  amalgamated  that  with  the  natural  asphalt  and  non-volatile  oil, 
the  water-proofing  of  the  roofing  fabric  is  prolonged  indefinitely 
and  is  not  affected  by  the  loss  of  the  water-proofing  element  by 
capillary  attraction  or  the  oxidizing  effects  of  the  sun  and  air, 
which  is  the  case  in  the  ordinary  felt  roofings. 

Asbestos  Lumber. — Certain  grades  of  shorter  fibres  of  asbestos 
have,  of  recent  years,  been  used  very  extensively  in  combination 
with  Portland  of  hydraulic  cements  in  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
proof lumber  and  roofing.  The  fire-proof  lumber  in  the  shape  of 
sheets  in  size  approximately  42"xOj6",  in  all  thicknesses  from  one-' 
eighth  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  the  asbestos  roofing  in  the  form 
of  shingles  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  approximating  the  thick- 
ness of  slate. 

The  most  approved  type  of  manufacturing  these  products,  and 
in  fact,  the  only  manner  in  which  the  most  durable  and  mechanically 
correct  product  of  this  nature  can  be  made,  is  by  mixing  the 
asbestos  fibre  and  the  hydraulic  cement  dry,  pressing  in  form 
presses  under  enormous  hydraulic  pressure,  saturating  with  water, 
in  order  to  give  the  proper  set  to  the  hydraulic  cement  and  re- 
pressing and  trimming  in  order  to  make  an  article  of  commercial 
value. 

The  larger  sheets  of  asbestos  lumber  have  been  largely  used  for 
large  area  roof  coverings  on  steel  and  wooden  roof  structures, 
siding,  etc.,  proofing,  partition  work,  and  while  this  material  has 
not  as  yet  come  into  gerleral  use,  the  enormous  economic  waste 
through  fire  loss  and  the  demand  by  the  public  for  greater  fire  pre- 
vention, coupled  with  the  increased  cost  of  ordinary  lumber,  will 
unquestionably  make  it  a  staple  fire-proofing  material,  where  the 
structural  requirements  permit. 

Asbestos  Shingles. — The  great  fire  hazard  found  in  wooden 
shingles,  and  the  fact  of  the  scarcity  and  increased  cost  of  lumber 
from  which  these  shingles  are  produced,  and  the  weight  and  brittle- 
ness  and  other  points  of  unreliability  of  slate,  has  brought  the 
asbestos  shingle  into  marked  prominence  immediately  upon  its  being 
offered  to  the  public.  The  asbestos  shingle  is  light  in  weight, 
absolutely  fire-proof  and  indestructible. 


\ 

286  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Neither  of  the  materials  used  in  their  makeup,  asbestos  fibre 
and  Portland  cement,  are  in  any  way  affected  by  fire,  temperature 
or  exposure  to  the  elements ;  and  the  asbestos  shingles  will  last 
as  long  as  the  structure  upon  which  they  are  used.  It  is  reasonable 
to  assume  that  their  life  is  indefinite,  and  the  success  with  which 
the  sale  of  these  shingles  has  met  in  the  time  they  have  been  on 
the  market,  warrants  us  in  assuming  that  in  but  very  few  years 
to  come,  they  will  be  the  standard  roof  covering  for  all  types  of 
buildings,  where  slate  and  wooden  shingles  have  heretofore  been 
used. 

It  might  be  interesting  to  state  that  asbestos  shingles  differ  from 
slate  in  that  they  will  withstand  a  very  high  heat  such  as  may 
affect  them  from  neighboring  fires  and  while  hot,  may  be  wet  down 
with  water  without  in  any  way  injuring  them.  Slate,  of  course, 
under  these  conditions,  would  crack  and  wooden  shingles  would 
be  readily  consumed. 

Furnace  Linings. — Asbestos  fibres  are  used  as  bond  with  cer- 
tain hign  temperature  resisting  clays  and  certain  forms  of  graphitic 
carbon,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  linings  for  stoves,  ranges, 
furnaces,  brass  melting  furnaces,  setting  up  of  fire  brick,  etc.,  and 
whereas  fire  clay  even  of  the  very  best  quality  under  high  tem- 
peratures, will  fuse  and  become  brittle  and  lose  its  binding  quali- 
ties, these  asbestos  fire-resisting  cements,  according  to  their  various 
grades  and  ingredients,  will  withstand  temperatures  up  to  3,000 
degrees  and  somewhat  over,  without  in  any  way  being  affected, 
thus  prolonging  the  life  of  the  apparatus  with'  which  they  are 
lined  or  the  brick  construction  where  they  are  used  as  bond. 

These  cements  are  furnished  in  dry  form  for  mixing  with  water 
or  in  plastic  form  all  ready  for  use. 

Certain  forms  of  the  fire-resisting  cements  above  described  are 
capable  of  being  moulded  under  hydraulic  pressure  for  various 
conditions  where  high  temperatures  are  to  be  met,  such  as  carry- 
ing-in  paddles,  bottle  rests  and  many  other  articles  known  to  the 
glass  manufacturing  and  electrical  industries. 

Asbestos  in  this  form  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  glass  manu- 
facturing in  place  of  iron,  because  the  absence  of  any  great  amount 
of  expansion  and  contraction,  as  compared  with  the  great  amount 
of  the  same  in  iron,  does  away  with  the  tendency  found  in  the 
use  of  iron  causing  considerable  breakage  in  handling  hot  glass 
articles. 

These  pieces  are  also  used  in  the  jewelry  trade  for  melting  and 
soldering  purposes. 

Asbestos  fibres  of  different  lengths,  both  long  and  short,  are  used 
in  moulding  pieces  of  innumerable  designs  and  sizes,  where  a 
material  with  considerable  dielectric  strength,  combined  with  fire- 
resisting  qualities  is  required.  The  fibres  are  mixed  with  various 
insulating  compounds,  pressed  in  moulds  into  various  forms  to  be 
used  in  electrical  machinery  or  in  electrical  apparatus,  such  as  con- 
troller linings,  arc  deflectors,  etc.  In  this  field  alone,  asbestos  has 
gone  a  great  ways  to  assist  in  developing  electrical  apparatus  to 
its  modern  high  state  of  perfection. 

Ebonized  Asbestos  Wood. — This  consists  of  boards  made  from 
asbestos  fibre  and  magnesite  cement  in  place  of  the  hydraulic 
cement,  manufactured  and  prepared  for  market  in  exactly  the  same 


ASBESTOS  287 

way  as  the  regular  asbestos  lumber.  Ebonized  asbestos  wood  is 
impregnated  with  a  bituminous  compound  which  renders  it  abso- 
lutely impervious  to  moisture  and  gives  it  an  unusually  high  dielec- 
tric strength. 

It  is  especially  used  in  place  of  slate  and  marble  for  switch 
boards  and  panel  boards  and  it  has  practically  50  per  cent  greater 
dielectric  strength  than  either  slate  or  marble,  and  unlike  these 
two  materials,  it  is  not  brittle  and  easily  broken,  but  has  great 
mechanical  strength  to  withstand  the  shocks  of  transportation  and 
service. 

Some  of  the  largest  power  plants  in  the  states  have  equipped  their 
switchboards  throughout  with  ebonized  asbestos  wood,  with  the 
most  satisfactory  results  in  point  of  saving  in  operation,  the  orig- 
inal cost  being  but  slightly  more  than  slate  or  marble. 

Asbestos  Tape. — Asbestos  paper  in  the  form  of  ribbon  or  tape 
one  one-hundreths  of  an  inch  thick,  together  with  asbestos  yarns, 
is  used  for  the  covering  of  electric  wires  and  cables  in  connection 
with  insulating  compounds,  affording  a  high  electrical  resistance 
with  very  considerable  fire-proof  qualities. 

Thin  woven  asbestos  tape  .010  and  .015  thick,  has  in  the  last  two 
or  three  years  been  produced  for  winding  of  armatures,  etc.,  in 
various  types  of  electrical  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  covering  of 
wires,  cables,  leads,  etc. 

One  very  important  development  of  asbestos  is  in  the  fire-proof 
covering  of  individual  cables  running  from  a  large  power  plant, 
where  a  blow-out  in  one  cable  would  result  in  the  destruction  of 
the  insulation  of  the  cables  next  adjoining.  Here  asbestos  roll 
fire  felt  with  cloth  backing,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  or  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  thick  in  strips  three  inches  wide,  is  wound  spirally 
around  each  cable,  treated  wyith  a  hardening  or  water-proofing 
compound  superficially,  the  purpose  being  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
flames  from  the  blow-out  of  the  cable  to  the  destruction  of  the 
insulation  on  nearby  cables. 

Asbestos  Plaster. — The  very  lowest  grade  of  asbestos  fibre, 
especially  those  which  still  contain  a  large  percentage  of  serpentine 
rock,  has  found  a  very  large  use  in  the  manufacture  of  plaster  for 
interior  as  well  as  exterior  purposes.  There  has  been  an  unusual 
development  of  the  stucco  house  both  on  terra-cotta  blocks  and 
wire  lath  over  wood  boards  in  the  states,  and  while  there  has  long 
been  a  desire  for  this  particularly  attractive  style  of  construction, 
it  was  never  formerly  popular,  because  the  only  available  materials, 
sand  and  Portland  cement,  had  a  tendency  to  crack  and  discolor. 

Asbestos  stucco,  however,  has  overcome  these  objections  and 
thousands  of  tons  are  now  used  throughout  the  country.  In  fact, 
it  has  made  possible  a  durable  stucco  house  of  pleasing  appearance. 
It  is  mixed  with  Portland  cement  water-proofing  material,  in  proper 
quantities,  and  applied  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  any  Portland 
cement  mortar. 

It  has  also  entered  very  largely  into  use  for  the  interior  plastering 
of  the  largest  public  buildings,  and  is  now,  because  of  its  fire-proof 
qualities,  being  generally  recognized  throughout  the  large  cities  as 
a  most  desirable  addition  to  fire-proof  building  materials. 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE 

Concrete  without  reinforcement  is  a  composite  material,  or  arti- 
ficial stone  having  the  structural  virtue  of  resisting  to  a  high 
degree  compression  stresses,  thus  being  generally  used  for  founda- 
tion purposes.  Concrete1  has  no  value  in  resisting  tension  or  pulling 
stresses  unless  it  is  reinforced  or  armoured  with  steel  introduced 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the  compressive  stresses  upon  the 
concrete  itelf  and  the  tensile  stresses  upon  the  imbedded  steel. 

Properly  designed  and  executed  there  is  no  form  of  construc- 
tion which  admits  of  greater  versatility  of  application.  There  is 
hardly  any  class  of  structure  to  which  reinforced  concrete  cannot 
be  applied.  At  the  present  time  reinforced  concrete  cannot  be 
treated  by  the  general  use  of  fixed  formulas  as  standardized  in 
the  use  of  other  structural  materials  such  as  wood  and  steel. 
Although  the  various  concerns  have  formula  covering  the  appli- 
cation of  their  patented  reinforcing  materials,  there  still  remain 
problems  which  can  only  be  properly  solved  by  specialists,  and 
works  of  any  magnitude  should  be  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  one  who  has  had  experience  in  this  field  of  engineering.  The 
requirements  for  the  successful  designing  and  executing  of  rein- 
forced concrete  work  are  numerous ;  in  fact  this  field  of  engineering 
work  is  again  subdivided  into  specialties  involving  different  patented 
systems. 

The  reinforced  concrete  specialist  or  engineer  should  be  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  analysis  of  all  stresses  entering  into 
the  problem  in  order  to  properly  design  the  various  constructive 
members.  He  should  be  familiar  with  the  various  forms  of  patented 
systems  and  their  limitations  in  order  to  make  the  best  selection 
for  the  purpose  intended.  It  is  also  necessary  to  determine  the 
proper  selection  of  the  aggregate  (cement,  sand  and  stone)  avail- 
able at  or  near  the  site  of  the  proposed  construction  work  as  well 
as  making  the  proper  laboratory  tests  of  the  cement,  sand  and 
stone  if  there  is  any  question  relative  to  the  merits  of  the  same 
for  the  work  intended. 

The  success  or  failure  in  reinforced  concrete  construction  is 
largely  a  matter  of  experience,  organization  and  honesty.  Care 
and  skill  must  be  present  in  every  step  in  the  design  and  execu- 
tion of  reinforced  concrete  work.  The  experimental  stage  of 

288 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE  289 

reinforced  concrete  construction  is  over  as  the  strains  and  stresses 
can  be  accurately  figured  and  the  most  intricate  designs  are  readily 
executed;  but  there  still  exists  certain  conditions  in  some  forms 
and  locations  of  structural  members  where  reinforced  concrete  can- 
not economically  replace  these  forms. 

Limitations  of  Reinforced  Concrete. — In  the  application  of 
reinforced  concrete  the  design  of  structures  must  be  positively 
determined,  together  with,  the  arrangement  of  stairways,  elevators, 
pipe  shafts,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  location  of  machinery.  Changes 
are  seldom  practical  when  the  work  is  under  way.  It  is  expensive 
and  difficult  to  cut  out  floor  openings  for  pipes,  etc.  The  appli- 
cation of  reinforced  concrete  for  light  floor  loads  such  as  100  to 
125  pounds  per  square  foot  involves  relatively  high  costs  over  plank 
and  timber  or  steel  construction.  Reinforced  concrete  is  heavier 
than  steel  work  for  supporting  the  same  leads,  hence  a  high  per- 
centage of  dead  to  live  loads. 

Desirable  Features. — Fire  resisting  qualities,  low  insurance  rates, 
freedom  from  vibration  and  repairs,  durability,  increasing  with  age, 
solidity  and  lack  of  joints,  sanitary  value,  good  foundations  for 
delicate  machinery,  or  where  such,  machinery  must  be  kept  in 
alignment;  water  tight  floors  readily  arranged,  large  window  areas 
available,  owing  to  economical  column  and  pier  construction; 
freedom  from  decay  by  infection  of  moisture,  low  competitive  costs 
with  timber — when  used  for  heavy  floor  loads  as  above  200  pounds 
per  square  foot, — conducive  to  cleanliness,  no  harbors  for  vermin, 
versatility  of  application,  suitability  for  heavy  floor  loads,  powerful 
resistance  to  disintegration  by  sudden  cooling,  and  ability  to  sustain 
shock  or  impact.  As  Portland  cement  concrete  and  steel  are  acted 
upon  by  temperature  to  precisely  a  similar  degree,  expanding  and 
contracting  in  a  similar  manner,  the  assembling  of  these  materials 
invproper  combination  enables  reinforced  concrete  to  rank  as  one 
of  the  most  important  of  structural  materials. 

Design. — The  working  compressive  strength  of  concrete  is  about 
500  pounds  per  square  inch;  its  working  tensile  strength  is  about 
50  pounds,  which  is  generally  disregarded  in  design.  The  ratio 
of  modulus  of  elasticity  of  concrete  to  that  of  steel  is  I  to  15 
or  for  the  same  amount  of  compression  a  given  area  of  steel  will 
take  15  times  as  much  load  as  the  same  area  of  concrete.  Steel 
will  take  300  times  as  much  tension  as  concrete. 

The  safe  combination  of  concrete  and  steel  requires  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  the  principles  of  mechanics  with  the  theories 
involved.  As  the  action  of  the  various  stresses  even  in  a  simple 
beam  are  complex,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  just  how  much 


290  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION         , 

of  the  load  the  concrete  or  steel  is  to  carry  as  well  as  the  proper 
distribution  of  the  steel  to  take  'up  every  tensile  strain  which  may 
occur  in  any  part  of  the  beam.  In  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends 
the  tension  or  pull  is  in  the  bottom  and  the  reinforcing  steel 
must  be  as  near  the  bottom  as  is,  consistent  with  rust  and  fire 
protection.  If  such  a  beam  is  built  into  a  column  or  into  another 
beam,  a  load  upon  it  will  produce  a  tensile  strain  at  the  top  of 
the ,  beam  over  its  supports  which  will  tend  to  crack  it  there,  and 
in  addition  there  are  secondary  stresses  in  the  interior  of  the  beam ; 
partly  shear  or  tendency  to  slide  and  partly  tension  or  pulling. 
All  such  stresses  must  be  taken  up  by  the  reinforcing  metal  which 
must  be  properly  calculated  and  placed  in  the  correct  position. 

i  Materials 

Cement. — In  reinforced  concrete,  Portland  cement  is  the  only 
safe  material  to  use,  and  only  such  cement  should  be  approved 
as  meets  the  tests  specified  by  the  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials  and  the  rules  adopted  by  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers.  Portland  cement  is  much  stronger  than  natural  cemerit, 
more  reliable  and  hardens  more  rapidly. 

The  average  chemical  analysis  of  Portland  cement  is  as  follows : 
Carbonate  of  lime  62%,  silica  22%,  alumina  8%,  oxide  of  iron 
3%,  magnesia  2%,  sulphuric  acid  J^4%.  It  is  advisable  to  select 
only  such  brands  of  cement  as  bear  a  good  reputation,  and  as  a 
further  safeguard,  samples  should  be  taken  from  every  fortieth 
sack  in  bulk  shipments. 

Sand. — The  strongest  mortar  is  made  with  sand  passing  a 
No.  20  sieve  and  resting  on  a  No.  30  sieve.  Sand  of  proper  grade 
and  quality  is  just  as  necessary  as  the  proper  cement  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  results.  It  is  advisable  to  test  the  various  sands 
to  find  which  one  has  the  greatest  compactness. 

Silicians  and  calcareous  varieties  of  sand  are  the  best.  Bank 
pit  sand  is  preferable  to  shore  sand  as"  it  has  sharper  edges  which 
make  a  better  bond  with  the  'cement  than  the  smooth  round  grains 
of  shore  sand.  A  mixture  of  varying  size  grains  of  sand  yields 
a  stronger  mortar  than  sand  of  uniform  grain,  whether  coarse  or 
fine.  Mortar  with  fine  sand  requires  twice  the  quantity  of  cement 
to  obtain  a  given  strength  as  when  coarse  sand  is  used.  Coarse 
sand  even  to  the  finer  gravels  are  used  bv  the  best  concrete  engi- 
neers. Argillaceous  sand  should  not  be  used;  the  presence  of 
organic  matter  and  other  impurities  is  detrimental  to  any  sand  for 
structural  purposes. 

The  ideal  or  dense  mixture  is  where  all  the  spaces  between  the 


RK  IN  FORCED  CONCRETE  291 

stone   or   gravel   are   filled   with    sand   and   all   the   spaces   between 
the  different  particles  of  sand  are  filled  with  cement. 

The  amount  of  cement  and  sand  to  make  a  unit  volume  of  mortar 
should  be  determined.  Mortar  dropped  from  a  trowel  should  leave 
it  perfectly  clear.  It  should  be  readily  moulded  into  a  ball  and  if 
dropped  20  inches  should  retain  its  rounded  shape  without  cracking. 

Gravel. — Gravel  is  equal  to  trap  rock  for  strength,  but  as  it 
spalls  off  under  intense  heat  should  be  preferably  used  in  founda- 
tions where  it  would  not  be  affected  by  fire.  The  gravel  should 
be  absolutely  clean  and  well  screened. 

Stone. — Stone  should  pass  a  ^4  mcn  ring  for  all  work  above 
foundations  and  not  over  a  \y2  inch  ring  for  foundation  work. 
Only  such  hard  durable  rock  as  trap,  limestone,  or  granite  should 
be  used.  While  sandstone  makes  a  good  concrete,  the  strength  is 
variable  and  it  should  only  be  used  in  connection  with  the  lowest 
strength  shown  by  testing.  The  stone  should  be  free  of  dust  and 
deleterious  matter. 

Water. — The  water  used  in  mixing  concrete  should  be  free  from 
Dcids  or  strong  alkalies. 

Steel. — When  the  elastic  limit  of  the  reinforcing  metal  is  passed, 
'providing  all  other  stresses  are  proportionately  taken  care  of,  the 
concrete  beam  fails ; — for  conservative  practice  a  tensile  strength 
of  60,000  pounds ;  an  elastic  limit  of  from  30,000  to  40,000  pounds ; 
an  elongation  of  2%  in  8  inches,  and  bending  cold  180  degrees 
without  fracture,  are  considered  fair  requirements  of  steel. 

The  various  patented  bars  have  elastic  limits  from  30,000  to 
60,000  pounds,  and  ultimate  strength  from  60,000  to  100,000  pounds. 

Ordinary  working  stresses  range  from  15,000  to  22,000  pounds  per 
square  inch  in  tension,  and  from  10,000  to  12,000  pounds  for  shear. 

The  cross  bands,  distribution  of  stresses  and  of  the  reinforcing 
metal  itself  varies  in  accordance  with  the  type  of  system  used. 
The  best  engineers  figure  plain  round  rods  should  not  be  used 
when  the  fibre  stress  exceeds  10,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  as 
there  is  danger  from  the  adhesion  being  destroyed  by  the  rods 
slipping.  Square  bars  should  not  be  used  where  the  fibre  stress  is 
over  12,000  pounds. 

Medium  steel  having  a  high  elastic  limit  is  favored  by  many 
engineers,  as  the  elastic  limit  of  the  steel  governs  the  steel  stresses 
used  in  the  design  of  reinforced  concrete. 

Medium  steel  deformed  cold  increases  the  elastic  limit  and  ulti- 
mate strength.  At  the  same  time  the  initial  qualities  of  the  steel 
are  preserved  without  the  steel  becoming  brittle. 

While   high   carbon    steel   has   a   much   higher   yield   point   than 


292 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


mild  steel,  brittleness  should  be  considered,  and  only  well  melted 
and  rolled  steel  free  from  impurities,  such  as  phosphorus,  should 
be  used*  If  a  good  grade  of  high  carbon  steel,  where  the  carbon 
ranges  from  .45  to  .60%,  is  used  in  reinforced  concrete  work  the 
danger  from  shock  is  remote,  but  to  insure  such  safety  rigid 
specifications  should  be  followed. 

Proportions  of  Materials. — In  building  construction,  the  gen- 
eral .rule  for  proportioning  the  materials  is  as  follows :  i  part 
cement,  2  parts  sand,  4  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel,  or  what  is 
known  as  a  i  :2  14  mixture. 

Concrete  for  reinforced  footings  is  often  made  of  a  mixture  of 
i  part  cement,  2^  part  sand  to  5  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel. 
Concrete  for  foundations  which  do  not  require  reinforcement  and 
sustain  direct  compression  is  often  made  of  'i  part  cement,  3  parts 
sand  to  6  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel. 

The  richer  the  mixture,  the  greater  the  compressive  strength. 
The  greater  the  impermeability,  the  greater  the  change  in  volume. 

ULTIMATE  COMPRESSIVE  STRENGTH  AND  FIBRE  STRESSES  OF  DIFFERENT 

CONCRETES 


Factor 

Material 

Mixture 

Ultimate  Strength 

Fibre  Stress 

of 

Safety 

Trap  rock 

Granite  

1-2-4 

2,500  lbs.-3,000  Ibs. 

625  lbs.-750  Ibs. 

3 

Gravel 

1-3-5 

1,800  lbs.-2,000  Ibs. 

450  lbs.-500  Ibs. 

4 

Limestone  

Sandstone  | 

1-2-4 
1-3-5 

1,400  lbs.-l,800  Ibs. 
1,100  lbs.-l,500  Ibs. 

280  lbs.-360  Ibs. 
220  Ibs.  -300  Ibs. 

5 
5 

See   also   abstract   from   the    National  (Board    Building    Code, 
given  hereinafter  on  page  327. 


NATIONAL  BOARD   BUILDING  CODE 

The  following  definitions  and  specifications  are  taken  from  the 
Model  Building  Code  prepared  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters;  the  same  section  numbers  have  been  retained  as  in 
the  code  and  where  reference  is  made  to  a  section,  it  will  be  found 
herein,  either  under  this  general  heading,  pages  293  to  349,  or 
under  the  chapter  on  Fire  Protection  for  People  in  Buildings, 
pages  465  and  483.  All  illustrations  and  diagrams  are  repro- 
duced from  the  original  cuts  by  permission  of  the  National 
Board. 

Definitions 

AREAWAY. — An  open  sub-surface  space  adjacent  to  a  building  for  lighting 
or  ventilating  cellars  or  basements. 

AREA  OF  A  BUILDING. — The  area  of  the  horizontal  cross-section  at  the 
ground  level  measured  to  the  center  of  party  walls  or  fire  walls,  and  to  the 
outside  of  other  walls. 

BASEMENT. — A  story  partly  but  not  more  than  one-half  below  the  level  of 
the  curb. 

BEARING  WALL. — A  wall  which  supports  any  load  other  than  its  own  weight. 

BULKHEAD  OR  PENT  HOUSE. — A  structure  erected  on  the  roof  of  a  building 
for  the  purpose  of  enclosing  stairways  to  the  roof,  elevator  machinery,  water 
tanks,  ventilating  apparatus,  exhaust  chambers  or  other  building  equipment 
machinery  and  for  janitor's  quarters.  When  used  only  for  the  above  men- 
tioned purposes,  such  structures  need  not  be  considered  in  determining  the 
height  of  the  building. 

CELLAR. — A  story  whose  height  is  more  than  one-half  below  the  level  of 
the  curb.  It  shall  not  be  counted  as  a  story  in  determining  the  height  of 
a  building. 

CEMENT  PLASTER. — A  plaster  composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement,  not 
more  than  three  parts  sand,  and  not  more  than  10  per  cent  by  vclume  of 
hydrated  lime,  with  hair  or  other  binder  when  necessary. 

CEMENT-TEMPERED  PLASTER. — A  lime  or  gypsum  plaster  tempered  with  not 
less  than  20  per  cent  of  Portland  cement. 

CURTAIN  WALL. — Any  exterior  non-bearing  wall  between  columns  or  piers, 
which  is  not  supported  by  beams  or  girders  at  each  story. 

DEAD  LOAD. — The  weight  of  the  walls,  framing,  floors,  roofs,  tanks  with 
their  contents,  and  all  permanent  construction. 

DIVISION   WALL. — Any  interior  wall  in  a  building. 

DWELLING. — A  residence  building,  designed  for,  or  used  as,  the  home  or 
residence  of  not  more  than  two  separate  and  distinct  families. 

ENCLOSURE  WALL.— See  Panel  Wall. 

EXTERIOR  WALL. — Any  outside  wall,  or  vertical  enclosure  of  a  building, 
other  than  a  party  wall. 

FACTORY. — A  building  or  portion  thereof,  designed  or  used  to  manufacture 
or  assemble  goods,  wares,  or  merchandise,  the  work  being  performed  wholly, 
or  principally  by  machinery. 

2Q3 


294  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

FIBRE  PLASTER  BOARD. — A  board  consisting  of  an  intimate  mixture  of 
gypsum  plaster  composition  and  a  fibrous  binding  material. 

FIRE  DOOR. — A  door,  frame,  and  sill  which  will  successfully  resist  a  fire 
for  one  hour  in  accordance  with  test  specifications,  and  has  been  approved 
upon  such  test. 

FIRE  EXIT  PARTITION. — A  sub-dividing  partition  built  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  life  by  providing  an  area  of  refuge. 

FIREPROOF. — Refers  to  materials  or  construction  not  combustible  in  the 
temperatures  of  ordinary  fires,  and  which  will  withstand  such  fires  without 
serious  impairment  of  their  usefulness  for  at  least  one  hour. 

NOTE. — It  is  recognized  that  the  term  "  fireproof  "  is  misleading  and  should 
be  abandoned  for  the  more  correct  term  "  fire-resistive;"  but  until  the  latrer 
term  has  been  authoritatively  defined  in  a  manner  expressive  of  its  elastic 
interpretation,  it  seems  advisable  to  continue  the  use  of  the  more  common 
though  objectionable  word. 

FIRE  SHUTTER. — A  shutter  which  will  successfully  -  resist  a  fire  for  one 
hour  in  accordance  with  test  specifications,  and  has  been  approved  upon 
such  test. 

FIRE  WALL. — A  wall  built  for  the  purpose  of  restricting  the  area  subject 
to  the  spread  of  fire. 

FIRE  WINDOW. — A  window  frame,  sash,  and  glazing  which  will  successfully 
resist  a  fire  for  one  hour  in  accordance  with  test  specifications,  and  has 
been  approved  upon  such  test.  No  single  pane  in  a  fire  window  shall  exceed 
720  square  inches. 

FOUNDATION  WALL. — Any  wall  or  pier  built  below  the  curb  level  or  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  level. 

GYPSUM  BLOCK. — The  term  "  gypsum  block  "  shall  include  tile  or  blocks 
composed  of  gypsum  and  not  to  exceed.  5  per  cent  by  weight  of  combustible 
fibre  binding  material;  or  a  mixture  of  crushed  cinders  and  gypsum,  com- 
monly called  "  cinder-plaster  blocks." 

HEIGHT  OF  A  BUILDING. — The  vertical  distance  from  the  curb  level  to  the 
top  of  the  highest  point  of  the  roof  beams  in  the  case  of  flat  roofs,  or  to 
the  average  height  of  the  gable  4in  the  case  of  roofs  having  a  pitch  of  more 
than  20  degrees  with  a  horizontal  plane.  When  a  building  faces  two  or 
more  streets  having  different  grades,  the  measurement  shall  be  taken  at  the 
middle  of  a  facade  on  the  street  having  the  greatest  grade.  When  a  building 
does  not  adjoin  the  street,  the  measurement  shall  be  taken  from  th?  average 
level  of  the  ground  adjoining  such  building.  In  measuring  the  height  of  a 
wall,  the  height  of  the  parapet  above  the  top  of  the  roof  beams  shall  not 
be  included. 

HOTEL. — Any  building  or  portion  thereof,  designed  or  used  for  supplying 
food  or  shelter  to  residents  or  guests,  and  containing  more  than  fifteen 
sleeping  rooms  above  the  first  story. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE. — Materials  or  construction  which  will  not  ignite  pnd  burn 
when  subjected  to  fire. 

LENGTH    OF    A    BUILDING. — Its    greatest    horizontal    dimension. 

LIVE  LOAD. — All  loads  other  than  dead  loads.  All  partitions  which  are 
subject  to  removal  or  rearrangement  shall  be  considered  as  live  load. 

NON-BEARING  WALL. — One  which  supports  no  load  other  than  its  own 
weight. 

OFFICE  BUILDING. — One  used  for  professional  or  clerical  purposes,  but 
not  for  manufacturing,  storage,  or  sale  ,  of  goods  except  by  sample;  also 
excepting  the  first  story  which  may  be  used  for  commercial  purposes.  No 
part  of  such  building  shall  be  used  for  living  purposes  except  by  the  janitor's 
family. 

f 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  295 

OUTHOUSES. — All  structures  not  exceeding  8  feet  in  height,  nor  more  than 
150  square  feet  in  area,  exclusive  of  sheds. 

PANEL  OR  ENCLOSURE  WALL. — An  exterior  non-bearing  wall  in  a  skeleton 
structure  built  between  columns  or  piers  and  supported  at  each  story. 

PARAPET  WALL. — That  portion  of  any  wall  which  extends  above  the  roof 
line  and  bears  no  load  except  as  it  may  serve  to  support  a  tank. 

PARTY  WALL. — A  wall  used  or  adapted  for  joint  service  between  two 
buildings. 

PUBLIC  HALLWAY. — A  hall,  corridor  or  passageway  used  in  common  by 
the  occupants  of  a  building  and  serving  as  a  means  of  communication  for 
the  public  between  an  entrance  to  any  story  of  a  building,  and  the  various 
rooms,  apartments  or  spaces  in  that  story. 

RETAINING  WALL. — One  constructed  to  support  a  body  of  earth  or  to  resist 
lateral  thrust. 

SHED. — A  roofed  structure,  open  on  one  or  more  sides,  which  does  not 
exceed  15  feet  in  height  nor  more  than  500  square  feet  in  area. 

SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION. — A  form  of  building  construction  wherein  all 
external  and  internal  loads  and  stresses  are  transmitted  to  the  foundations 
by  a  rigidly  connected  framework  of  metal  or  reinforced  concrete.  The 
enclosing  walls  are  supported  by  girders  at  each  story. 

SKYLIGHT. — Any  cover  or  enclosure  placed  above  roof  openings  for  the 
admission  of  light. 

STORY. — That  part  of  any  building  comprised  between  any  floor  and  the 
floor  or  roof  next  above.  In  case  any  floor  or  the  combined  area  of  floors 
at  any  one  level  extends  over  less  than  20  per  cent  of  the  horizontal  area 
included  within  the  outside  walls  at  that  level,  the  same  shall  not  be  con- 
sidered as  a  floor  for  the  purpose  of  determining  story  heights. 

STRUCTURE. — Includes  the  terms  building,  appurtenance,  wall,  platform, 
staging,  or  flooring  used  for  standing  or  seating  purposes;  a  shed,  fence, 
sign,  or  billboard  on  public  or  private  property,  or  on,  above  or  below  a 
public  highway. 

WAREHOUSE. — A  building  or  portion  thereof,  designed  or  used  for  the 
storage  of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise. 

WIDTH  OF  A  BUILDING. — The  horizontal  dimension  next  in  value  to  the 
length. 

WIRED  GLASS. — Glass  not  less  than  14  inch  thick  enclosing  a  layer  of 
wire  fabric  reinforcement  having  a  mesh  not  larger  than  %  inch,  and  the 
size  of  wire  not  smaller  than  No.  24  B.  and  S.  gauge. 

WORKSHOP. — A  building  or  room  in  which  articles  of  merchandise  are 
manufactured  or  repaired  wholly  or  principally  by  hand. 

Classification  of  Buildings 

I'RAME  CONSTRUCTION. — A  building  having  the  exterior  walls  or  portions 
thereof  of  wood;  also  a  building  with  wooden  framework  veneered  with  brick, 
stone,  terra  cotta,  or  concrete;  or  covered  with  plaster,  stucco,  .or  sheet 
metal,  shall  be  classed  as  a  frame  building. 

NON-FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION. — The  term  "  Non-Fireproof  Construction  " 
shall  apply  to  all  buildings  or  structures  having  exterior  masonry  walls  with 
floors  and  other  interior  construction  wholly  or  in  part  of  wood. 

(a)  Ordinary    Construction. — A    building   having    masonry    walls,    with    floors 
and  partitions   of   wooden   joist   and   stud   construction.      The   supporting  posts 
and    girders    may    be    of    wood,    or    of   metal    protected. 

(b)  Mill    Construction.— (Sometimes    called    "  Slow-burning    Construction.") 
A    building    having    masonry    walls,    and    heavy    timber    interior    construction. 


296  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION. — Buildings  of  masonry,  steel,  or  reinforced  con- 
crete construction  in  accordance  with  Sections  no  to  173,  shall  be  considered 
fireproof.  1 

Class  A. — Armories,  Asylums,  Bath  Houses  (with  sleeping  accommodations 
other  than  those  required  for  janitor),  City  Halls,  Colleges,  Court  Houses, 
Detention  Buildings,  Police  Stations,  Hospitals,  Libraries,  Museums,  Nurseries, 
Railway  Passenger  Stations,  Schools,  and  Theatres. 

Buildings  of  this  class  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction,  except  that 
schools  in  which  no  pupils  are  accommodated  above  the  second  story  may  be 
of  non-fireproof  construction. 

Where  armories,  railway  passenger  stations,  museums  and  similar  build- 
ings have  large  arched  exposed  roof  construction,  the  fireproofing  of  the 
structural  members  of  these  roofs  may  be  omitted  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Superintendent,  the  construction  of  the  remainder  of  the  building  would 
reasonably  warrant  such  omission. 

Class  B.— Amusement  Halls,  Churches,  Exhibition  Buildings,  Lodge  Rooms, 
and  Public  Halls. 

All '  buildings  of  this  class  shall  have  the  floor  over  cellar  or  basement 
which  is  nearest  to  grade  level  of  fireproof  construction. 

Buildings  of  this  class  over  three  stories,  or  40  feet  high,  shall  be  of 
fireproof  construction  throughout,  except  that  church  spires  need  not  be 
fireproof  until  they  exceed  75  feet  in  height. 

Every  permanent  structure  intended  for  the  seating  or  accommodation 
of  the  public,  commonly  known  as  grandstands,  erected  within  the  fire 
limits,  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction,  except  that  the  seats  may  be  of  wood, 
and  the  structural  steel  work  may  be  unprotected.  When  portions  of  such 
structures  are  enclosed,  the  enclosing  construction  shall  be  fireproof. 

Class  C. — Bachelor  Apartments,  Club  Houses,  and  Studios  with  more  than 
15  sleeping  rooms,  Dormitories,  Hotels  and  Lodging  Houses. 

Buildings  of  this  class  when  permitted  of  frame  construction  shall  not 
exceed  two  stories  or  30  feet  in  height. 

AH'  buildings  of  this  class  three  stories  in  height  shall  have  the  floor  over 
cellar  or  basement  which  is  nearest  to  grade  level  of  fireproof  construction. 

Buildings  of  this  class  over  three  stories  or  40  feet  high,  shall  be  of 
fireproof  construction  throughout. 

Class  D. — Dwellings,  Tenement  Houses,  and  all  other  Residence  Buildings 
not  specified  in  Class  C. 

Buildings  of  this  class  over  three  stories,  or  40  feet  high,  shall  have  the 
floor  over  cellar  or  basement  which  is  nearest  to  grade  level  of  fireproof 
construction. 

Buildings  of  this  class  over  four  stories,  or  55  feet  high,  shall  be  of 
fireprdof  construction  throughout. 

When  the  lower  stories  or  portions  thereof  in  non-fireproof  buildings  of 
Classes  C  and  D  are  occupied  for  business  purposes,  the  construction  shall 
be  made  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  Section  98. 

Frame    buildings,    Sec.     187-192. 

Class  E. — Factories,  Lofts,  Office  Buildings,  Printing  Houses,  Restaurants, 
Stables,  Stores,  Warehouses,  and  Workshops. 

Buildings  of  this  class  of  ordinary  construction  over  two  stories,  or  30 
feet  high,  shall  have  the  floor  over  the  lowest  story  of  fireproof  construction; 
buildings  of  this  class  over  four  stories,  or  55  feet  high,  shall  be  of  fire- 
proof construction  throughout,  or  of  mill  construction.  Mill  construction 
buildings  shall  not  exceed  65  feet  in  height. 

Class  F. — Car  Barns,  Foundries,  Light  and  Power  Plants,  Railroad  Freight 
Stations.  Ice  Houses;  also  Special  Industry  Buildings,  constructed  and  occu- 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  297 

pied  exclusively  for  a  special  purpose  or  industry  and  not  otherwise  classified, 
such  as  Coffee  Roasters,  Dry  Cleaning  Establishments,  Grain  Elevators,  Ice- 
Making  Plants,  Laboratories,  Malt  Houses,  Oil  Houses,  Oil  Refineries, 
Refrigerating  Plants,  Rendering  Plants,  Soap  Factories,  Sugar  Refineries, 
Smoke  Houses,  Slaughter  Houses,  Wharf  Buildings,  also  Garages  accom- 
modating more  than  three  cars,  or  in  which  cars  are  stored  on  more  than 
.  one  floor. 

Buildings  of  this  class,  such  as  garages  (as  herein  defined),  oil  houses, 
oil  refineries,  rendering  plants,  smoke  houses,  varnish  works,  etc.,  and  build- 
ings or  portions  of  buildings  which  are  used  for  the  storage  or  handling  of 
large  quantities  of  combustible  packing  or  refuse  material,  shall  be  only  of 
fireproof  construction.  All  other  buildings  of  Class  F  shall  be  of  fireproof 
or  mill  construction  if  within  the  fire  limits  or  if  they  exceed  55  feet  in 
height 

Height    of    mill    construction,    Sec.    37. 

Buildings  of  Class  F,  whether  of  fireproof  construction  and  within  the 
fire  limits,  or  of  non-fireproof  construction  and  outside  the  fire  limits,  shall 
only  be  erected  in  such  isolated  localities  and  under  such  conditions  as  are 
approved  by  the  Superintendent  of  Building  Construction. 

Walls 

SECTION  27.  PANEL  OR  ENCLOSURE  WALLS  FOR  SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION. — 
In  skeleton  construction  the  panel  walls  shall  be  supported  by  girders  at  each 
floor  level,  and  if  of  brick,  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick,  laid  in 
cement  mortar.  When  the  vertical  distance  between  supporting  girders 
exceeds  15  feet  the  thickness  of  the  wall  shall  be  increased  4  inches  for 
each  15  feet  or  fraction  thereof  that  the  said  vertical  distance  exceeds  15 
feet.  Such  walls  shall  be  of  brick,  stone,  or  gravel  concrete,  or  hard  burned 
terra  cotta. 

Reinforced  concrete  walls,   Sec.    147. 

Terra  cotta  in  skeleton  construction,  Sec.   31,  par.   7. 

SECTION  28.  CURTAIN  WALLS. — Curtain  walls  over  three  stories  or  50 
feet  in  height  shall  be  laid  in  cement  mortar,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  12 
inches  thick  for  the  uppermost  50  feet  thereof,  or  nearest  tier  of  beams  to 
that  height,  and  increased  4  inches  for  every  additional  section  of  three 
stories  or  45  feet,  or  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height.  When  such 
walls  are  used,  the  foundation,  of  the  buildings  shall  be  so  designed  that  the 
load  from  the  columns  and  the  load  of  the  walls  are  carried  together.  Cur- 
tain walls  shall  be  anchored  to  the  steel  framing  at  each  floor  level,  the 
anchors  Eeing  spaced  not  further  apart  than  6  feet  horizontally.  See  4  and  5, 
Figure  22. 

SECTION  29.  FIRE  WALLS. — i.  Fire  walls  shall  be  built  of  brick  laid  in 
Portland  cement,  mortar,  or  of  reinforced  concrete.  In  fireproof  buildings, 
brick  fire  walls  supported  by  girders  at  each  story,  may  be  12  inches  thick 
throughout.  In  none-fireproof  buildings,  brick  fire  walls  which  do  not  serve 
as  bearing  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  in  the  upper  four 
stories  or  upper  50  feet,  increasing  4  inches  in  thickness  for  each  two  stories 
or  fraction  thereof  below.  See  Fig.  21.  No  such  two-story  increment  shall 
exceed  30  feet  in  height.  In  frame  buildings  used  for  manufacturing  or 
commercial  purposes,  and  not  exceeding  two  stories  or  30  feet  in  height, 
non-bearing  fire  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick. 

2.  Every  opening  in  a  fire  wall  or  a  party  wall,  shall  be  protected  on  each 
side  of  the  wall  by  an  approved  automatic  fire  door.  No  opening  in  any 
such  wall  shall  exceed  80  square  feet  in  area,  except  that  by  written  per- 


298 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


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mission  of  the  Superintendent,  a  larger  opening  may  be  had  upon  the  ground 
floor  only;  but  special  precautions  shall  be  taken,  to  protect  such  opening, 
and  in  no  case  shall  the  total  width  of  openings  in  any  one  story,  other 
than  the  first  story,  exceed  25  per  cent  in  linear  length  of  the  wall.  Fire 
and  party  walls  shall  be  continuous  from  foundation  to  3  feet  above  roof 
level  and  be  coped,  except  that  such  walls  in  fireproof  buildings  need  not 
extend  above  the  top  of  the  roof  beams. 

3.  When   three  or  more   buildings   used   for  stores,   factories   or  warehouses; 
communicate    by    openings    through    separating    fire    walls,    the    openings    shall 
be    protected   by   double    fire    doors,   and   each   building   shall    also    be    provided 
with   a   system   of   approved   automatic   sprinklers. 

NOTE. — The  great  value  of  solid  walls  in  restricting  the  spread  of  fire 
is  so  well  known,  argument  should  be  unnecessary  to  insure  their  use 
wherever  suitable.  A  fireproof  factory  or  warehouse  with  properly  restricted 
areas  between  fire  walls,  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers,  and  having 
proper  protection  to  vertical  openings  arid  windows,  would  be  practically 
impossible  to  burn.  The  truth  of  this  statement  has  been  demonstrated 
many  times.  The  folly  of  building  otherwise  is  a  sel^evident  verity. 

Fire  walls  are  as  useful  in  protecting  school  buildings,  hospitals,  hotels, 
state  and  county  buildings,  large  residence  buildings,  and  in  fact  any  building 
having  considerable  area,  as  they  are  in  other  types  of  buildings.  In  such 
public  buildings  where  numerous  people  are  housed,  many  of  whom  may 
be  invalids  or  infirm,  the  life  saving  features  of  properly  constructed  nre 
exits  through  fire  walls,  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  additional  expense  of 
such  cut-offs  is  slight,  and  neither  the  architectural  effects,  nor  the"  utility 
of  the  building,  need  be  affected  by  their  introdviction.  Necessary  openings 
in  such  walls  when  not  large,  can  be  efficiently  protected  by  fire  doors  as 
artistic  in  finish  as  ordinary  doors.  It  is  no  longer  necessary  to  be  restricted 
to  the  unsightly  tin  clad  fire  door  for  such  use. 

4.  If  an   opening  in  a  fire  wall  is  made  to  serve  as  an  emergency  or  hori- 
zontal  exit,   and   is   included   in   the   calculations    for   exits,   it   shall   not   exceed 
48   square    feet   in   area,   and   a   self-closing   fire   door   shall    be    substituted    for 
one   of  the   automatic  fire   doors.      The   automatic   door   shall  be   controlled   by 
an   approved  automatic  door   release  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

NOTE. — A  self-closing  fire  door  is  one  which  is  normally  kept  in  a  closed 
position  by  some  mechanical  device. 

An  automatic  fire  door  is  one  which  is  arranged  to  close  when  released 
by  the  action  of  heat. 

Self-closing  fire  doors  used  on  exit  openings  in  fire  walls,  should  have  a 
standard  of  quality  at  least  equal  that  required  for  stairway  doors.  Such 
doors  are  intended  to  prevent  the  passage  of  smoke  through  the  opening, 
which  might  under  certain  conditions,  render  an  adjoining  floor  area  unten- 
able before  the  heat  would  be  sufficient  to  close  the  automatic  door.  For 
this  reason  the  self-closing  door  should  never  be  allowed  to  be.  held  open 
mechanically  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time  when  strictly  necessary 
for  transporting  goods  through  the  doorway  or  for  similar  service.  Under 
no  circumstances  should  it  be  held  open  by  a  mechanical  device  other  than 
one  which  contains  a  fusible  link  as  an  integral  part.  Such  device  shall 
be  attached  at  the  top  of  the  door. 

If  other  openings  in  a  fire  wall  communicate  directly  with  an  area  of 
refuge  included  in  the  calculations  for  exits  and  protected  by  a  self-closing 
fire  door  as  above  described,  the  automatic  fire  doors  protecting  such  openings 
should  be  kept  closed*  at  all  times  except  foi;  short  periods  when  strictly 
necessary  for  the  transportation  of  goods. 

Horizontal    exits,    as    emergency    exits,    Sec.    46,    par.    2,    (c). 

SECTION  30.  PARAPET  WALLS. — All  exterior  or  party  walls  over  20  feet 
'high,  except  where  such  walls  are  finished  as  cornices,  gutters,  01  crown 
mouldings,  excepting  also  the  walls  of  detached  dwellings  with  peaked  or 
hipped  roofs,  shall  be  furnished  with  parapets.  Parapet  walls  shall  be  the 
full  thickness  of  the  top  story  walls  and  shall  project  at  least  3  feet  above 


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NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  301 

the  roof  at  all  points,  except  that  on  dwellings  the  parapets  may  be  reduced 
to  2  feet.  All  parapet  walls  shall  be  coped  with  approved  durable  material. 

Parapets    on    fire    walls,    Sec.    29,    par.    2. 

SECTION  31.  HOLLOW  BUILDING  BLOCK  WALLS. — i.  Hollow  building  blocks 
of  hard  burned  terra  cotta  or  of  concrete,  may  be  used  for  all  walls  except 
party  and  fire  walls  of  buildings  not  exceeding  three  stories  or  40  feet  in 
height,  provided  that  such  blocks  have  met  the  test  requirements  of  Section 
58,  and  are  not  stressed  beyond  the  safe  limits  therein  prescribed.  The 
minimum  thickness  of  such  walls  shall  be  as  required  for  brick  waits. 

Hollow   blocks   for  skeleton   construction,    par.    7. 

Building    block    defined,    Sec.    58,    par.    i. 

2.  Concrete  blocks  shall  not  be  used  in  construction  until  they  have  attained 
an  age  of  28  days,  nor  until  they  have  developed  the   required  test   strength. 
All   building  blocks   shall   be   laid   in   Portland   cement   mortar. 

3.  If  a  wail    be    built   of  blocks   laid   with   the   cells   horizontal,    which    were 
designed   to    be    normally    laid   with    the    cells   vertical,    or   if   band   courses   of 
such    blocks    with    cells    horizontal    be    laid    in    a    wall    otherwise    built    of    the 
same  blocks  with  the   cells  vertical,   the   carrying  capacity   of   such   walls  shall 
be  calculated  from  the  strength  of  the  blocks  tested  with  their  cells  horizontal. 

Test  requirements   for  hollow   building   blocks,   Sec.    58. 

4.  Hollow    terra    cotta    blocks    in    exterior    walls    shall   be    either    extra    hard 
burned  or  be  veneered  with  brick,  architectural  terra  cotta,  or  stone,  securely 
bonded   and   set  as   provided   in    Section   21,   paragraph   8,    or   the    blocks   shall 
be  covered   on  the  exposed  surface  with  at   least   %   inch  of  Portland  cement 
stucco;   such  blocks  shall  be   well  scored,   grooved   or   roughened  to   retain  the 
coating.     The  stucco  shall  not  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the   required  thick- 
ness of  the  wall. 

5.  When  hollow  block  walls,  laid  with  cells  vertical,  are  decreased  in  thick- 
ness,  the   blocks   in   the    top   course   of  the    thicker   wall   shall  be   filled   solidly 
with   concrete,    or   the    exposed   openings    in   such    top    course   may   be   covered 
with  slabs  of  hard  burned  terra  cotta  or  concrete  at  least  i   inch  in  thickness. 
Terra  cotta,  concrete  or  metal  slabs  or  templates  of  approved  size  and  thick- 
ness  shall   be   placed   under   all    floor   beams   and    girders    as   bearing   plates    in 
order    that    the    allowable    working    stresses    shall    not    be    exceeded. 

Hollow  blocks  filled  with  concrete,   Sec.  58,  par.  8. 

6.  Building  blocks  shall  be  so  laid  that  the   shells  and  webs  shall  be  super- 
posed upon  the  shells  or  webs  of  the   adjacent  block  or  blocks  below. 

7.  Hollow   blocks   when   used   to    form   lintels,    which   are   not   keyed   arches, 
shall  be   reinforced  with  steel  rods,  and  be  filled  solidly  with  concrete.      Such 
lintels   shall   be   designed   in   accordance    with   the    unit    stresses    and    other    re- 
quirements   for    reinforced    concrete    as    required    in    Section    117,    etc. 

8.  Except    for   party    or   fire    walls,    hard   burned    terra   cotta   blocks   may   be1 
used    for   walls   of   skeleton   construction    having   a   height   not   exceeding    four 
stories  or  55  feet.     The  thickness  shall  be  the  same  as  required  for  brick  walls. 

Terra  cotta  blocks  faced  with  brick  bonded  in  the  manner  specified  in  the 
last  half  of  paragraph  8,  Section  21,  may  be  used  for  walls  of  skeleton  con- 
struction to  a  height  of  10  stories  or  125  feet. 

XOTE. — It  is  recommended  that  hollow  building  blocks  having  shells  or 
webs  one  inch  or  less  in  thickness,  which  are  laid  with  cells  vertical  in 
walls  which  have  unusual  length  or  height  between  supports,  or  which  are 
liable  to  be  subjected  to  stresses  which  would  make  them  unstable,  shall 
be  reinforced  by  interior  metal  supports,  or  that  a  layer  of  metal  fabric 
be  embedded  in  each  horizontal  mortar  joint.  The  fabric  to  be  Va  inch  less 
in  width  than  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  to  have  a  mesh  of  %  to  %  inch. 
The  fabric  to  be  laid  in  the  joint  before  the  mortar  is  deposited  and  be 
lapped  at  the  corners. 


302  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

SECTION  33.  FURRED  WALLS  AND  HOLLOW  WALLS. —  i.  The  inside  4  inches 
of  all  walls  may  be  built  of  hard  burned  hollow  brick  the  dimensions  of 
ordinary  brick,  properly  tied  and  bonded  into  the  walls.  Terra  cotta,  con- 
crete, or  gypsum  tile  or  blocks  used  as  lining  or  furring  shall  'not  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  part  of  the  required  thickness  of  any  wall. 

2.  In  all  hollow  walls  of  stone,  brick  or  concrete,  the  same  net  horizontal 
section  shall  be  used  as  if  they  were  solid.  The  parts  of  hollow  walls  shall 
be  connected  by  approved  ties  of  brick,  stone,  or  metal,  placed  not  over  24 
inches  apart  horizontally  and  vertically.  Metal  ties  shall  have  the  ends  bent 
at  right  angles,  and  be  not  less  than  i  inch  wide  by  Vi  inch  thick,  and  shall 
extend  into  the  wall  on  each  side  not  less  than  4  inches. 

SECTION  34.  RECESSES  AND  CHASES  IN  WALLS. — i.  Recesses  for  stairways 
or  elevators  may  be  located  within  the  required  thickness  of  foundations  or 
cellar  walls,  provided  the  walls  are  not  thereby  reduced  to  a  less  thickness 
than  that  required  for  a  fourth  story  wall.  Reinforcement  shall  be  supplied 
where  necessary  to  compensate  for  the  diminished  thickness  as  approved  by 
the  Superintendent. 

The  brick  backing  of  recesses  for  alcoves  and  similar  spaces  shall  be  not 
less  than  8  inches  thick. 

2.  No  pipe  chases  shall  extend  into  any  wall  more  than  one-third  of  its 
required  thickness.  No  horizontal  recess  or  chase  shall  exceed  4  feet  in 
length  in  any  wall  without  express  permission  of  the  Superintendent.  No 
recess  in  a  wall  shall  be  made  within  a  distance  of  6  feet  from  any  other 
recess  in  the  same  wall. 

Chases  shall  not  be  permitted  within  the  required  area  of  any  pier.  Chases 
or  recesses  in  walls  built  of  hollow  blocks  shall  not  be  formed  by  cutting 
of  blocks,  or  by  other  method  which  would  impair  the  strength  of  the  wall. 

Neat  fitting'  metal  sleeves,  or  asbestos  covering,  shall  be  provided  around 
pipes  at  each  floor  level,  and' the  chases  at  these*  levels  shall  be  filled  with 
solid  masonry  for  the  space  of  one  foot  in  height. 

Heights  and  Areas 

SECTION  37.  HEIGHT  OF  BUILDINGS. — i.  No  building,  or  structure  here- 
after erected,  except  a  church  spire,  shall  exceed  in  height  two  and  one-half 
times  the  width  of  the  widest  street  upon  which  it  fronts,  nor  shall  it  exceed 
the  following  limits: 

Height  in  Height  in 

Stories  Fppt 

Frame  buildings  used  for  purposes  other  than  dwellings 

and  tenements 2  30 

Frame  dwellings  and  tenements  occupied  by  not  more 

than  two  families 2  \  30 

Frame  dwellings  occupied  by  not  more  than  one  family.  3  35 

Buildings  having  bearing  walls  of  hollow  terra  cotta  or 

concrete  blocks 3  40 

Non-fireproof  buildings,  ordinary  construction 4  55 

Non-fireproof  buildings,  mill  construction 5  65 

Fireproof  buildings  used  for  factories,  stores,  warehouses 

or  workshops 7  85 

Fireproof  buildings  used  for  purposes  other  than  facto- 
ries, stores,  warehouses  or  workshops 10  125 

2.  If    a    single    story    building   exceeds    30    feet    in    height    the   roof   shall   be 
constructed   entirely    of    incombustible   materials,    and    all    metal    framework    of 
same    shall   be   protected   with    fireproofing,    except    as   provided    in    Section    n, 
paragraph   2. 

3.  A  single  story  building  not  exceeding  30  feet  in  height  may  have  a  roof 
monitor    not    exceeding    10    feet    in    height. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE 


303 


4.  No  story  of  any  building  above  the  first  story  shall  exceed  15  feet  in 
beighY 

SECTION  38.  ALLOWABLE  FLOOR  AREAS.  —  i.  In  every  building  of  the  char- 
acter named  in  this  section  the  maximum  area  of  any  floor  between  fire  walls 
or  exterior  walls,  either  without  or  with  a  full  equipment  of  &utomatic 
sprinklers,  shall  be  as  follows: 

2.   Non-Fireproof    Construction.  —  (a)    Tenement    houses,    3,000    sq.    ft. 

(b)   All  other  ordinary  non-fireproof  buildings,  height  not  exceeding  55  feet. 


Without 
sprinklers 
5,000  sq.  ft. 
6,000  sq.  ft. 
7,500  sq.  ft. 

(c)   Mill    construction    buildings,    height    limit    65    feet. 


Fronting  on 
One  street 
Two  streets  ......................  ' 

Three  or  more  streets 


Fronting  on 
One  street 
Two  streets 
Three  or  more  streets 


Without 

sprinklers 

6,500  sq.  ft. 

8,000  sq.  ft. 

10,000  sq.  ft. 


With  sprinklers, 

increase  of 

66  f  per  cent 

8,333  sq.  ft. 

10,000  sq.  ft. 

12,500  sq.  ft. 


With  sprinklers, 
increase  of 
100  per  cent 
13,000  sq.  ft. 
16,000  sq.  ft. 
20,000  sq.  ft. 


3.  Fireproof    Construction.  — 
(a)   All  buildings  of  Classes  A,  B,  C, 

and  D 

1           No 

Light    and  '  power    stations 

^restrictions 

Jas  to  area. 

(b)    All  other  buildings  not  exceeding 

Fronting  on 
One  street  

65    feet  in  height. 

Without 
sprinklers 
10,000  sq.  ft. 

With  sprinklers, 
increase  of 
66  f  per  cent 
16,666  sq.   ft. 

Two  streets 

12,000  sq.  ft. 

20,000  sq.   ft. 

Three  or  more  streets.  .  . 

15.000  sq.   ft. 

25,000  sq.   it. 

(c)    Stores,    warehouses,    factories,    and   .workshops    not    exceeding    85    feet; 
and   other   buildings   not   exceeding    125    feet   in   height. 


Fronting  on 
One  street 
Two  streets 
Three  or  more  streets 


Without 

sprinklers 

7,500  sq  .ft. 

10,000  sq.  ft. 

12,500  sq.  ft. 


With  sprinklers, 

increase  of 

50  per  cent 

11,250  sq.  ft. 

15,000  sq.  ft. 

18,750  sq.  ft. 


(d)  The  first  floor  only  of  any  fireproof  building  occupied  as  a  store  may 
have  an  area  of  20,000  sq.  ft.,  and  if  fully  protected  by  approved  automatic 
sprinklers  may  be  increased  50  per  cent  or  have  a  maximum  area  of  30,000 

sq.    ft. 

NOTE  i.  —  It  is  generally  conceded  that  five  stories  is  the  maximum  height 
to  which  water  can  be  thrown  effectively  by  a  fire  department  from  the 
street  level,  and  that  50  feet  is  the  maximum  distance  inside  a  building 
which  can  be  reached  by  a  stream  through  a  window.  These  facts  have 
been  a  governing  consideration  in  the  establishment  of  the  limits  of  heights 
and  areas  in  this  Code.  In  addition,  the  width  of  the  street  upon  which 
a  building  fronts  and  the  height  of  the  building  should  be  considered;  a 
building  endangers  adjacent  property  in  proportion  to  its  size  and  proximity 
to  other  property. 

The  areas  given  in  this  section  are  based  upon  an  average  street  width 
of  60  feet.  For  less  than  this  width,  it  does  not  appear  unreasonable  to 
require  sprinklers  for  even  smaller  areas  than  herein  given,  particularly  for 
buildings  over  two  stories  high.  This  could  well  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  Chief  of  the  Fire  Department. 


304  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

NOTE  2. — Attention  is  called  to  a  paper  entitled  "  Allowable  Heights  and 
Areas  for  Factory  Buildings,"  distributed  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters,  which  contains  a  digest  of  opinion  of  over  a  hundred  prominent 
Fire  Chiefs  upon  this  subject. 

Allowable  Loads 

SECTION  39.     FLOOR  LOADS. 


LIVE  LOADS 

Pounds  per  Square  Foot 
Class  of  building 

Ground  and       Upper 
lower  floors         floors 

Foundries,  light  and  power  plants,  printing  and  litho- 
graphing houses,  railroad  freight  depots 250  250 

Warehouses 200  200 

Car  barns,  garages 150  120 

Fire  houses 150  60 

Armories,  ball  rooms,  dance  halls,  exhibition  build- 
ings,   factories,    gymnasiums,    work    shops,    lofts, 

markets,  stables,  stores,  public  halls,  restaurants.  .          120  120 

Railway  passenger  stations 120  90 

Office  buildings 120  75 

Court  houses 100  100 

Churches,  libraries,  museums,  theatres 90  90 

Schools  and  colleges 90  75 

Asylums,  bath  houses,  club  houses,  detention  build- 
ings,   dormitories,    hospitals,   hotels,   lodge   rooms, 

lodging  houses,  studios 60 

Tenement  houses  and  dwellings 60 

SECTION  58.  BUILDING  BLOCKS. — i.  The  term  "block"  as  used  in  this 
section  shall  mean  any  shape  of  block,  brick  or  tile  which,  forms  a  hollow 
or  cellular  wall. 

2.  Terra  cotta  blocks  for  bearing  walls  shall  be  dense,  and  hard-burned  or 
vitreous. 

Portland  cement  only  shall  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  concrete  blocks, 
and  the  coarse  aggregate  shall  be  of  suitable  material  graded  in  size,  but  in 
no  case  shall  the  maximum  dimension  exceed  one-half  the  width  of  the  mini- 
mum section  of  the  finished  block. 

Tests  shall  be  made  to  establish  the  working  stresses  to  govern  the  use 
of  blocks  of  each  particular  mark  or  brand.  A  series  of  ten  full  size 
blocks  shall  be  selected  from  average  quality  stock,  and  shall  be  tested  for 
compression. 

4.  Concrete   blocks  shall  be   not  more   than   36   days  old   when  tested. 

5.  The   compressive   strength   of   building  blocks   shall   in   all   cases   be   calcu- 
lated upon  the  gross  sectional  area  of  the  bedding  faces  including  the  cellular 
spaces. 

All  blocks  submitted  to  test  shall  be  bedded  in  plaster  of  paris  or  cement 
to  secure  an  even  bearing. 

Two  piece  blocks  shall  be  tested  in  pairs  as  set  to  form  the  two  faces  of 
the  wall.  The  strength  requirement  shall  be  the  same  as  for  hollow  blocks, 
and  it  shall  be  calculated  upon  the  gross  sectional  wall  area  which  would 
be  formed  by  the  two  blocks  and  the  space  between  them. 

6.  The  average  ultimate  compressive  strength  for  terra  cotta  blocks  designed 
to    be    normally    laid    with    the    cells    vertical,    and    which    are    tested    with    the 
cells  in  that  position,   shall  be   not  less  than    1,200  Ibs.   per  square  inch.     The 
allowable  working  stress  on   such   blocks  shall   not  exceed    120   Ibs.   per  square 
inch. 

7.  The     average     compressive     strength     of     terra     cotta     blocks     which     are 
designed   to  be   normally  laid   with  the    cells  vertical,   but  are   tested   with   the 
cells  horizontal,  shall  be  not  less  than  300  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  no  block 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  305 

of  the  set  shall  test  less  than  200  Ihs.  per  square  inch.  The  allowable  work- 
ing stress  on  such  blocks  when  laid  with  the  cells  horizontal,  shall  not  exceed 
30  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

8.  The  average  ultimate  compressive  strength  for  terra  cotta  blocks  designed 
to  be   normally  laid   with   the  cells   horizontal,   and   which   are   tested  with   the 
cells   in   that  position,   shall   be   not   less   than    800   Ibs.    per   square   inch.      The 
allowable   working   stress   on   such   blocks   shall   not  exceed   $o   Ibs.    per  square 
inch. 

9.  The   average   compressive   strength    for   concrete   blocks    when   tested    with 
the    cells    vertical,    shall   be    not    less   than   Soo    Ibs.    per   square    inch,    and   300 
Ibs     per    square    inch    with    no    block    testing    at    less    than    200    pounds    per 
square  inch  if  tested  with  the  cells  horizontal.     The  allowable  working  stress 
for    such    blocks    shall    not    exceed    80    Ibs.    and    30    Ibs.    per    square    inch    re- 
spectively. 

10.  Hollow    building    blocks    may    be    filled    solidly    with    Portland    cement 
concrete  or  cement  mortar  to  increase  the  stability  and  to  aid   in  distributing 
the  load,  but  the  allowable  working  stress  on  such  blocks  shall  not  be  greater 
than    that    permitted    for    unfilled    blocks. 

NOTE. — Tests  have  demonstrated  that  the  strength  of  hollow  terra  cotta 
blocks  is  not  increased  by  being  filled  with  concrete,  the  reason  being  the 
difference  in  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  two  materials.  Similar  tests 
thus  far  available  upon  concrete  blocks  indicate  some  gain  in  strength  by 
filling,  but  not  sufficient  to  warrant  recognition. 

11.  The    absorption    of    building    blocks    used    for    bearing    or    panel    walls, 
determined   by   taking   the    average    test   of   three   blocks,    shall    not   exceed    10 
per  cent  in  48  hours,  and  shall  not  exceed   15  per  cent  in  any  case. 

12  Hollow  building  blocks  shall  not  be  used  in  fireproof  buildings  until 
they  ha\e  successfully  withstood  a  two-hour  fire  test  as  specified  for  parti- 
tions. 

SECTTON  63.  WEIGHTS  OF  MATERIALS. — The  weights  of  various  materials 
shall  be  assumed  to  be  as  follows: 

Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot 

Brickwork — Ordinary 120 

Brickwork — Pressed   brick    130 

Concrete — Cinder,  used  for  floor  arches  or  slabs,  well  tamped 108 

Concrete — Cinder,  used  for  filling,  not  tamped 60 

Concrete — Stone,   or  gravel 144 

Granite,   P.luestone,  and  Marble 1 70 

Limestone.   „ 160 

Sandstone 145 

Oak 50 

Spruce    and    Hemlock 30 

White    Pine    27 

Yellow    Pine,    Grade    1 42 

Yellow    Pine,    Grade    II 35 

Maple 43 

Birch 45 

Douglas    Fir    and    Cypress 35 


Working  Stresses 

SECTION  65.  PERMISSIBLE  WORKING  STRESSES. — i.  The  safe  carrying 
capacity  of  the  various  materials  of  construction,  when  not  otherwise  speci- 
fied, shall  be  determined  by  the  following  working  stresses  in  pounds  per 
square  inch  of  sectional  area: 


306  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

2.  STEEL   AND    IRON. 

COMPRESSION    IN    SHORT    BLOCKS  Pounds  per 

Square  Inch 

Rolled    steel     16,000 

Cast    steel    16,000 

Cast    iron . 1 6,000 

Steel  pins,  shop  and  power  driven   field   rivets    (bearing) 20,000 

Steel   field   rivets    (driven   by   hand)    (bearing) 16,000 

Steel  field  bolts  (bearing) 12,000 

TENSION 

Rolled  steel 1 6,000 

Cast    steel *  .  .': 16,000 

Working  stress   on   bolts   in   tension,    Sec.   74,   par.    6. 

Working    stress    on    concrete    reinforcement    bars,    Sec.    125. 

SHEAR 

Steel    web    plates 10,000 

Steel  shop  and  power  driven  field  rivets  and  pins 10,000 

Steel    field   rivets    (driven    by   hand) 8,000 

Steel    field    bolts 7,000 

Cast    steel    .' 9,000 

Cast    iron    ^ i,5°o 

EXTREME   FIBRE   STRESS 

Rolled   steel   beams,   and    riveted   steel   beams 16,000 

Rolled   steel   pins,   rivets,   and   bolts 20,000 

Cast'   iron    compression    side 16,000 

Cast  iron  tension  side 2,500 

3.  CONCRETE  AND   MASONRY. 

COMPRESSION  Pounds  per 

Square  Inch 

Grout,    Portland  cement,   neat i  ,000 

Grout,    Portland    cement,    neat    between    steel    in    foundation    not    over 

%    inch 1,500 

Concrete,   Portland  cement,    i ;   sand,   2;   stone,   4 500 

Concrete,   Portland  cement,    i ;   sand,  21/£ ;   stone   5 400 

Concrete.   Natural  cement,    i ;   sand  2;   stone,  4 125 

Concrete,   Natural   cement,    i ;   sand,   2% ;    stone,   5 80 

Brickwork  in   Portland  cement  mortar 250 

Brickwork  in   Natural  cement  mortar 208 

Brickwork  in  lime  and   Portland  cement  mortar 208 

Brickwork    in    lime    mortar 1 1 1 

Hollow  terra  cotta  blocks,  see   Section   58. 
Hollow  concrete   blocks,   see   Section    58. 

Rubble  stonework  in   Portland  cement  mortar 140 

Rubble  stonework  in  lime  and  cement  mortar 100 

Rubble   stonework   in    lime   mortar 70 

Cut  stone  masonry,   other   than  sandstone 600 

Sandstone  masonry 300 

Granites,  according  to  test 1,000  to  2,400 

Gneiss i  ,000 

Limestones,    according    to    test 700  to  2,300 

Marbles,    according    to    test 600   to  1,200 

Sandstones,    according   to    test 400  to  i  ,600 

Slate - '. i  ,000 

SHEAR 

Shearing    stress    involving    diagonal    tension    in    Portland    cement    con- 
crete, in  the  proportions  of   1-2-4 4° 

Direct   shear    (punching   shear),    in    Portland    cement    concrete,    in    the 

proportions   of    1-2-4 i120 

Working  stresses  on   reinforced   concrete,   Sees.    125,    167   and    168. 

4.  STRUCTURAL    TIMBER. — The    following    stresses    apply    to    seasoned    timber 

to    be    kept    under    shelter    in    a    dry    location,    and    deflection    not    to  increase 

with  time.     If  the  timber  is  to  be  used  under  other  conditions,   these  stresses 
should  be  modified. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  307 

BENDING  COMPRESSION 


Oak 

Extreme 
Fibre 
Stress 

1,400 

Maximum 
Longitud- 
inal Shear 

120 

{ 

Perpendic- 
ular to  the 
Grain 

400 

Parallel  to  the 
3rain,  Columns 

with  -  less 
d 
than  10 
1,000 

Yellow  Pine,  Grade    I  
Yellow  Pine,  Grade  II  
Douglas  Fir  

1,600 
1,200 
1,500 

120 
85 
100 

350 
300 
300 

1,200 
900 
1,100 

Eastern  Spruce     ... 

1,000 

75 

200 

900 

Western  Hemlock 

1  300 

75 

250 

1,000 

Norway  Pine  

1,000 

75 

250 

800 

/  =  unsupported  length  in  inches 
d  =  diameter  or  least  side  in  inches 

SECTION  66.  WORKING  STRESSES  FOR  COLUMNS. — i.  The  working  stresses 
per  square  inch  for  all  steel,  cast  iron,  or  wooden  columns  having  flat  ends 
shall  not  exceed  the  values  given  by  the  following  formulas: 

j.   STEEL    COLUMNS. — Working    stress,    S  =  16,000 — 70    — 

Where    S  =  allowable    compression    in    Ibs.    per    square    inch. 
/  =  allowable    length    in    inches. 
r  =  least    radius   of   gyration   in   inches. 
The    allowable    compression     (S)     shall    not    exceed    13,000    Ibs.    per    square 

inch,   and   the   ratio   of  slenderness    —  shall   not   exceed    120,   except    that    for 

bracing    and    for    compression    members    resisting    wind    stress    only,     —  shall 
not   exceed    150. 

See  Fig.  23  for  comparison  of  formulas. 

3.  CAST     IRON     COLUMNS. — Working     stress,     8  =  9,000  —  40    — 

Maximum  —   shall  not  exceed  60.  ' 

r  For  Columns  with  — 

4.  WOODEN    COLUMNS.  d 

greater  than  10,  but  not 
exceeding  30 

Oak...  1,200-20  — 

d 
I 

Yellow  Pine,  Grade    1 1,400-20  — 

d 
I 

Yellow  Pine,  Grade  II 1,100-20  — 

d 
I 

Douglas  Fir 1,300-20  — 

d 
I 

Spruce 1,100-20  — 

d 
I 

Western  Hemlock 1,200-20  — 

d 
I 

Norway  Pine 1,000-20  — 

/  =  unsupported  length  in  inches 
d  =  diameter  or  least  side  in  inches 

The  unsupported  length  of  wooden  columns  and  compression  members  shall 
not  exceed  30  times  the  diameter  or  least  side,  nor  shall  the  unit  stresses 

exceed   those  given  in   the   table   in   Section  65    for  -j   less  than    10. 

Wooden   columns   with    -r  less   than    10,    Sec.   65,   par.    4. 

0 


308 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  309 

SECTION  75.  PROTECTION  OF  STRUCTURAL  METAL  AGAINST  CORROSION. — i. 
All  metal  structural  work  shall  be  cleaned  of  all  scale,  dirt,  and  rust,  and 
be  given  one  coat  of  paint  at  the  shop  completely  covering  all  exposed  sur- 
faces. After  erection  all  such  work  shall  be  painted  at  least  one  additional 
coat  of  a  shade  different  from  the  first  coat.  The  first  coat  of  paint  shall 
be  made  of  pigments  which  shall  be  chemically  inert  after  application,  and 
shall  be  mixed  with  linseed  or  other  drying  oil.  The  amount  of  volatile 
matter  shall  be  sufficient  for  easy  spreading,  and  shall  not  injure  the  film 
of  the  paint.  The  paint  must  dry  sufficiently  hard  within  24  hours  so  that 
it  will  not  rub  off  or  abrade  easily.  When  the  steel  reaches  the  job  all 
abraded  or  injured  portions  must  be  thoroughly  recoated  with  the  same 
material  as  the  shop  coat  before  the  second  coat  is  applied.  The  second 
coat  of  paint  shall  be  such  as  will  not  act  as  a  solvent  of  the  first  coat, 
and  shall  be  mixed  with  a  pigment  which  shall  be  inert  after  application, 
and  the  vehicle  shall  be  one  that  will  not  saponify  under  the  action  of 
cement  mortar. 

2.  Surfaces   of   riveted   work   which   come   in   contact   with  each   other,   shall 
be   painted  with   two  coats   of  paint   before   assembling. 

3.  All    iron    or    steel    used    in    damp    locations    or    under    water    shall    be 
embedded    in    Portland    cement    concrete.      No    paint    shall    be    applied    to    the 
steel  surfaces  which  are  to  be  encased  in  concrete. 

4.  Any  structural  steel  work  which  may  be  so  placed  as  to  be  inaccessible 
for    inspection    after    erection,    shall    be    thorough    cleaned    of    all    rust    and 
encased    in    Portland    cement    concrete    before    it    is    rendered    inaccessible. 

Protection   of   wall   columns,    Sec.    112,   par.    i. 

Ordinary   Timber   Construction 

SECTION  76.  WOODEN  BEAMS  OR  JOISTS. — i.  Every  wooden  beam  in  any 
party  or  fire  wall  shall  be  separated  from  any  other  beam  in  the  wall  by 
at  least  6  inches  of  solid  masonry.  Such  separation  may  be  obtained  by 
staggering  the  beams,  corbeling,  or  by  use  of  approved  steel  hangers  properly 
anchored  in  the  wall,  and  arranged  to  make  the  beams  self-releasing.  No 
wall  shall  be  corbeled  more  than  2  inches  for  this  purpose.  If  {he  beam 
ends  are  opposite  each  other  in  the  wall  the  separation  shall  be  not  less 
than  8  inches.  Fig.  24  indicates  spacing  and  arrangement  of  beams  of 
different  thickness  in  a  1 2-inch  wall  which  will  meet  the  requirement  of 
this  section.  The  spacing  could  be  reduced  if  the  walls  under  the  beams 
were  corbeled. 

NOTE. — Staggering  the  beams  distinctly  lessens  the  danger  of  transmission 
of  fire  through  a  wall,  for  the  reason  that  the  fire  or  highly  heated  air  must 
travel  through  two  joints  at  right  angles  to  each  other  to  pass  from  one 
beam  to  the  other.  The  probability  of  both  these  joints  being  open  is  much 
less  than  in  the  case  of  one  straight  connecting  joint. 

2.  No    wooden    floor   beam    or    roof   beam    used    in    any    building    within    the 
fire   limits  shall  be  less   than   3   inches   thick. 

3.  The   thickness   of  wooden   beams   shall   be   not   less   than   3    inches    in    any 
building  where   the  floor  load   is  greater  than   60   pounds  per  square    foot. 

4.  All  wooden  trimmer  and  header  beams  when  over  4   feet  in  length  shall 
be  hung  in   approved  metal  stirrups  or  hangers. 

5.  Every   wooden   beam,   except  header   and   tail   beams,   shall    have  bearings 
of    at    least    4    inches. 

NOTE. — In  designing  wooden  floor  constructions  to  carry  heavy  loads,  it  is 
important  to  take  into  account  the  resistance  of  wood  to  crushing  perpendicular 
to  the  grain.  Frequently  the  area  allowed  for  support  of  the  ends  of  wooden 
beams  is  so  small  that  crushing  occurs  while  other  proportions  are  ample  for 
the  load. 


310 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


6.  The    ends    of    all    wooden    floor    and    roof    beams,    which    rest    on    walls, 
shall  be  cut  to  a  bevel  of  3   inches  in   their  depth. 

7.  Neither   end   of   a   floor   or   roof  beam    shall   be    supported   on   stud   parti- 
tions,   except    in    frame    buildings. 

8.  All    wooden    floor    and    roof    beams    shall    be    properly    braced    with    cross 
bridging.      The    distance    between    bridging    or    between    bridging    and    bearing 
shall    not    exceed    8    feet.      So    far    as    possible    knots    or    other    imperfections 
shall   be   excluded    from    the   bottom    and   top    quarters    of   timber   beams. 

Timber    stresses,    Sec.    65,   par.   4. 

SECTION  77.  WOODEN  BEAMS  SEPARATED  FROM  MASONRY  CHIMNEYS. — i. 
No  wooden  beams  or  joists  shall  be  placed  within  2  inches  of  the  outside 
face  of  a  chimney  or  flue,  whether  the  same  be  for  smoke,  air  or  any  other 
purpose. 

2.  No    woodwork    shall    be    within    4    inches    of    the    back .  face    of    ihe    wall 
of  any  fireplace.     Figs.  25  and  26. 

3.  For  smoke  flues  of  boilers  and  furnaces  where  the  brick  work  is  required 
to   be   more   than    8    inches   in    thickness,    the   header   beams    shall    be   not    less 
than  4   inches  from   the  outside   of  the  brickwork. 


24. — Di'agram    showing    placing    of    floor    beams    in    a    wall    to    secure 
separation    of   at   least    6    inches   between    the   ends 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE 


Plaster 


Section  on  AJ5. 


:ombustible 

\            \ 

\ 

\            \ 

\ 

1            1 

1 

"fr"'    ~              "\  ^yiy 

1            1 

1 

1            1 

o  heet  Metal  dinp  ^^        \J. 
for  holding  fireproofing^^^  \[ 

1 

I            1 

1            1 

1            1 

FIG.    25. — Fire-stopping  around  chimney   and   fireplace. 
Reproduced  by  permigsion  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und'a. 


3I2 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Wooden  Studs 


W//^ 


FIG.   26.— Diagram   showing  two   common   features  of  dangerous   chimney   con- 
struction.     Woodwork    placed    against    chimneys,    and    tmlined    ilues. 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

4.  All   spaces   between   the   chimney   and   the   wooden   beams   shall   be   filled 
with  mineral  wool,  loose  cinders,  gypsum  block,  or  other  porous  incombustible 
material.     See  Fig.  25. 

NOTE.- — The  object  of  this  filling  of  dead  air  spaces  around  a  chimney 
before  the  flooring  is  laid,  is  to  prevent  an  accumulation  of  shavings  and 
other  combustible  material  in  them,  also  to  prevent  the  danger  of  mice 
building  nests  there.  The  filling  material  should  be  porous  to  preserve  the 
heat  insulating  advantage  of  the  air  cells,  consequently  brickwork,  mortar, 
or  solid  concrete  should  not  be  used. 

5.  The    header    beam,    carrying    the    tail    beams    of    a    floor,    and    supporting 
the   trimmer   arch   in    front    of   a    fireplace,    shall   be    not   less    than    20    inches 
from  the  chimney  breast. 

6.  No    wjoden    furring    or    studding    shall    be    placed    against    any    chimney, 
the  plastering  shall  be  directly  on  the  masonry,  or  on  metal  lathing. 


Roofs  and  Roof  Structures 

SECTION  80.  ROOF  COVERINGS. — i.  All  buildings  except  as  given  below  shall 
have  roof  coverings  of  approved  standard  quality,  such  as  brick,  concrete,  tile, 
or  slate;  or  highest  grade  of  tin  roofing,  or  of  asbestos  shingles,  or  of  built-up 
roofing  felt  with  gravel  or  slag  surface,  or  of  built-up  asbestos  roofing;  or 
other  roofings  of  like  grade  which  would  rank  as  Class  A  or  B,  as  listed 
by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc. 

Exceptions: 

(a)  Dwellings; 

(b)  Frame  buildings; 

(c)  Buildings   not   exceeding   two   stories   or   30    feet   in   height   nnd   2,500 

square    feet    in    area,    and    not    used    for    factories,    warehouses,    or 
mercantile    purposes. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  313 

2.  The    quality    of    roofing    for    all    dwellings   and    other    buildings    exempted 
in   paragraph    i,    shall    be    as   therein    specified;    or   may   be   of    a   grade   which 
would    rank   not   lower   than   Class   F,    as   listed   by   the   Underwriters'   Labora- 
tories,  Inc. 

3.  A  layer  of  deadening  felt  at  least  1/16  inch  thick  shall  be  placed  between 
metal   roofing  and  the   supporting  woodwork. 

NOTE. — The  purpose  of  the  felt  is  to  prevent  quick  ignition  of  the  wooden 
decking  when  the  roof  is  exposed  to  burning  brands  or  radiated  heat. 

4.  The    wooden   planking   and   sheathing   of   roofs   shall   not   in    any   case   be 
extended  across  side  or  party  walls. 

5.  Any   roof   having  a   pitch   over   60   degrees,   placed   on   any   building   over 
40  feet  high,  except  towers  or  church  spires  as  specified  in  Section   188,  shall 
be   constructed   of  iron   or  steel   frames   filled   with   fireproof  material   not   less 
than  3^   inches  thick,   and   shall   be   covered   with  approved   roofing. 

6.  All    flashings    shall    be    of    metal    properly    incorporated    with    the    roofing 
material.      Copper   flashings    are    recommended. 

7.  The    top    and   sides   of   dormer    windows   shall    be    protected    the    same    as 
the    roof. 

SECTION  85.  CORNICES  AND  GUTTERS. — i.  On  all  buildings  or  structures 
within  the  fire  limits  the  exterior  cornices,  inclusive  of  those  on  show  windows 
and  gutters,  shall  be  of  incombustible  material.  All  cornices  not  built  as 
a  part  of  the  walls,  shall  be  secured  to  the  walls  with  metal  framing  or 
anchors. 

3.  Outside  of  fire  limits  where  buildings  having  masonry  walls  are  placed 
nearer  than  3  feet  to  a  side  or  rear  lot  line,  or  5  feet  to  another  building, 
the  cornices  and  overhanging  eaves  on  the  side  or  rear  walls  shall  be  of, 
or  covered  with,  incombustible  material.  When  such  buildings  are  erected 
in  rows,  combustible  cornices  on  the  front  shall  be  fire-stopped  with  incom- 
bustible material  between  each  building. 

NOTE. — The  most  vulnerable  point  of  attack  for  an  exposure  fire  of  this 
kind  is  under  the  eaves,  for  the  heat  banks  up  there,  and  the  woodwork 
is  always  highly  combustible  since  never  exposed  to  storms.  With  ordinary 
construction  numerous  cracks  are  almost  .certain  to  exist  alongside  the  rafters 
communicating  directly  with  the  attic  space  which  is  usually  difficult  of 
access,  and  liable  to  be  filled  with  combustible  material.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  the  space  above  the  plate  and  between  the  rafters  be  filled 
as  tight  as  possible.  Where  masonry  walls  are  used  they  should  extend  up 
to  the  underside  of  the  roof  boards. 

SECTION  88.  PROTECTION  OF  EXTERIOR  WALL  OPENINGS. — i.  Every  building 
within  the  fire  limits,  except  churches  and  dwellings,  shall  have  approved  fire 
doors,  or  fire  windows  on  every  exterior  opening  above  the  first  story,  when 
fronting  on  a  street  or  driveway  less  than  50  feet  wide,  or  where  another 
building  or  portion  of  the  same  building  is  within  50  feet  of  such  opening; 
also  all  openings  in  the  side  and  rear  walls  of  the  first  story,  except  show 
windows,  when  less  than  50  feet  from  another  building.  The  walls  of  a 
building  in  the  same  plane  or  parallel  planes  and  facing  in  the  same  direction 
as  that  in  which  the  opening  is  situated,  shall  not  be  considered  as  coming 
within  the  intent  of  this  rule. 

NOTE. — It  has  been  demonstrated  many  times  that  the  heat  from  a  burning 
building  will  break  the  windows  and  imperil  an  exposed  building  distant 
even  60  feet  or  more.  The  combustibility  of  the  contents  of  the  buildings 
and  the  direction  of  the  wind  would  control  results  somewhat,  but  the  height 
of  the  exposed  building  would  have  even  greater  influence  upon  its  safety. 

The  difficulty  of  a  fire  department  maintaining  its  position  in  front  of  a 
vigorously  burning  building  in  a  street  50  feet  or  less  in  width,  with  the 
wind  blowing  in  that  direction,  is  well  known._  If  the  fire  fighting  force 
cannot  maintain  such  position  the  danger  to  the  exposed  building  is  apparent, 
and  if  the  building  is  over  5  stories  high  the  hazard  of  the  fire  entering 
the  windows  is  greatly  increased. 


314  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

z.  All  openings  in  a  side  wall  above  and  facing  on  the  roof  qf  an  adjoining 
building  of  other  than  fireproof  construction,  shall  be  protected  by  fire 
doors  or  fire  windows  to  a  height  of  50  feet  above  the  roof  measured  in  a 
vertical  line.  If  the  adjoining  building  has  a  fireproof  roof,  all  openings 
in  the  said,  side  wall  shall  be  protected  from  the  level  of  the  adjoining  roof 
to  a  height  of  50  feet  measured  in  a  straight  line  from  the  adjacent  edge 
of  the  nearest  skylight  or  other  opening  in  the  adjoining  roof,  to  the  top 
of  the  opening  in  the  wall. 

3.  All  openings  in  a  side   wall  above   and   facing  on  the  roof  of  a  building 
of    other    than    fireproof   construction    which    is    separated    from    the    side    wall 
by   a   horizontal    distance   less   than   50    feet,    shall   be    protected    by    fire    doors 
or  fire  windows  from  the   roof  level   of  the  exposing  building  to  a   height  of 
50    feet   measured    from    the    top   of   the    adjacent    parapet   wall   to    the   top    of 
the   opening   in   the    wall;    or    50    feet    from   the   adjacent   edge   of   the   nearest 
skylight   or   other   opening   in    the?  roof   of   the  exposing   building,    if   the    roof 
be   of   fireproof    construction. 

4.  All    exterior    wall    openings    more    than    75    feet    above    the    curb    in    all 
buildings,    shall    be    protected   by   fire    doors    or   fire    windows. 

5.  In  business  buildings  over  four  stories  or  55   feet  in  height,  the  windows 
which  are  not   fire  windows,  shall   have   a   distance   of  at   least  3   feet  between 
the  top  of  a  window  sill,   and  the  bottom  of  the  lintel   of  a  window   directly 
beneath.      No   such    window    shall   be   arranged   to    open    within    i    foot   of   the 
ceiling   surface,    but    the    wall    construction    between    the   window    opening    and 
the  ceiling,   may,  if  desired,   be   replaced   by   a  fire   window   in   fixed   sash    and 
frame. 

NOTE  i. — The  tendency  of  fire  in  a  building  to  travel  upwards  from  story 
to  story  by  way  of  the  windows  is  well  known.  This  danger  is  reduced  by 
separation  of  the  openings  through  which  flames  may  issue.  The  National 
Fire  Protection  Association  recommends  5  feet  between  windows  for  a 
"Standard  Building";  such  separation  is  very  desirable  where  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  it.  The  provision  of  at  least  a  foot  of  space  between  a  window 
head  and  the  ceiling  is  for  the  purpose  of  banking  the  flames,  and  deflecting 
them  downward  as  they  escape  to  the  outside  air.  The  hazard  can  be  still 
further  reduced  by  making  the  whole  upper  half  of  such  windows  of  wired 
glass  in  fixed  metal  sash  and  frames.  Full  size  windows  should  be  installed 
wherever  possible. 

NOTE  2. — The  prevalent  practice  of  enclosing  factories  and  some  com- 
mercial buildings  almost  entirely  with  glass,  is  dangerous.  If  plain  glass  be 
used,  the  construction  is  doubly  unwise,  for  an  uncontrolled  fire  in  any  of 
the  lower  stories  is  sure  to  reach  the  stories  above  .by  way  of  the  windows. 
Even  with  wired  glass  the  hazard  is  excessive  for  it  is  not  a  resistant  to 
radiated  heat,  and  there  is  always  serious  risk  that  combustible  material  in 
any  story  will  be  ignited  from  that  cause. 

6.  Approved   fire  shutters   may   be   substituted   in   place   of   the   fire   windows 
required  in  paragraphs   i,  2  and  3.     In  such  cases  at  least  one   row   in   every 
three   vertical   rows   of  shutters   shall  ibe   arranged   to   be   readily   opened    from 
the   outside,   and   a  distinguishing  mark   satisfactory  to   the   Chief  of   the   Fire 
Department  shall   be   provided   on   these    shutters. 

NOTE. — It  is  strongly  recommended  that  all  window  openings  exposed  to 
buildings  within  15  feet  where  considerable  fire  hazard  exists  shall  be  pro- 
tected by  approved  shutters  or  outside  open  sprinklers  in  addition  to  fire 


about    i, 600°    F.,    when    the    glass    will    melt    and    drop    from    the    sash.      This 
temperature    is    frequently    reached    in    an    exposure    fire. 

7.  Occupants   of   buildings   shall   close   all   fire   doors,   shutters,   and   windows 
at   the   close   of   business   each    day. 

NOTE. — For   complete   details   of   construction   and   installation   of   fire   doors, 
shutters  and  windows,  see  pages  367   to  433. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  315 

SECTION  89.  PROTECTION  OF  INTERIOR  WALL  OPENINGS. — 2.  In  buildings 
of  all  classes,  all  openings  into  halls  or  adjoining  rooms  from  rooms  in  which 
paints,  oils,  varnishes,  spirituous  liquors,  or  drugs  or  other  highly  inflammable 
liquids  or  materials  are  stored  for  purpose  of  sale  or  otherwise;  or  in  which 
manufacturing  processes,  or  business  operations  are  conducted  which  are 
generally  recognized  as  hazardous  as  regards  fire,  shall  be  protected  by  self- 
closing  fire  doors,  or  fire  windows. 

Openings   in    fire    walls,    Sec.    29,   par.    2. 

Openings    in    fire   exit   partitions,    Sec.    47,    par.   4. 

Openings  in  shafts,  Sec.  90,  par.   12  and  13. 

Protection    of    Vertical    Openings 

SECTION  90.  ENCLOSURES  FOR  STAIRWAYS,  ELEVATORS,  ESCALATORS  AND  OTHER 
SHAFTS  IN  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. — i.  All  interior  shafts  containing  stairways 
required  to  be  enclosed  by  Section  45,  paragraph  i,  and  except  in  dwellings, 
all  shafts  exceeding  6  square  feet  in  area  containing  elevators,  escalators, 
hoistways,  chutes,  ventilating  ducts,  or  used  for  any  other  purpose,  shall 
be  continuously  enclosed  with  fireproof  walls  or  partitions  built  as  follows: 

(a)  Brick    or   plain    solid   concrete   not   less   than   8    inches    in    thickness   for 
the  uppermost  30  feet,  increasing  4  inches  in  thickness  for  each  lower  section 
of    30    feet    or    part    thereof;    or    8    inches    in    thickness    for    the   entire    height 
when    wholly  supported   at   vertical   intervals   not  exceeding   30    feet. 

(b)  Reinforced  stone  or  gravel  concrete  not  less  than  6  inches  in  thickness 
for   the    uppermost    30    feet,    increasing   2    inches   in    thickness    for  each    lower 
section    of    30    feet    or   part   thereof;    or    5    inches    in    thickness    for   the    entire 
height  when  supported  at  vertical  intervals  not  exceeding  20   feet  and  braced 
where   necessary   with    lateral   supports   or   suitable   steel    uprights. 

(c)  Reinforced  cinder  concrete  not  less  than   5   inches  in  thickness   for  the 
entire    height    when    supported    at    vertical    intervals    not    exceeding    15    feet, 
and    braced    where    necessary   with    lateral   supports   or   suitable    steel    uprights. 

(d)  Semi-porous  -  or  porous  terra  cotta  tile,   or  solid  gypsum   blocks  not  less 
than    6   inches   in   thickness    for   the   entire   height   when   supported  at   vertical 
intervals    not    exceeding    20    feet,    and    securely    anchored    by    steel    reinforce- 
ment encased  in  the  construction. 

Terra  cotta  tile  shall  have  not  less  than  two  cells  in  its  thickness,  with 
shells  and  webs  not  less  than  %  inch  thick. 

All  openings  in  such  partitions  shall  have  substantial  steel  framing,  the 
vertical  members  of  which  shall  be  securely  attached  to  the  floor  construc- 
tion above  and  below. 

2.  Enclosure    partitions    supporting    floor    loads    shall    be    of    materials    and 
thickness    required    for   bearing    walls. 

3.  Portland    cement    mortar    shall    be    used    for    all    masonry    work    in    shaft 
construction,   except   that   gypsum   mortar  may   be   used   to   set  gypsum   blocks. 

4.  Concrete    walls    or   partitions    shall    conform    to    the    requirements    of    the 
sections    on    concrete   construction. 

5.  The   bottom  of   such  enclosure,   and   the   top   when   not  extended   through 
the   roof,   shall    be   of   fireproof   material   not   less   than    4   inches   in    thickness. 

6.  When   such   shafts   extend   to  the   top   story,    they   shall   continue   through 
the    roof,    and    shall    project    not    less    than    6    inches    above    the    roof    surface. 
All  such  shafts  shall  be  enclosed  above  the  roof  by  at  least  5  inches  of  brick, 
or   stone   concrete. 

7.  Every  shaft  which  extends  above  the  roof  shall  have  a  skylight,  covering 
nt    least    three-fourths    of    the    area    of   the    shaft. 

Construction   of   skylights,   see   page  423. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

8  All  steel  used  to  support  shaft  enclosures,  as  required  in  this  section, 
shall  so  far  as  possible,  be  embedded  in  the  fireproofing  material,  and  shall 
be  protected  on  all  sides,  in  the  manner  required  for  steel  in  fireproo: 
buildings.  See  Section  112. 

9.  WThen    the    compartment    that    contains    the    machinery    for    operating    an 
elevator   communicates  with   an  elevator  shaft,    it   shall   be   enclosed   with   fire 
proof  partitions  as   required   for  the   shaft. 

10.  A    shaft    shall    not    contain    more    than    two    elevators.      The    separating 
partitions    shall    be    not    less    than    2    inches    thick. 

11.  A   stairway   and   elevator  shall   not   be   permitted   within    the   same   shaft 
enclosure. 

12.  All    door    openings    into    such    shafts    shall    be    protected    by    fire    Joors 
and   shall    be    self-closing  except    for   elevator   doors.      No    glass    shall    i>e    per- 
mitted   in    such    doors,    except    when    doors    in    elevator    shafts    open    upon    an 
enclosed    hallway    a    wired    glass    panel    not    exceeding    2    square    feet   inay    be 
provided  in  each  door.     Care  shall  be  exercised  to  insure  that  all  such  doors 
shall  fit  the  opening  as  closely  as  practicable. 

NOTE. — It    is    necessary    that    sliding    doors    on    elevator    shafts    be  made    to 

fit    snugly,    otherwise    in    case    of    fire    the    shaft    fills    with    smoke  and    hot 

gases   and  becomes   untenable   and  dangerous.      The   accumulation   of  such   hot 
gases    is   very    liable   to    cause    an    explosion. 

In  factories  and  warehouses  where  elevator  shafts  open  directly  into  a 
work  or  storage  room,  no  wired  glass  shall  be  permitted  in  the  doors.  The 
size  of  such  door  openings  shall  not  exceed  5  feet  4  inches  by  7  feet  6  inches. 

13.  Windows  shall  not  be  permitted  in  shaft  enclosures,  except   those  open- 
ing to  the  outside  air,   and  which  are  at  least  3   feet  distant   from   .my  other 
opening;     all    such    windows    shall    be    stationary    or    automatic    closing    fire 
windows. 

14.  Where    an    elevator,    escalator,    or    stairway    as    required    in    paragraph 
(i),  connects  two  floors  only  in   a  building,   it  shall   be  enclosed  in  the  same 
manner    as    for   a   continuous   shaft,   except   that   it   may   be    left   open    in    one 
story    if    enclosed    in    the    other.       Such    elevator    or    escalator    shall    not    be 
included    in    calculations    for    required    means    of    exit,    and    no    such    stairway 
shall  be  considered  as  an  exit  from  more  than   one   floor. 

NOTE. — The  reasons  for  excluding  elevators  and  escalators  as  exits  are 
obvious.  The  reason  for  restricting  the  above  described  stairway  as  an  exit 
for  one  floor  only,  is  that  if  it  were  used  by  people  coming  from  a  floor 
above  they  would  be  obliged  to  pass  through  the  open  room  at  the  head  of 
the  stairway,  and  this  would  be  extremely  dangerous  if  that  room  were  afire. 

Fire  doors  and  windows,  Sec.   88. 

SECTION  91.  ENCLOSURES  FOR  DUMBWAITERS  AND  OTHER  SHAFTS  NOT  EX- 
CEEDING 6  SQUARE  FEET  IN  AREA  IN  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. — i.  All  dumb- 
waiter and  other  shafts  or  thutes  not  exceeding  6  square  feet  in  area,  except- 
ing dumbwaiter  shafts  which  do  not  extend  more  than  one  story  above  the 
cellar  or  basement  floor  in  dwellings,  shall  be  continuously  enclosed  by 
partitions  of  brick,  terra  cotta,  concrete,  metal  lath  and  cement  plaster, 
gypsum  blocks,  or  other  approved  fireproof  material  not  less  than  3  inches 
thick,  which  may  meet  the  test  specified  in  Section  174,  paragraph  4.  Such 
walls  or  partitions  shall  rest  upon  incombustible  foundations,  and  shall  be 
braced  between  floors  with  approved  incombustible  framing.  Gypsum  blocks 
may  be  set  in  gypsum  mortar;  all  other  blocks  shall  be  set  in  Portland 
cement  mortar. 

2.  When  dumbwaiter  or  other  small  shafts  are  constructed  of  blocks  or 
tile,  all  corner  blocks  or  tile  shall  be  held  by  metal  angle  clips  or  anchors, 
or  be  secured  by  other  approved  means. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  317 

3.  Where    a    dumbwaiter    shaft    extends    into    the    cellar    or    basement    of    a 
building,    it   shall   be   enclosed   in    that   story   with    walls    of   masonry    not   less 
than   5   inches   thick. 

4.  The  bottom  of  such  shaft  shall  be  of  fireproof  material,  and  where  such 
shaft    does    not    extend    through    the    roof,    the    top    of    the    shaft    shall    be    of 
fireproof  material  of  at   least   the   thickness  of  the  enclosing  partitions. 

5.  When  such  a  shaft   penetrates  the  roof  it  shall  project  at  least  6  inches 
above    the    roof,    and    shall    be    covered    with    fireproof    material    and    have    a 
skylight   covering    at    least    three-fourths   the   area   of   the   shaft. 

6.  All  openings   in  dumbwaiter  shafts  shall  be  provided  with  approved  self- 
closing   fire    doors. 

7.  No   woodwork   other   than   the   guides   and   car   shall   be   permitted   in   the 
construction   of  any  such   shaft. 

Dumbwaiter  shafts  in  frame  buildings,   Sec.    190,  par.  4. 

SECTION  92.  LIGHT  AND  VENT  SHAFTS. — i.  The  walls  of  all  light  or  vent 
shafts,  whether  exterior  or  interior,  shall  extend  not  less  than  3  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  roof  and  be  coped. 

2.  In  all  buildings  other  than  private  dwellings  and  frame  buildings,  all 
windows  opening  into  light  and  vent  shafts  shall  be  protected  by  fire  windows. 

SECTION  93.  ENCLOSURES  FOR  STAIRWAY,  ELEVATOR  AND  OTHER  SHAFTS  IN 
NON-FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. — i.  In  non-fireproof  buildings  of  ordinary  con- 
struction, all  shafts  defined  in  Sections  90,  91  and  92,  shall  be  constructed 
as  specified  in  those  sections,  except  as  herein  provided,  and  except  that  the 
enclosing  walls  or  partitions  may  be  of  semi-porous  or  porous  two  cell  terra 
cotta,  or  of  solid  gypsum  blocks,  not  less  than  5  inches  in  thickness;  or  4 
inches  of  reinforced  concrete.  The  thickness  of  'new  material  permitted  under 
test  as  specified  in  Section  90,  shall  be  not  less  than  4  inches.  Such  parti- 
tions shall  be  supported  by  steel  structural  framework  at  intervals  not 
exceeding  20  feet.  In  all  respects  the  reinforcement,  bracing,  and  protection 
of  steelwork  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  of  Section  90. 

Any  woodwork  other  than  guides  and  car,  exposed  on  the  inside  of  the 
shaft,  shall  be  covered  with  metal,  or  metal  lath  and  %  inch  of  cement  or 
cement-tempered  plaster,  or  their  equivalent. 

2.  Dumbwaiter    and    other    small    shafts    shall    be    constructed    the    same    as 
required  in   Section  90,  except  as  provided  in  paragraph  3. 

3.  Every    shaft    in    a    non-fireproof    building    that    extends    to    the    t^->    f^  — 
shall   continue    through    the    roof   and   at   feast    3    feet   above   it.      In   all    other 
respects,   shafts  in  non-fireproof  buildings  of  ordinary  construction,  shall  con- 
form to  the  requirements  of  Sections  90  and  91. 

4.  When    such    partitions   rest   upon   timber   construction,   they   shall    be    fire- 
stopped  with  incombustible  material  the  full  depth  of  the  floor  beams  at  each 
floor   level   in   the  manner  specified   in    Section    97,   paragraphs   2  and   3.      The 
fire  stopping   shall   be   placed   to    form   a   complete   cut-off  between   the    interior 
of  the  building  and  the   shaft. 

Enclosures  for  stairway  and  other  shafts  in  frame  buildings,  Sec.  190,  par.  4. 
When  stair  hallway  shall  be  enclosed  same  as  stairway,  Sec.    116,  par.  4. 

Miscellaneous   Construction   Requirements 

SECTION  96.  FLOOR  LIGHTS. — Floor  lights  shall  have  metal  or  reinforced 
concrete  frames,  and  shall  be  of  the  same  strength  as  the  floors  in  which 
they  are  placed.  The  glass  in  floor  lights  shall  be  not  less  than  %  inch  in 


318 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


thickness,  and  if  any  glass  measures  more  than  16  square  inches,  there  shall 
be  a  wire  mesh,  either  in  the  glass  or  under  it. 

SECTION  97.  FIRE-STOPPING.— i.  Furred  Walls. — For  all  walls  furred  with 
wood  the  masonry  between  the  ends  of  wooden  beams  shall  project  the 
thickness  of  the  furring  beyond  the  inner  face  of  the  wall  for  the  full 
depth  of  the  beams;  or  a  course  of  masonry  above  and  below  the  beams, 
shall  project  the  full  thickness  of  the  furring  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall. 
Fig.  27.  In  cases  where  floor  beams  are  parallel  to  a  wall  furred  with  wood, 
there  shall  be  a  space  of  not  less  than  2^  inches  between  such  wall  and  the 
nearest'  beam.  This  space  shall  be  filled  in  solidly  with  brickwork,  or  con- 
crete for  the  full  depth  of  the  floor  beams. 

2.  Studded-off  Spaces.  Where  walls  are  studded-off,  the  space  between  the 
inside  face  of  the  wall  and  the  studding  at  the  floor  level  shall  be  fi; estopped 


FIG.  27. — Method  of  fire-stopping  furred  brick  walls. 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


with  brickwork  or  other  approved  fireproof  material.  The  beams  directly 
over  the  studded-off  space  shall  be  deadened  with  not  less  than  6  inches  of 
fireproof  material,  which  shall  be  laid  on  boards  cut  in  between  the  beams. 
The  under  side  of  such  beams  shall  be  protected  by  a  covering  of  metal  lath, 
or  plaster  board,  and  plastered  to  a  total  thickness  of  %-inch. 

3.  Partitions. — Where    stud    partitions    rest    directly    over    each    other,    and 
cross    the    wooden    floor    beams    at    any    angle,    they    shall    run    down    between 
the    floor   beams   and   rest   on   the   top    plate   of   the   partition   below,    and    shall 
have  the  studding  filled  in   solid  between   the   uprights  the   depth  of  the   floor 
beams   and   at   least   4    inches   above   each   floor   level   with   brickwork   or   other 
approved    incombustible    materials.      Such    stops    shall    be    arranged    to   entirely 
separate    the    spaces    between    floor    beams    and    those    between    partition    studs 
in  a  manner  to  effectually  cut  off  draft  openings  from  story  to  story.     Fig.  28. 

When    sliding   doors   are    pocketed    in    partitions,    care    shall    be    exercised   to 
insure  that  such  pockets  be  completely  fire-stopped   at  top   and  bottom. 

4.  .Wainscoting. — The   surface   of   the   walls   or   partitions   behind   wainscoting 
shall   be   plastered   flush   with   the   grounds   and   down   to   the   floor  line. 

5.  Stairs. — The    space    between    stair    carriages    shall    be    fire-stopped    at   least 
once  in  the  middle  portion  of  each  run. 

V 


X. \TIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE 


319 


6.  No    fire-stops    shall    be    covered    or    in    any    manner    concealed    from    view 
until   approved   in   writing   by   the    Superintendent,    who   shall    inspect   the    same 
within    48    hours    after    receiving    written    notice,    Sundays    and    legal    holidays 
excepted. 

7.  Pipes,    Shafts    and    Belts.— All    exposed    pipes    or    power  shafting    passing 
through    any    floor    or    wall    shall    have    the    surrounding    air    space    closed    off 
at  the  ceiling  and  the  floor  line;  also  on  each  side  of  the  wall  by  close  fitting 
metal   caps.      See    Note,    Sec.    183.      In    fireproof   construction    it    is    preferable 
to  have  the  pipes  or  shafts  fit  neat  in  the  floor  or  wall. 

All  belt  drives  through  floors  shall  be  continuously  enclosed  by  steel 
framework  covered  with  metal  •  lath  and  cement  plaster,  or  other  approved 
incombustible  material.  Where  possible  all  such  belts  shall  be  placed  in  a 
special  shaft. 


Brick  or  other 
firestoppin<5 


Joists 


Supporting 
Partition  ^ 


Joists 


Partition  cap 

or 
Girder 


FIG.    28. —Fire-stopping   of   partitions. 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

8.  Ducts  and  Chases.— Ducts,  chases,  or  shafts  for  pipes,  wires,  cables 
and  for  similar  purposes,  shall  be  constructed  as  required  in  Sections  90-93, 
or  shall  be  fire-stopped  at  each  floor. 

Fire-stops    around    chimneys,    Sec.    77,    par.    4. 

Fire-stops   in    frame   buildings,    Sec.    190,    par.    5. 

SECTION  98.  REQUIREMENTS  IN  NON-FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS  USED  FOR  BUSI- 
NESS AND  RESIDENCE. — All  ordinary  construction  non-fireproof  buildings  of 
Classes  C  and  D  over  two  stories  or  35  feet  high,  where  the  lower  stories 
or  portions  thereof  are  used  for  business,  and  the  stories  above  for  resi- 
dence purposes,  shall  have  all  partitions  and  ceilings  separating  the  business 
portions  from  the  residence  portions,  covered  with  metal  lath  or  ^-inch  fibre 
plaster  board  and  plastered  with  cement  or  cement-tempered  plaster,  to  a 
total  thickness  of  %  inch;  or  plaster  board  may  be  covered  with  sheet  metal. 
Other  equivalent  fireproofing  may  be  used.  There  shall  be  no  windows  in 
such  partitions,  and  all  other  openings  shall  be  protected  by  fire  donrs. 

Stairway,  elevator  and  other  shafts  in  such  buildings,  shall  be  constructed 
in  conformity  with  requirements  of  Section  93. 


320  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Fire-stops  shall  also  be  provided  at  the  line  of  the  ceilings  to  completely 
cut  off  all  communication  to  floors  above  through  hollow  stud  partitions  or 
side  walls,  as  required  by  Section  97,  paragraphs  i,  2  and  3. 

NOTE. — Sheet  metal,  unless  backed  by  an  unbroken  layer  of  at  least  %  inch 
of  plaster  or  plaster  board,  is  not  considered  equivalent  to  either  of  the 
above  mentioned  methods  of  protection. 

Fireproof  Construction,  and  Fireproofing 

SECTION  no.  GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. — i.  The 
walls  of  every  fireproof  building  shall  be  constructed  as  specified  in  Sections 
21-30.  The  floor  and  roof  construction  shall  aonform  to  the  construction  and 
test  requirements  specified  in  Sections  111-113.  Reinforced  concrete  buildings 
constructed  as  specified  in  Part  XXII,  shall  be  classed  as  fireproof  con- 
struction. 

2.  The    space    between    the    floor    arches    or    slabs    and    the    floor    finish   shall 
be  solidly  filled  with  concrete  as  specified  in   Section   172.     The  filling  beneath 
wooden  flooring  shall  be  made  flush  with  the  under  side  of  the  fjpor  boards. 

3.  In   buildings   of  Class   E,   except  stables,   also   in   apartment   houses,   clubs 
and  hotels,  when  of  fireproof  construction,  the  floors  shall  be  made  impervious 
to  water;  they  shall  also  be  arranged  to  drain  to  scuppers  or  interior  drainage 
pipes,  provision  being  made  to  discharge   water  at  the  rate  of  300   gallons  per 
minute    per   each    1,000   square    feet   of   floor   area. 

NOTE. — This  requirement  is  made  on  the  assumption  that  in  case  of  a  fire 
there  would  be  at  least  one  hose  stream  playing  upon  each  1,000  square  feet 
of  floor  area  A  certain  amount  of  such  water  would  find  its  way  naturally 
to  stairway  and  elevator  shafts,  but  with  well  constructed  shaft  doors  the 
flow  of  water  at  such  outlets  would  be  greatly  retarded,  except  when  the 
doors  were  open  for  fire  fighting  purposes  or  for  other  cause.  Accumulation 
of  water  upon  an  prdinary  floor  is  sure  to  produce  very  serious  damage  to 
stock,  fittings,  and  decorations  upon  all  floors  below.  It  is  not  infrequent 
that  the  major  portion  of  the  resultant  loss  from  a  fire  in  a  fireproof  building, 
is  due  to  water  rather  than  fire.  Terra  cotta  and  cinder  concrete  floor  con- 
struction as  usually  installed,  leak  badly  when  flooded  with  water.  When 
a  fire  occurs  in  any  story  of  a  building  having  such  construction,  and  con- 
siderable water  is  used  to  extinguish  it,  the  property  loss  in  stories  below 
due  to  water  is  always  high  unless  waterproof  floor  surfacings  are  used.  The 
free  flow  of  water  through  such  floors  is  seriously  criticised  by  firemen.  It 
is  not  only  extremely  disagreeable,  but  it  hampers  their  work  and  introduces 
the  danger  of  falling  ceilings  as  well  as  possibility  of  overloading  floors  which 
are  heavily  stocked  with  absorbent  material. 

Incombustible  floor  surfacing^  should  be  made  continuous  with  the  base  on 
all  sides  of  the  room  to  a  height  of  at  least  6  inches.  Flashings  should  be 
provided  around  all  openings  through  floors  except  those  where  a  discharge 
of  water  would  produce  a  minimum  of  damage.  If  scuppers  are  not  desir- 
able to  remove  surplus  water,  drainage  pipes  connecting  to  gratings  located 
in  the  baseboard  or  at  other  suitable  points  may  be  provided.  When  floors 
have  a  granolithic  finish,  care  should  be  exercised  to  make  the  mixture  as 
dense  as  possible.  The  addition  of  iq  to  15  per  cent  by  volume  of  hydrated 
lime  is  recommended  to  reduce  porosity.  Wooden  floor  surfacing  should  be 
made  as  waterproof  as  practicable.  Waterproof  paper  is  sometimes  used  be- 
tween the  laj'ers  of  rough  and  finished  flooring,  but  this  increases  the  danger 
from  dry  rot,  unless  care  be  exercised  to  have  the  sleepers  and  rough  flooring 
thoroughly  dry  before  sealing  it  down  with  the  paper.  Antiseptic  treatment 
is  the  most  reliable.  See  Note  to  paragraph  5.  Similar  precautions  shall  be 
tiken  around  openings  through  wooden  floorings  as  for  other  floorings,  and 
the  joints  between  walls  or  partitions  shall  be  made  as  tight  as  practicable. 
The  lowest  floor  of  the  building  should  be  provided  with  adequate  facilities 
for  removing  surplus  water. 

4.  Except    as   permitted   in    Section   45,   paragraph    i,   all   shafts   and   public 
hallways    shall    be    enclosed    and    separated    from    the    rest    of    the    floor    space 
by    fire-resistive    enclosures,    as    specified    in    Sections    90    and    115,    and    shall 
have  floor  surfaces  and   trim   of  approved   incombustible   material.      The  stairs 
and   stairway  landings  shall  be   of  approved   incombustible  material. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  321 

5.  No    woodwork   or   other    combustible    material    shall    be    used    in    the   con- 
struction   of    any    fireproof    building,    except    wooden    floor    sleepers,    grounds, 
bucks,   and   nailing   blocks   when   entirely   embedded   in    incombustible    material; 
also  the   finish   flooring,   and  interior  doors  and  windows,   when  not  otherwise 
specified,    with    their    frames,    trim,    and    casings;    also    interior    finish    when 
backed  solidly  with  fireproof  material,  may  be  of  wood.     Wooden  wainscotings 
more  than   3    feet  high,   or  wooden  ceilings,   shall   not  be   permitted. 

NOTE  i. — Attention  is  called  to  the  grave  danger  of  dry  rot  attacking  floor 
sleepers  which  are  embedded  in  concrete  and  then  sealed  from  the  air  by  the 
floor  covering.  Instances  of  rapid  decay  and  serious  damage  from  this  cause 
are  numerous.  Well  seasoned  heartwood  timber  is  best  suited  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  antiseptic  treatment  is  recommended.  Coal  tar  antiseptics  are  not 
suitable  for  this  purpose  in  most  buildings.  The  odor  and  the  oily  surfaces 
are  disagreeable,  and  the  danger  from  fire  is  increased.  Wood  treated  with 
zinc  chloride  or  corrosive  sublimate  is  not  subject  to  such  criticism. 

NOTE  2. — For  the  highest  grade  of  fireproof  building,  incombustible  surface 
flooring  and  metal  trim  should  be  used.  Buildings  of  such  construction  are 
being  erected  in  numerous  cities,  and  are  considered  first-class  investments. 

6.  Exterior  wall  openings  shall  be  protected  as  required  in   Section   88. 
SECTION   in.     FIREPROOFING,  FLOOR  AND  ROOF  CONSTRUCTION. — i.   Fireproof 

construction  between  steel  floor  or  roof  beams,  shall  consist  of  segmental 
arches  of  brick  or  concrete,  or  of  segmental  or  flat  arches  of  hollow  terra 
cotta,  or  reinforced  cinder,  stone,  or  gravel  concrete;  or  of  such  other  equally 
fire-resisting  material  or  construction  as  may  be  approved  after  fire,  water, 
and  strength  tests. 

2.  All  segmental  arches  shall  have  a  rise  of   i%  inches  to  the   foot  of  span. 
Steel  tie-rods  of  proper  size,  spacing,  and  location  shall  be  used  in  all  arches 
to  properly  resist  the  thrust.     Such  tie  rods  shall  be  completely  encased  to  a 
depth    of    at    least    2    inches    in    fireproofing    material    which    shall    extend    into 
and   be    anchored    to   the   arch. 

NoTE.—Tie-rods  are  an  important  feature  of  segmental  and  flat  arch  floor 
construction  between  steel  beams.  In  general  the  rods  should  be  placed  as 
near  the  bottom  flanges  of  the  beams  as  consistent  with  proper  protection  by 
fireproofing.  It  is  good  practice  to  double  the  number  of  tie-rods  for  all 
outer  arches. 

Tie-rods  in   reinforced  concrete  fireproof  construction,   Sec.    171. 

3.  The   spacing   of   floor   or    roof   beams   in    fireproof   construction    shall    not 
exceed   8    feet   on   centers  except   when   the   slabs  between    them   are   composed 
of    reinforced    stone   or   gravel   concrete,    in    which    case    they   shall    be    limited 
by  the   design. 

4.  Brick   Arches. — Segmental  arches  of  brick   shall   have  a  thickness  of   not 
less  than  4  inches  for  spans  of  5  feet  or  less,  and  8  inches  for  spans  exceeding 
5    feet   and   not  exceeding   8   feet.      Brick   arches    shall    be   composed   of   good, 
hard    common    or    hollow    brick.      The    brick    shall    be    laid    to    a    line    on    the 
centers  and  properly  and  solidly  bonded;   each   longitudinal  line  of  brick   shall 
break  joints  with  the   adjoining  lines.      The   arches  shall  spring   from   suitably 
designed   solid   skewbacks   made    of   the   same   materials   as   the   arches,   and   be 
properly    keyed.      The    brick    shall   be    well    wet    before    laying,    and   the   joints 
solidly  filled   with  mortar. 

5.  Terra  Cotta  Arches. — Hollow  terra  cotta  tile  used  for  floor  or  roof  arches 
shall   be    hard   burned    or    semi-porous   and   of   uniform    density    and    hardness. 
All   terra   cotta   arches   shall   be    properly   keyed.      The    key   blocks    shall   always 
be  placed  within  the  middle  third  of  the  span. 

Segmental  arches  shall  have  sufficient  depth  between  the  top  and  bottom 
faces  to  carry  the  load  to  be  imposed,  but  not  less  than  6  inches.  The  tile 
shall  have  at  least  two  cellular  spaces  in  the  depth. 


322  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Flat  arches  shall  have  a  depth  of  not  less  than  i%  inches  for  each  foot  of 
span  between  the  beams,  this  not  to  include  any  portion  of  the  depth  of 
tile  that  projects  below  the  under  side  of  the.  beams.  The  total  depth  shall 
in  no  case  be  less  than  9  inches,  and  the  tile  shall  have  not  less  than  three 
cellular  spaces  in  the  depth. 

The  shells  of  arch  blocks  shall  be  not  less  than  %  inch  in  thickness,  and 
the  webs  shall  be  not  less  than  %•  inch  in  thickness.  Every  arch  block  shall 
have  at  least  one  continuous  vertical  internal  web  for  each  4  inches  in  width. 
There  shall  be  rounded  fillets  at  all  internal  intersections.  The  skewbacks  of 
all  hollow  tile  arches  shall  be  of  such  form  and  section  as  to  accurately  fit 
the  beams  and  properly  receive  the  thrust  of  the  arches,  and  shall  have 
shells  at  least  i  inch  thick,  and  webs  not  less  than  %  inch  thick. 

The  safe  working  load  on  terra  cotta  arches  shall  be  determined  by  design 
or  by  test.  The  allowable  extreme  fibre  stress  in  compression  in  terra  cotta 
floor  tile  shall  be  taken  as  500  pounds  per  square  inch  on  net  section. 

7.  Roofs. — Hollow  terra  cotta  or  concrete  tile,  or  solid  gypsum  blocks,  may 
be  used  for  fireproofing  between  the  steel  framework  of  roof  construction; 
but  such  tile  or  blocks  shall  be  not  less  than  3  inches  thick,  and  the  sup- 
porting steel  members  shall  be  spaced  not  mor,e  than  25  inches  on  centers. 
When  solid  blocks  or  tile  are  properly  reinforced  to  resist  the  bending  stresses, 
the  steel  supporting  members  may  be  spaced  not  to  exceed  30  inches  apart. 
The  bottom  flanges  of  steel  mernbers  shall  be  protected  as  elsewhere  provided. 

Thickness  of  stone  concrete  roofs,   Sec.    137. 

Thickness  of  cinder  concrete  roofs,  Sec.    169. 

Roof  coverings,   Sec.   80. 

SECTION  112.  FIREPROOFING,  PROTECTION  OF  STRUCTURAL  MEMBERS. — i.  Pro- 
tection of  Wall  Columns. — All  columns  which  support  steel  girders  carrying 
exterior  walls,  and  all  columns  which  are  built  into  walls  and  support  floors 
only,  shall  be  protected  against  corrosion  by  a  coating  of  Portand  cement 
mortar  at  least  %  inch  thick,  and  against  moisture  and  fird  by  a  casing  of 
masonry,  which  shall  be  not  less  than  4  inches  of  brick  or  3  inches  of  con- 
crete on  all  surfaces;  all  to  be  well  bonded  into  the  masonry  of  the  enclosing 
walls. 

NOTE. — Stonework  is  not  reliable  protection  for  steelwork  against  fire.  A 
fire  of  only  moderate  intensity  is  practically  sure  to  cause  it  to  be  ruined 
by  spalling,  and  the  metal  structural  members  behind  it  may  thereby  be 
exposed. 

2.  PROTECTION    OF    WALL    GIRDERS. — The    wall    girders    shall    have    a    casing 
of   Portland  cement  mortar  and  the  same   masonry   protection   as   required   for 
wall    columns,    all    to    be    securely    tied    and    bonded;    but    the    extreme    outer 
edge    of    the    flanges    of    beams,    or   plates    or    angles    connected    to    the    beams 
may   project   within   2   inches   of  the   outside   of  surface   of   such   casing.      The 
inside   surfaces   of   the   girders   shall   be   similarly   protected   by   masonry,   or   if 
projecting  inside  the  walls,  they  shall  be  protected  by  concrete,  terra  cotta,  or 
other   approved   fireproof  material   not   less   than    2   inches   thick. 

3.  All  metal  structural  members  which  support  loads  or  resist  stresses,   other 
than   those    provided    for   by   the   two   preceding  paragraphs,   shall   have   a   pro- 
tection   of    fireproofing    as    herein    specified.      The    protection    material    shall    be 
brick,  concrete,  terra  cotta,  or  gypsum  block.     Concrete  shall  be  of  the  quality 
prescribed  in   Sections    162-168;   terra  cotta  may  be  solid  or  hollow,   and  shall 
be  porous  or   semi-porous,   neither  shells  nor   vO'ebs   shall   be   less  than    %   inch 
thick;    gypsum   blocks   shall   be   solid   and  of   quality   approved   by   the    Superin- 
tendent.     Plaster   shall   not   be   considered   a   part   of'  any    required    fireproofing 
for    metal    structural    members    except    where    specifically    mentioned    as    such. 
See  paragraph   8,   also   Section    114. 


NATIONAL   UOAUD  BUILDING  Coin; 


323 


4  All  bricks  or  blocks  used  for  fireprooring  shall  be  set  in  Portland  cement 
mortar,  except  that  gypsum  blocks  may  be  set  in  gypsum  mortar.  See  note 
to  paragraph  5,  Section  115. 

5.  Interior  Columns. —  (a)  The  protection  shall  cover  the  columns  at  all 
points  to  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  3  inches  and  be  continuous  from  the 
base  to  the  top  of  the  column.  The  extreme  outer  edges  of  lugs,  brackets, 
and  similar  supporting  metal  may  project  to  within  i  inch  of  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  protection. 

NOD:. — Much  has  yet  to  be  learned  regarding  the  necessary  thickness  and 
methods  of  application  of  different  column  coverings  to  produce  efficient  fire 
protection.  The  investigations  on  this  subject  now  in  progress  at  the  Under- 
writers' Laboratories  in  Chicago,  will  furnish  much  needed  information.  When 
secured,  it  may  justify  changes  in  the  requirements  herein  made. 

(b)  If    brick    or    blocks    are    used    for    fireeproofing    columns,    they    shall    be 
accurately   fitted,    laid    with   broken   joints,   and   all   spaces   between   the    outside 
layer   and   the  metal   solidly  filled   with   masonry;    or  a  concrete   filling  may  be 
used.     No  voids  between  the  metal  and  the  protecting  casing  shall  be  permitted. 

(c)  Galvanized  steel  wire   not  smaller  than   No.    12   gauge,  shall   be  securely 
wrapped  around  block  column  coverings  so  that  every  block  is  crossed  at  least 
once    by    a    wire.      The    wire   shall    not    be    wound   spirally   around    the    column, 
but   each   turn   or   band   shall   be   a   separate    unit   and   shall   be   twisted   tightly 
or  •  otherwise    securely   bound.      Other   equivalent    anchorage   may    be   employed 
if    approved.      No    block    used    for    this    purpose    shall    exceed    12    inches    in 
vertical   dimension. 

NOTE. — Any  method  which  would  securely  lock  the  blocks  in  place,  or  hold 
them  by  substantial  interior  metal  ties,  would  be  superior  to  the  wire  wrapping 
above  described. 

(d)  Columns  located   in  damp  places  shall  receive  a  coat  of  at  least   i   inch 
of    Portland    cement    mortar    before    application    of    the    fireproofing. 

(e)  Columns  made  of  steel  or  wrought  iron   pipe  filled   with  concrete,  shall 
be   protected   by   at   least    ij,£    inches   of   fireproofing. 

(f)  Where  the  fireproofing  of  columns  is  exposed  to  damage   from  trucking 


Concrete 


Protection 


/--•-^S^%2Zg5~rv--fc 

I  3T 


Reinforcement  should  be 
held  in  fixed  position 
approximately  <ss  indicated. 


Concrete 


Protection 


'\\frong  Practice 
Reinforcement  too 
close  to  flande  to  furnish 
proper  support  for  concrete. 


FIG.  29. — Diagrams  indicating  proper  and  improper  reinforcement  for  concrete 
fire  protection  to  bottom  of  beams. 

Reproduced  by  permiason  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


324  FIR$  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

or  handling  of  merchandise,  the  fireproofing  shall  be  jacketed  on  the  outside 
for  a  height  of  not  less  than  3  feet  from  the  floor  with  metal  or  other 
approved  covering. 

6.  Protection   of   Steel^  Girders  and   Beams. — (a)    The  protection   of  the  webs 
and  bottom  flanges  of  girders,   and   all   members  of  trusses  shall   have  a   thick- 
ness of  not  less  than  2  inches  at  all  points.     The  protection  of  the  webs  and 
bottom    flanges    of    beams,    lintels,    and    all    other    structural    members    shall    be 
not  less  than    i1/^   inches  at  any  point. 

(b)  If  hollow  terra  cotta  tile  be  used  for  protection,  the  lower  flanges  of 
beams  and  similar  members  shall  be  encased  either  by  lugs  which  lorm  part 
of  the  skewbacks  and  extend  around  the  flanges  meeting  at  the  middle;  or 
by  tile  slabs  held  in  position  by  dove-tailed  lugs  projecting  from  the  skewbacks. 
In  either  case  care  shall  be  taken  to  insure  that  all  joints  be  solidly  filled 
with  mortar. 

7.  Concrete   protection    for   all   structural   members   shall    be   held    in   position 
by  suitably  designed  interior  steel   anchors   hooked  securely  around  the   flanges 
or   angles   of    the   members,    at   intervals    not   exceeding   8    inches   apart;    these 
anchors   shall    be    not    less   than    %    inch    in    thickness    if    flat   or    i/io    inch    in 
diameter   if  of  wire,   and  shall  be  located   at  a   distance   not  less   than   %   inch, 
or   more    than    i    inch    from   the   outside   surface.      Fig.    29.      Provision   shall   be 
made    to    prevent    displacement    of    anchors    while    concrete    is    being    deposited. 
When  the   flange  width  of  steel  members  exceeds  6  inches,  the  wire  used   for 
anchoring    the    concrete    protection    shall    be    not    less    than    %    inch    diameter. 

8.  Steel    angle    or    channel    struts,    or    other    structural    framing    not    else- 
where   provided    for,    which    are    used    for    support    in    any    wall,    partition,    or 
other    construction,    shall    be    fireproofed    as    required    in    Jhis    section,    or    in 
Section    115,    paragraph    4. 

9.  Metal    fronts   on   the    exterior   of   buildings   over   one    story    high    shall    be 
backed    up   or   filled   in   with   masonry   not   less   than   8    inches   thick. 

SECTION  113.  MISCELLANEOUS  FIREPROOFING  PROVISIONS. —  i.  Defective  or 
damaged  fireproofing  materials  shall  not  be  used.  All  fireproof  construction 
injured  or  damaged  after  being  erected  shall  be  repaired  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Superintendent  before  any  filling  or  finish  is  placed  over  same. 

2.  No    pipes,    wires,    cables    or    other    material    shall    be    incased    within    or 
embedded  in   the  required  fireproof  protection   of  columns  or  other   structural 
members. 

3.  All    metal    lath    and    plaster    ceilings    shall    be    supported    by    hnngers    or 
clamps    attached    to    the    floor    or    roof    construction    in    an    approved    manner. 
Such   supports   shall    be    of    such    section    and   weight    as    will    support   the    wet 
plaster    without    deflecting   more    than    1/30    inch    per    foot    of    span. 

4.  All    studding    for    metal    lath    partitions    or    wall    furring    shall    be    made 
from  steel  stock  weighing  not  less  than   0.5   of  a  pound  per  lineal   foot,   shall 
be  spaced  not   over   16  inches  center  to  center  and  shall  be   securely   fastened 
to    the    floor    and    ceiling    construction. 

5.  Metal    lath    shall    be    of    galvanized    steel    weighing    not    less    than    54    oz. 
per  square   yard.     Wire  lath   shall   be   not  less  than   No.    20   gauge,    and  sheet 
metal   lath  not  less  than   No.    24   gauge.      Metal  lath   shall   be  laced  to   the   sup- 
porting furring  or  studs  at  intervals  not  exceeding  6   inches. 

6.  After  floors  are  constructed,  no  opening  greater  than  2  square  feet  shall 
be   cut  through   them  unless  suitable   metal   framing  or   reinforcing   is   provided 
around  the  opening.     After  pipes  or  conduits  are  in  place,  all  openings  around 
them   shall  be  filled   in  solidly  with  fireproofing  material  unless  approved  close 
fitting  indivdual  sleeves  are  provided  as  specified  in   Section  97,  paragraph   7. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  325 

SECTION  114.  PROTECTION  OF  METAL  STRUCTURAL,  MEMBERS  IN  NON-FIRE- 
PROOF BUILDINGS. — Steel  girders  and  steel  or  iron  columns  which  support 
masonry  walls,  other  than  those  facing  upon  a  street,  shall  be  protected  by 
at  least  2  inches  of  fireproofing  of  the  same  materials  and  applied  in  the 
manner  specified  in  Section  112;  or  by  2  inches  of  metal  lath  and  cement 
plaster;  the  latter  being  applied  in  two  layers  with  an  air  space  between  them. 
All  other  iron  or  steel  columns  shall  be  protected  by  at  least  i  inch  of  metal 
lath  and  cement  plaster  or  its  equivalent.  .The  lath  shall  be  of  quality  speci- 
fied in  Section  113,  paragraph  5. 

NOTE. — -The  protection  of  metal  structural  members  in  non-fireproof  build- 
ings is  made  obligatory  only  for  members  supporting  walls  and  main  floor 
sections  which  in  a  fire  are  likely  to  collapse  suddenly  with  serious  danger 
to  firemen  and  wrecking  of  the  building. 

[fc  is  very  desirable,  however,  that  other  metal  members  which  support 
important  parts  of  a  non-fireproof  building,  such  as  roof  beams  and  trusses, 
should  have  at  least  a  minimum  protection  of  i  inch  of  metal  and  cement 
plaster,  or  other  equivalent  protective  material. 

It  is  well  known  that  steel  begins  to  lose  its  strength  at  about  500°  Fahr., 
and  at  1,000°  Fahr.,  approximately  70  per  cent  of  its  strength  is  gone.  Tem- 
peratures such  as  these  are  easily  reached  in  an  ordinary  fire,  and  if  main- 
tained even  for  a  short  time  are  almost  sure  to  produce  collapse  of  exposed 
steel  structural  members.  Loaded  cast  iron  columns  are  very  liable  to  frac- 
ture and  collapse  when  highly  heated,  especially  when  struck  by  a  stream 
of  water.  A  simple  sub-standard  protection  as  here  suggested  would  prevent 
such  failures,  and  might  easily  save  a  building  from  complete  ruin. 

Heavy  timber  construction  will  resist  collapse  from  fire  better  than  unpro- 
tected steel  work.  The  wooden  members  will  burn  and  help  spread  a  fire, 
but  it  takes  considerable  time  to  burn  them  deep  enough  to  reduce  the  strength 
sufficient  to  cause  failure. 

SECTION  115.  PARTITIONS  IN  FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS. — i.  In  "fireproof  build- 
ings, all  partitions  enclosing  public  halls  or  separating  the  spaces  occupied  by 
different  tenants,  and  all  other  permanent  partitions,  shall  be  built  not  less 
than  4  inches  thick,  of  solid  or  hollow  brick,  terra  cotta,  concrete,  or  gypsum 
blocks  or  tile;  or  not  less  than  3  inches  thick  of  reinforced  concrete  or  solid 
metal  lath  and  cement  plaster;  or  of  such  other  incombustible  materials  and 
thickness  as  shall  meet  the  requirements  of  the  partition  fire  test.  The 
required  thickness  for  block  or  tile  partitions  shall  be  exclusive  of  plaster. 
All  such  partitions  shall  be  securely  fastened  to  the  fireproof  construction 
of  the  floor  and  ceiling.  All  bricks,  blocks  or  tile  shall  be  laid  with  broken 
joints. 

2.  All  partitions  not  enumerated   above   shall  be  of  incombustible   materials, 
except  for  woodwork  permitted  in  Section   no,  paragraph  5. 

3.  All   partitions   in   fireproof   buildings  shall   be   independently   supported   at 
each    floor    level,    and    where    lateral    support    is    not    sufficient    they    shall    be 
stiffened    by    such    steel    reinforcement    encased    in    the    construction    as    the 
Superintendent   may   require  and  approve. 

4.  Structural    steel    members    necessary    for    supporting    a    partition,    or    for 
framing    doorways    or    other    openings    through    it,    shall    be    protected    by    at 
least   i    inch  of  fireproofing.     Cement  plaster,   or  cement-tempered  plaster  may 
be    accepted    for    this    purpose    if    properly    keyed. 

NOTE. — The  importance  of  fireproofing  structural  framework,  or  reinforcing 
me'mbeis  in  partitions,  must  not  be  ignored  or  underestimated.  It  is  a  fatal 
weakness  in  a  large  proportion  of  otherwise  very  efficient  constructions  of 
this  class.  In  nearly  every  fire  of  any  magnitude,  involving  high  grade 
construction,  fire  resistive  partitions  are  rendered  worthless  by  excessive  ex- 
pansion of  unprotected  steel  framework  contained  in  them.  In  some  cases 
expansion  joints  in  such  steel  members  have  been  used  with  success. 

5.  Reinforced  concrete  for  partitions  shall  be  as  required  in  Sections  120-125 
and    162-168.     Terra  cotta  tile  shall   be   porous  or  semi-porous  in   quality,   and 


326  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

if  hollow,  shall  have  two  cells  in  the  thickness,  with  the  thickness  of  shells 
inclusive  of  plaster  key,  not  less  than  % .  inch,  and  the  thickness  of  webs 
not  less  than  %  inch.  The  shells  and  webs  of  hollow  gypsum  or  concrete 
blocks  or  tile  shall  be  not  less  than  %  inch.  Gypsum  shall  be  used  only  in 
dry  locations.  Metal  lath  and  studding  shall  conform  to  the  requirements 
of  Section  113. 

NOTE. — Gypsum  blocks,  or  so-called  "  plaster  blocks,"  or  "  cinder  plaster 
blocks,"  have  a  high  percentage  of  absorption,  and  when  wet  they  lose  con- 
siderable of  their  strength.  They  should  not  be  used  in  contact  with  damp 
surfaces,  or  where  likely  to  become  wet.  Such  blocks  are  also  liable  to 
deteriorate  when  subjected  to  temperatures  in  excess  of  200°  Fahr.  for 
considerable  periods  of  time.  They  should  not  be  used  where  such  unusual 
temperatures  prevail. 

6.  All   openings   in   public   hallway   partitions   shall   be   protected   by   approved 
fire  doors  or  fire  windows.     Approved  fire  doors  may  be  permitted  in  a  parti- 
tion separating  tenants  in  a  building,  but  no  glnss  shall   be  permitted  in  open- 
ings  in   such   partitions. 

NOTE. — Openings  of  any  kind  in  partitions  separating  tenants  are  to  be 
avoided  wherever  possible.  They  are  always  a  source  of  danger  in  case 
of  fire. 

7.  If    a    stair    hallway    be    considered    as    a    part    of    the    stairway,    and    the 
latter  is  not  separately  enclosed  as  required  by  Section  90,   then  the  enclosing 
partitions   for  the  hallway  shall   be  considered   as   the  stairway   shaft,   md   shall 
be    built    according   to    the    requirements    of    Section    90. 

8.  If    the    partition    surrounding    a   public    hallway    be    erected    in    accordance 
with    the    requirements    for    a    fire    exit    partition,    it    may    be    considered    as    a 
horizontal  exit   for   an   occupancy  equal   to   area   of   the   hallway   in   square    feet 
divided    by   three. 

NOTE. — The  requirements  for  partitions  specified  in  this  section,  should  not 
be  interpreted  to  exclude  the  use  of  cork  or  other  material  not  readily 
flammable,  when  used  in  refrigeration  plants  for  insulating  purposes,  and 
when  installed  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  Superintendent. 

Fire   exit    partitions,    Sec.    47. 

Horizontal   exits,    Sec.    46,   par.    2    (c). 

SECTION  116.  FIRE-RESISTIVE  PARTITIONS  IN  NON-FIREPROOF  P.UJI.DINGS. — 
i.  In  non-fireproof  buildings  of  Classes  P>,  C,  D,  and  E,  all  partitions  enclos- 
ing public  hallways,  or  separating  the  spaces  occupied  by  different  tenants, 
shall  either  be  built  as  required  in  Section  115,  or  they  may  be  built  of  not 
less  than  3-inch  approved  solid  or  hollow  partition  blocks  or  tile,  or  by 
3-inch  hollow  or  2-inch"  solid  metal  studding  and  lath  with  cement 
plaster,  or  by  2x4  inch  wooden  studding  with  metal  lath  and  %  inch  of 
cement  or  cement-tempered  plaster  on  each  side;  or  of  any  other  materials 
and  thickness  as  shall  meet  the  requirements  of  the  partition  fire  test.  Wooden 
studs  shall  be  set  with  the  4-inch  dimension  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  wall. 

2.  All  such  partitions  shall  be  fire-stopped  the   full,  depth   of  the   floor  beams 
at   each   floor   level   in   the   manner   specified   in    Section   97. 

3.  Openings  in   such  partitions  shall   be  protected  by  fire  doors  and   windows 
as  specified  in  Section   115. 

4.  The     principles     governing    hallway     partition    construction     as    stated    in 
Section     115,    paragraphs    7    and    8,    shall    apply    to    the    construction/   of    like 
partitions     in     non-fireproof    buildings,     consistent     with     the     requirements     of 
Section    93    for    such    construction. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  327 

Reinforced   Concrete    Construction 
General   Requirements 

SECTION  117.  DEFINITION. — The  term  "reinforced  concrete"  in  this  Code 
shall  mean  an-  approved  concrete  mixture  in  which  steel  is  embedded  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  resist  the  tensile  stresses  and  to  add  rigidity  and  strength 
to  concrete  in  compression. 

SECTION  118.  APPROVED  FOR  ALL  TYPES  OF  BUILDINGS. — Reinforced  concrete 
will  be  approved  for  all  types  of  building  construction,  provided  the  design 
conforms  with  good  engineering  practice,  and  the  working  stresses  do  not 
exceed  those  herein  specified.  The  construction  shall  meet  the  requirements 
of  this  Code  in  all  respects,  and  in  addition  shall  conform  to  such  other 
rules  as  may  be  issued  by  the  Superintendent  of  Building  Construction  or 
State  authorities  having  jurisdiction. 

SECTION  119.  CONSTRUCTION  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS. —  i.  The  plans 
and  specifications  required  to  be  filed  with  the  Superintendent  shall  be 
accompanied  by  stress  computations  and  descriptions  showing  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  entire  construction  in  all  important  details,  including  the 
size,  length,  and  points  of  bending  of  all  reinforcement,  the  qualities,  pro- 
portions, and  methods  of  mixing  the  materials  used  in  the  concrete  and  the 
dead  and  live  loads  each  floor  is  designed  to  carry. 

2.  All     such     plans    and     specifications    shall    be    signed    by     the     architect, 
engineer,  contractor  or  person  applying   for  the  permit.      In   no  case   shall  the 
construction    deviate    from    the    approved    plan?    and    specifications    except    by 
written    consent   of   the    Superintendent   of    Building   Construction. 

Specifications   for   Materials 

SECTION  120.  QUALITY  OF  CONCRETE. — i.  The  concrete  shall  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  a  plastic  or  viscous  consistency  of  one  part  of  cement  to  not 
more  than  six  parts  of  aggregate,  fine  and  coarse,  either  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  of  cement,  two  parts  of  sand  and  four  parts  of  stone  or  gravel, 
or  in  such  proportion  as  to  produce  a  maximum  density.  Such  concrete  shall 
develop  a  crushing  strength  of  at  least  2,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  at  28  days 
when  made  under  laboratory  conditions  of  manufacture ;  the  materials  and 
consistency  being  practically  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  field.  Test 
specimens  shall  be  removed  from  moulds  as  soon  as  well  set  and  stored  in 
damp  sand  until  tested. 

NOTE. — For  important  work  the  best  proportions  of  the  component  materials 
should  be  carefully  determined  by  density  experiments  and  the  relative  pro- 
portions changed  to  meet  varying  sizes  of  fine  and  coarse  aggregate  to  secure 
maximum  density. 

The  concrete  mixture  should  be  of  such  consistency  that  tamping  will 
readily  bring  water  to  the  surface,  but  should  not  be  so  wet  that  the  coarse 
aggregate  will  tend  to  separate  and  settle  at  the  bottom.  Excess  of  water 
usually  leaks  from  the  forms  carrying  cement  with  it,  thus  weakening  the 
concrete,  and  leaving  it  porous  or  "  honey-combed."  » 

Weight   of   concrete,    Sec.    63. 

2  Concrete  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement  to  four  an  1  one-half 
parts  of  aggregate,  which  may  be  desirable  for  special  work  such  as  columns, 
shall  develop  a  crushing  strength  of  not  less  than  2,400  pounds  p/?r  square 
inch  at  28  days,  and  the  working  stress  of  such  concrete  may  be  increased 
-?o  j.er  cent  over  that  permitted  elsewhere  in  this  Part. 

3.  Each    test    shall    consist    of    a    set    of    at    least    three    duplicate    specimens 
j     in    the    shape    of    cylinders    with    a    height    of    double    the    diameter;    or    cubes 

having  a  least  dimension  of  6  inches.     Cubes  shall  be  tested  standing  on  bed 


328 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


and  75  per  cent  of  the  resulting  test  strength  shall  be  assumed  as  the  strength 
of  the  standard  cylinder  specimen  8  inches  in  diameter  and  16  inches  high. 
The  average  of  the  three  tests  shall  be  taken  as  the  result  for  record.  The 
smallest  dimension  of  the  test  piece  should  be  at  least  four  times  the  size 
of  the  coarsest  particle  of  stone. 

NOTE. — The  standard  form  of  concrete  test  specimen  generally  recom- 
mended by  testing  authorities  is  a  cylinder  8  inches  in  diameter  and  16  inches 
high.  This  shape  of  specimen  is  advised.  Moulds  for  such  specimens  are 
easily  made  by  splitting  sections  of  ordinary  stove  pipe. 

Quality    of    cinder    concrete,    Sec.    167. 

SECTION  121.  QUALITY  OF  CEMENT. — All  cement  used  in  reinforced  con- 
crete shall  be  Portland  cement. 

SECTION  122.  QUALITY  OF  FINE  AGGREGATE. — i.  Fine  aggregate  shall  con- 
sist of  sand,  crushed  stone,  or  gravel  screenings,  passing  when  dry  a  screen 
having  ^  inch  diameter  holes  and  not  more  than  6  per  cent  passing  a 
sieve  having  100  meshes  per  lineal  inch.  It  "shall  be  clean  and  free  from 
quicksand,  vegetable  loam,  perishable  organic  matter,  or  other  deleterious 
materials. 

NOTE. — Sand  with  a  gradation  of  grains  from  fine  to  coarse  is  desirable. 
Silt  in  sand  which  contains  a  small  percentage  of  organic  materials,  such  as 
vegetable  loam,  renders  the  aggregate  unfit  for  use.  Clay  in  small  quantities, 
not  exceeding  6  per  cent,  is  not  necessarily  injurious,  and  may  be  beneficial 
by  increasing  the  density.  Pit  and  stream  sands  are  usually  of  good  quality, 
but  drift  sand  is  ordinarily  of  too  fine  a  grain  to  make  good  concrete.  It  is 
recommended  that  the  mesh  composition  of  sand  shall  be  such  that  100  per 
cent  passes  a  ^4-inch  mesh  sieve;  that  not  more  than  75  per  cent,  and  not 
less  than  40  per  cent,  by  weight,  passes  a  20-mesh  sieve;  that  not  more  than 
30  per  cent,  and  not  less  than  2  per  cent,  passes  a  so-mesh  sieve;  and  that 
not  more  than  6  per  cent  passes  a  loo-mesh  sieve. 

The  quality  of  the  sand  used  in  concrete,  is  as  important  as  the  quality  of 
the  cement.  Failure  to  recognize  this  fact  has  produced  many  disastrous 
results. 

2.  Fine  aggregate  shall  always  be  tested.  It  shall  be  of  such  quality  that 
mortar  composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  three  parts  fine  aggregate 
by  weight,  when  made  into  briquettes  shall  show  a  tensile  strength  at  least 
equal  to  the  strength  of  i  :3  mortar  of  the  same  consistency  made  with  the 
same  cement  and  standard  Ottawa  sand,  and  shall  show  a  tensile  strength 
of  at  least  180  Ibs.'  per  square  inch  at  the  age,  of  7  days.  If  the  aggregate 
be  of  poorer  quality,  the  proportion  of  cement  should  be  increased  to  secure 
the  desired  strength. 

NOTE. — Standard  Ottawa  sand  is  a  natural  sand  obtained  at  Ottawa,  Illinois, 
which  is  prepared  and  sold  by  the  Ottawa  Silica  Company  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Special  Committee  on  Uniform  Tests  of  Cement  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  It  is  graded  in  size  to  pass  a  screen  having  20 
meshes,  and  be  retained  on  a  screen  having  30  meshes  per  linear  inch. 

SECTION  123.  QUALITY  OF  COARSE  AGGREGATE. — i.  Coarse  aggregate  shall 
consist  of  crushed  stone  or  gravel  which  is  retained  on  a  screen  having  ^ 
inch  diameter  holes,  and  shall  be  graded  in  size  from  small  to  large  particles. 
The  maximum  size  shAll  be  such  that  all  the  aggregate  will  pass  through  a 
1*4  inch  diameter  ring.  The  particles  shall  be  clean,  hard,  durable,  and 
free  from  all  deleterious  material. 

Aggregates    for    fireproofing,    Sec.     164. 

2.  Gravel  shall  be  free  from  clay  or  loam  except  such  as  naturally  adheres 
to  the  particles.  If  clay  or  loam  is  in  such  quantities  that  it  cannot  be 
readily  removed  by  dipping  in  water  or  brushing  lightly  with  the  band»  the 
gravel  shall  be  washed.  When  bank-run  gravel  is  used,  it  should  be  screened 
from  the  sand  and  remixed  in  the  proper  proportion  for  fine  and  coarse 
aggregate. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  329 

NOTE. — It  is  strongly  recommended  that  all  gravel  used  for  reinforced 
concrete  be  thoroughly  washed.  Attention  is  also  called  to  the  fact  that  pure 
quartz  gravel  is  not  as  good  a  fire-resisting  aggregate  as  trap;  also  that  lime- 
stone or  dolomite  is  likely  to  calcine  and  granite  to  spall  when  exposed  to 
high  heat.  Conglomerates  consisting  essentially  of  coarse  grained  sandstones 
make  good  concrete,  but  slate  and  shale  give  poor  results  as  a  rule. 

SECTION  124.  QUALITY  OF  REINFORCEMENT. — All  steel  used  in  reinforced 
concrete  shall  meet  the  requirements  of  the  current  Standard  Specifications 
for  Billet-Steel  Concrete  Reinforcement  Bars  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials.  No  reinforcement  produced  from  re-rolled  rails  or 
second-hand  materials  shall  be  used  in  any  structure  without  the  written 
permission  of  the  Superintendent.  If  such  reinforcement  be  permitted,  it 
shall  meet  the  requirements  of  the  current  Standard  Specifications  for  Rail- 
Steel  Concrete  Reinforcement  Bars  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials.  Cold  drawn  steel  wire  made  from  open  hearth  billets  of  the 
grade  of  rivet  steel  or  from  Bessemer  billets,  may  be  used  in  floor  and  roof 
slabs,  column  hooping,  and  reinforcement  for  temperature  and  shrinkage 
stresses.  It  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength  of  not  less  than  85,000  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  and  test  specimens  shall  bend  180  degrees  around  their  own 
diameter  without  fracture. 

i 

Factors   Controlling   Design 

SECTION  125.  ALLOWABLE  UNIT  WORKING  STRESSES. — In  the  design  of 
reinforced  concrete  structures  when  the  concrete  is  mixed  in  the  proportions 
of  1:2:4,  and  satisfies  the  strength  requirements  of  Section  120,  the  fol- 
lowing working  stresses  for  concrete  and  steel  shall  be  used: 

Lbs.  per 
Sq.  in. 

Extreme   fibre  stress   on  concrete  in  compression 650 

Concrete   in   direct   compression 500 

Shearing  stress  in  concrete  when  diagonal  tension  is  not  resisted  by  steel  40 

Shearing  stress,  in  concrete  when  web  reinforcement  is  proportioned  to 

resist  two-thirds  of  the  external  vertical  shear 120 

Bond   stress   between   concrete   and   plain   reinforcing   bars :...  80 

Bond   stress  between  concrete  and  deformed  bars 100 

Tensile    stress    in    steel    reinforcement 16,000 

Bearing  on  a  concrete  surface  having  a  total  area  at  least  three  times  the 
area  of  the  loaded  portion,  may  be  taken  at  37%  per  cent  of  the  ultimate 
strength  of  the  concrete,  when  all  other  stresses  are  properly  provided  for. 

Compressive  stress  in  steel  as  specified  in  Sections  142,  143  and  144,  or 
in  the  ratio  of  the  moduli  of  elasticity  of  steel  to  concrete. 

In  continuous  beams  the  extreme  fibre  stress  in  concrete  in  compression 
may  be  increased  15  per  cent  adjacent  to  the  supports. 

In  proportioning  the  section  of  concrete  for  shearing  stresses,  the  effective 
depth  from  center  of  compression  area  to  center  of  steel  shall  be  used. 

Stresses  in  concrete  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  i:i%:3  in  accordance  with 
Section  120  may  be  increased  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  above  stresses. 

Working  stresses  on  concrete  in   walls,   Sec.    147. 

Working  stress  on   cinder  concrete,   Sec.    167,   par.    5. 

Other  working  stresses  on  concrete,  Sec.  65,  par.  3. 

SECTION  126.  GENERAL  ASSUMPTIONS. — As  a  basis  for  calculating  the 
strencth  of  beams  and  slabs,  the  following  assumptions  shall  be  made: 

(a)  A   plane  section  before  bending  remains  plane  after  bending. 

(b)  The   modulus   of   elasticity   of   concrete   in   compression    remains   constant 
within   limits   of  working  stresses   fixed   in   this   Code. 

(c)  The   adhesion   between   concrete   and   reinforcement   is  perfect. 


330  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(d)  Concrete   has   no   value   in   resistance   to   tension. 

(e)  Initial   stress   in   the    reinforcement   clue    to   contraction   or   expansion    in 
the  concrete   is  negligible. 

(f)  The  ratio  of  the  moduli   of  elasticity  of    1:2:4  stone  or  gravel  concrete 
and   steel    inflexure   shall   be    taken   as    1:15. 

(g)  The  ratio  of  the  moduli  of  elasticity  of  i:i%:3  stone  or  gravel  concrete 
and  steel   inflexure  shall  be  taken   as    1:12.  , 

The  span  length  for  beams,  and  slabs  shall  be  taken  ns  the  distance  from 
center  to  center  of  supports,  but  need  not  lie  taken  to  exceed  the  clear  span 
plus  the  over-all  depth  of  beam  or  slab.  Brackets  shall  not  be  considered  as 
reducing  the  clear  span  in  the  sense  here  intended.  « 

Weight    of   concrete,    Sec.    63. 

Bending  Moments  of  Uniformly  Loaded  Floor  and  Roof  Slabs 

SECTION  127.  BENDING  MOMENTS  OF  SLABS  SUPPORTED  ON  Two  SIDES. — 
The  bending  moments  of  slabs  due  to  uniformly  distributed  loads  .shall  be 
taken  as  not  less  than: 

%    WL,   at   center   when   simply   supported. 

i/ 10  WL,  at  center  and  continuous  support  when  supported  at  one  end 
and  continuous  at  the  other. 

j/12  WL,  at  center  and  intermediate  supports  when  continuous  over  more 
than  two  supports. 

W  =  Total    distributed    dead    and    live    loads. 

L  =  Length   of   span. 

SECTION  128.  BENDING  MOMENTS  OF  SLABS  SUPPORTED  ON  FOUR  SIDES. — 
The  bending  moments  of  uniformly  loaded  slabs  supported  on  four  sides  and 
reinforced  in  both  directions  shall  lie  taken  as: 

y&    WL,    at    center    in    each    direction    when    simply    supported. 

iyio  WL,  at  center  and  continuous  support  when  continuous  ever  one 
support. 

i  1 12  WL,  at  both  center  and  supports  when  continuous  over  two  or  more 
supports. 

SECTION  129.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  LOADS. — The  distribution  of  loads  on  square 
and  rectangular  slabs  supported  on  four  sides,  shall  be  determined  by  the 
following  formula: 

/* 

~  /*  +  b* 

in  which  r  =  the  proportion  of  the  load  supported  by  the  transverse  reinforce- 
ment. 

/  =  length  of  slab. 

b  =  breadth    of    slab. 

If  the  length  of  the  slab  exceeds  i^j  times  its  width,  the  transverse  reinforce- 
ment   shall    be    designed    to    carry    the    entire    load. 

Bending   Moments   of   Uniformly    Loaded   Beams   and   Girders 

SECTION  130.  TERM  BEAM  DEFINED. — The  term  beam  ns  used  in  this  section 
shall  be  understood  to  include  the  term  girder,  unless  specific  distinction 
be  made. 

SECTION  131.  BEAMS  WITH  SIMPLE  OR  CONTINUOUS  SUPPORTS. — The  bending 
moments  of  uniformly  loaded  beams  shall  be  taken  as: 

l/s  WL,  at  center  when  simply  supported. 

i/io  WL,  at  center  and  over  continuous  support  when  supported  'at  one 
end  and  continuous  at  the  other. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  331 

i/i  2  WL,  at  both  center  and  supports  when  continuous  over  more  than 
two  supports. 

SECTION  132.  BEAMS  SUPPORTING  RECTANGULAR  SLABS. — i.  Beams  sup- 
porting rectangular  slabs  reinforced  in  both  directions,  shall  be  assumed  to 
take  the  proportions  of  load  as  determined  by  the  formula  in  Section  129. 

2.  The  bending  moments  of  slabs,  beams  or  girders  which  are  continuous 
for  two  spans  only,  shall  be  taken  as  1A  WL  over  the  central  support  and 
\ 1 10  \VL  near  the  middle  of  the  span. 

General  Design  Requirements  for  Beam  and  Slab  Construction 

SECTION  133.  SPECIAL  MEMBERS. — The  bending  moments  for  slabs  or  beams 
with  spans  of  unusual  length  or  due  to  other  than  uniformly  distributed  loads, 
shall  be  more  exactly  computed  according  to  accepted  theory. 

SECTION  134.  CONTINUOUS  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. — In  continuous  slabs, 
beams  or  girders,  full  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  negative  bending 
moments  over  the  supports  by  placing  sufficient  negative  reinforcement  near 
the  top  of  the  members  to  resist  the  stress.  This  reinforcement  shall  pass 
beyond  the  point  of  inflection  in  beams  or  girders  and  be  anchored  in  the 
compression  concrete  of  the  member  a  sufficient  distance  to  develop  the  full 
strength  of  the  steel  through  bond  stress.  The  critical  section  of  continuous 
construction  is  over  the  support.  l!*V 

NOTE. — -It  is  not  considered  best  practice  to  design  a  beam  as  simply  sup- 
1  .i>iu<l,  \vith  a  bending  moment  of  %  WL  at  the  center,  and  to  provide  an 
arbitrary  amount  of  reinforcement  over  the  support,  such  as  one-half  of  that 
at  the  center. 

SECTION  135.  WEB  REINFORCEMENT  IN  BEAMS. — i.  Members  of  web  re- 
inforcement in  beams  shall  be  designed  for  diagonal  tensile  stresses,  using 
the  calculated  vertical  siiearing  stress  as  a  measure  of  these  tensile  stresses. 
They  shall  not  be  spaced  to  exceed  three-fourths  of  the  depth  of  the  beam 
in  that  portion  where  the  web  stresses  exceed  the  allowable  value  of  the 
concrete  in  shear.  It  shall  be  assumed  that  two-thirds  of  the  external  vertical 
shear  is  provided  for  by  the  steel  in  calculating  the  stresses  in  stirrups, 
diagonal  web  members,  and  bent  up  bars;  and  the  remaining  one-third  of  the 
shear  shall  be  assumed  as  taken  by  the  concrete,  in  accordance  with  Sec- 
tion 125. 

2.  Web  members  such  afe  stirrups,  when  not  rigidly  attached  to  the  longi- 
tudinal steel  at  both  top  and  bottom,  shall  be  carried  around  and  bent  over 
the  longitudinal  members  or  otherwise  sufficiently  anchored  in  the  com- 
pression concrete  to  develop  the  tensile  stresses  existing  in  them.  Diagonal 
members  shall  be  rigidly  attached  to  the  longitudinal  steel  on  the  tension  side. 
Stirrups  at  the  ends  of  continuous  girders  shall  be  inverted  with  the  free 
ends  anchored  in  the  compression  concrete  at  the  bottom  of  the  beam.  The 
length  of  stirrups  or  diagonals  embedded  in  compression  concrete  shall  be 
sufficient  to  develop  their  entire  tensile  stresses  by  adhesion. 

SECTION  136.  T  BEAMS. — i.  Where  adequate  bond  is  provided  at  junction 
between  slab  and  beam,  and  the  two  are  cast  at  the  same  time  as  a  unit, 
the  slab  may  be  considered  as  an  integral  part  of  the  beam,  provided  its 
elective  width  shall  not  exceed  on  either  side  of  the  beam  one-sixth  of  the 
?pan  length  of  the  beam,  nor  be  greater  than  four  times  the  thickness  of  the 
slab  on  either  side  of  the  1>eam;  the  measurements  being  taken  from  line  of 
intersection  between  slab  and  beam. 

2.  In  beams  with  T  sections  the  width  of  the  stem  only  shall  be  used  in 
calculating  longitudinal  shear  and  diagonal  tension.  An  effective  bond  shall 
be  provided  at  the  junction  of  the  beam  and  slab  when  the  principal  slab 


332  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

reinforcement  is  parallel  to  the  beam,  by  the  use  of  transverse  reinforcement 
extending  over  the  beam  and  well  into  the  slab. 

3.  In  the  design  of  T  beams  acting  as  continuous  beams,  sufficient  com- 
pression area  shall  be  provided  on  the  under  side  at  the  support,  either  by 
the  use  of  properly  designed  brackets  or  by  embedding  additional  compression 
steel  in  the  concrete  extending  to  the  point  of  inflection. 

SECTION  137.  MINIMUM  THICKNESS  OF  SLABS. — The  minimum,  thickness  of 
concrete  floor  slabs  shall  be  4  inches,  and  for  roof  slabs  31/£  inches. 

SECTION  138.  FLOOR  FINISH. — Cement  or  concrete  floor  finish  shall  not 
be  considered  in  calculating  the  strength  of  floor  members  unless  it  be  laid 
at  the  same  time  they  are  cast. 

SECTION  139.  COMPOSITE  FLOORS. — The  design  of  composite  floors  consist- 
ing of  rows  of  hard-burned  terra  cotta  tile^  concrete  blocks,  sheet  steel^  or 
other  approved  fire  resistive  material,  separated  by  ribs  or  beams  of  reinforced 
stone  or  gravel  concrete,  shall  conform  to  all  the  provisions  of  this  Part  so 
far  as  they  are  applicable.  The  ribs  shall  be  at  least  5  inches  wide.  The 
tile  or  blocks  shall  be  regarded  only  as  fillers,  and  shall  not  be  t.onsidered 
in  the  design  except  as  dead  load.  If  designed  as  a  T-beam,  the  slab  portion 
above  the  fillers  shall  be  at  least  2^  inches  thick,  and  shall  consist  of  the 
same  mixture  used  for  the  ribs,  and  shall  be  cast  at  the  same  time;  under 
these  conditions  it  may  be  considered  in  the  design  of  the  ribs.  Tile  or 
concrete  block  fillers  shall  be  lai<J<lnvith  Portland  cement  mortar  joints,  and 
shall  be  thoroughly  wet  before  the  concrete  is  poured.  The  protection  for 
steel  bars  in  bottom  of  ribs  shall  be  the  same  as  for  other  beams. 

To  resist  expansion  stresses,  reinforcement  bars  not  less  than  ^  inch 
diameter,  shall  be  placed  in  the  concrete  at  right  angles  to  the  ribs  and  above 
the  fillers,  at  intervals  not  exceeding  30  inches. 


Design    of    Columns    and    Walls 

SECTION  140.  LENGTH  OF  COLUMNS. — The  length  of  columns  shall  be  taken 
as  the  maximum  unsupported  length. 

The  unsupported  length  of  columns  shall  not  exceed  fifteen  times  the  least 
side  or  diameter,  and  in  no  case  shall  the  least  side  or  diameter  be  less  than 
12  inches.  The  length  shall  include  any  corbel  or  knee  brace  attached  to  the 
column. 

SECTION  141.  COLUMNS  WITHOUT  HOOPS.— Axial  compression  in  reinforced 
concrete  columns  without  hoops,  bands,  or  spirals,  containing  not  less  than 
%  per  cent,  nor  more  than  3  per  cent  of  vertical  reinforcement,  secured 
against  lateral  displacement  by  steel  ties  placed  not  farther  apart  than  fifteen 
diameters  of  the  vertical  rods,  nor  more  than  12  inches,  shall  not  exceed 
500  pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  effective  area  of  the  concrete,  plus  6,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  vertical  reinforcement.  The  percentage  of 
reinforcement  shall  be  calculated  upon  the  effective  area  of  the  column,*  which 
is  the  area  within  the  reinforcement.  Steel  ties  shall  be  not  less  than  */4  inch 
in  diameter  or  least  dimension.  At  least  four  vertical  bars  shall  be  used 
in  every  reinforced  column,  and  no  bar  shall  have  an  area  of  less  than  y± 
square  inch. 

NOTE. — Round  reinforced  concrete  columns  are  better  adapted  to  resist  fire 
than  square  ones.  The  latter  spall  badly  at  the  corners,  due  to  unequal 
expansion,  when  attacked  by  intense  heat.  A  round  column  or  one  approxi- 
mating that  shape  should  be  used  wherever  liable  to  be  subjected  to  fire. 
Some  authorities  advocate  the  encasing  of  concrete  columns  by  a  protective 
covering  of  some  material  to  prevent  spalling.  Round  concrete  columns  pro- 
tected by  only  an  inch  of  plaster  on  metal  lath,  are  known  to  have  resisted 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  333 

an  intense  fire  excellently;  this  indicates  that  even  such  protection  is  worthy 
of  careful  consideration.  In  such  construction  the  metal  lath  should  be  held 
si-i-urely  in  place  by  metal  clips  anchored  into  the  concrete.  Wraoping  the 
lath  with  wire  is  not  sufficient. 

Strength   test   requirements    for   concrete   and  steel,    Sees.    120   and    124. 

SECTION  142.  COLUMNS  WITH  HOOPS. — Axial  compression  in  reinforced 
concrete  columns  with  not  less  than  i  per  cent  of  hoops  or  spirals  (that  is, 
a  volume  of  steel  equal  to  i  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  concrete  within  the 
hoops  or  spirals  for  a  unit  length  of  column)  spaced  not  farther  apart  than 
one-sixth  of  the  diameter  of  enclosed  column,  but  in  no  case  more  than  3 
inches,  with  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  4  per  cent  of  vertical  reinforce- 
ment, shall  not  exceed  759  pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  effective  area  of 
the  concrete,  plus  9,000  pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  vertical  reinforcement. 
The  hoops  or  spirals  shall  be  uniformly  spaced,  and  shall  be  rigidly  attached 
to  at  least  four  vertical  bars  in  each  convolution. 

Columns  required  to  be  settled  before  being  built  upon,  Sec.  157,  par.  2. 

SECTION  143.  STRUCTURAL  STEEL  AND  CONCRETE  COLUMNS. — Axial  com- 
pression in  structural  steel  columns  thoroughly  encased  in  concrete  having 
a  minimum  thickness  of  4  inches  and  reinforced  with  not  less  than  i  per 
cent  of  steel  (fhat  is,  a  volume  of  steel  equal  to  i  per  cent  of  the  volume 
of  concrete  within  the  hoops)  equally  divided  between  vertical  reinforcement 
and  hoops  or  spirals  spaced  not  more  than  12  inches  apart,  may  be  taken 
at  16,000  pounds  j>er  square  inch  on  the  net  section  of  the  structural  steel, 
no  allowance  being  made  for  the  concrete  casing.  The  hoops  or  spirals  shall 
be  placed  not  nearer  than  i  inch  from  the  structural  steel,  or  nearer  than 
lU  inches  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  concrete.  The  ratio  of  length  to 
least  radius  of  gyration  of  the  structural  steel  section  shall  not  ex-reed  120. 

Working  stresses   for  structural  steel,   Sec.  65. 

SECTION  144.  COLUMNS  CONSTRUCTED  WITH  SPECIAL  CONCRETE. — In  rein- 
forced concrete  columns  the  compression  on  the  concrete  may  be  increased 
20  per  cent  when  the  fine  and  coarse  aggregates  are  carefully  selected,  and 
the  proportion  of  cement  to  total  aggregates  increased  to  one  part  of  cement 
to  not  more  than  four  and  one-half  parts  of  aggregate,  fine  and  coarse,  either 
in  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement,  one  and  one-half  parts  of  sand  and 
three  parts  of  stone  or  gravel,  or  in  such  proportions  as  will  secure  the 
maximum  density.  The  unit  stress  on  the  vertical  reinforcement  in  such 
columns  shall  not  exceed  twelve  times  the  unit  stress  on  the  concrete. 

SECTION  145.  COLUMNS  ECCENTRICALLY  LOADED. — Bending  stresses  in  columns 
due  to  eccentric  loads,  shall  be  provided  for  by  increasing  the  section  of  con- 
crete or  steel  so  that  the  total  unit  stress  shall  not  exceed  the  allowable 
working  stress  in  flexure. 

SECTION  146.  STEEL  BASE  PLATES. — Suitable  steel  base  plates  or  castings 
shall  be  provided  at  the  bottom  of  columns  to  distribute  the  loads  over  the 
footings,  and  the  vertical  reinforcement  bars  shall  bear  squarely  on  these 
plates,  or  the  reinforcing  bars  shall  be  carried  down  into  an  enlarged  footing 
to  distribute  the  load  thrjugh  bond  stress. 

SECTION  147.  WALLS. — Exterior  and  interior  bearing  and  non-bearing  wa:is 
of  reinforced  concrete  shall  be  securely  anchored  to  all  intersecting  walls, 
columns,  and  floors,  and  the  allowable  compressive  stress  shall  not  exceed 
250  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  thickness  shall  be  not  less  than  two-thirds 
that  specified  for  brick  walls,  and  in  no  case  less  than  8  inches.  All  such 
"•alls  shall  be  reinforced  with  steel  running  both  horizontally  and  vertically. 
The  amount  of  reinforcement  shall  be  not  less  than  1/5  of  i  per  cent  of  the 
cross-section  of  the  wall,  and  shall  be  equally  disposed  near  each  face  of 
the  wall;  except  that  in  walls  or  partitions  8  inches  or  less  in  thickness,  the 


334  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

reinforcement  may  be  placed  as  a  single  layer  in  the  middle.  Reinforcement 
shall  not  be  spaced  more  than  18  inches  apart.  Additional  reinforcement  shall 
be  placed  around  wall  openings,  and  all  vertical  and  horizontal  reinforcement 
shall  be  wired  or  have  other  mechanical  bond  at  intervals  not  exceeding  18 
inches  in  either  direction. 

Reinforced   concrete    partitions,    Sees.    90   and    115. 


General    Provisions    for    Design    of    Girderless    Floors    or    Flat 

Slabs 

SECTION  148.  GIRDKKLKSS  FLOORS. —  i.  Girderlees  floors  or  flat  slabs  con- 
sisting of  reinforced  concrete  slabs  resting  upon  columns  with  flaring  heads, 
with  or  without  drop  heads  or  column  caps,  and  in  which  no  beams  or  girders 
are  used,  except  around  openings  in  the  floor  or  along  walls,  shall  be  designed 
in  accordance  with  the  bending  moment  coefficients  and  stresses  specified  in 
this  Code.  No  empirical  formulas  based  on  the  results  of  tests  shall  be 
permittedt  but  the  design  shall  in  general  be  based  upon  the  principles  of 
continuous  or  cantilever  construction  as  herein  indicated. 

2.  The   methods   of   analysis   shall   be   as   follows: 

(a)  The   portion   of  the   slab   adjacent   to   the   column   shall   be   considered    as 
a  circular  plate   supported  at  the  center   forming  the   cantilever  portion.      The 
remainder    of    the    slab    shall    be    considered    as    a    simply    supported    portion 
suspended     from     the     cantilever     plates.       The     cantilever     portion     shall     be 
designed    for    a    uniform    load    over   its    area    equal    to    the    live    and    dead    load 
on    that    area    plus    a    concentrated    load    on    its    perimeter    equal    to    the    floor 
load  resting  on  the  suspended  portion  of  the  slab.     The  radius  of  the  cantilever 
plate  shall  be  the  average  distance  from  the  center  of  the  column  to  the  points 
of  inflection  of  the  slab. 

(b)  Or   the   slab   may   be   considered   as  consisting   of   a   series   of   continuous 
broad,    flat,  x  girders    reinforced    with    bands    of    steel    consisting    of    rods    sup- 
ported at  the   top   of  the  slab   over  the  columns   and   depressed  to   the   bottom 
of  the  slab  at  the  center  of  the  span.     These  bands  of  reinforcement  may  be 
arranged    to    run    in    two    directions    directly    from    column    center    to    column 
center;    or    in    four    directions,    the    former    bands    being    combined    with    rein- 
forcement  running   diagonally    from   column   to    column. 

SECTION  149.  COLUMNS  FOR*  GIRDERLESS  FLOORS. —  i.  The  column  capital 
shall  have  a  diameter  or  least  side  at  the  top  in  no  case  less  than  0.225  L 
where  L  is  the  length  of  side  of  the  square  equivalent  to  the  area  of  the 
rectangle  included  between  four  adjacent  columns.  The  thickness  of  the 
column  capital  at  this  diameter  shall  be  not  less  than  1*4  inches.  The  slope 
of  the  column  capital  shall  nowhere  exceed  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
vertical. 

2.  A  depressed  head  or  "  drop  "  may  be  cast  above  the  column  capital  and 
the    dimensions    of    this    cap    shall    be    not    less    than    0.4    of    the    side    of    the 
equivalent  square  panel. 

3.  The    point    of    inflection    shall    be    assumed    iJ6    V3^    from    the    center 
of  the   column. 

4.  The   width    of   bands   shall   be   such   as  to   properly   cover   the   panel   area, 
but   shall   not  be   wider  than   0.4  times  the   side   of  the  square  panel.      Where 
steel    is    provided    in    two    directions    only,    the    central    portion    of    the    panel 
shall  be  considered  as   a   slab  supported   on   four  sides. 

5.  Punching    shear    shall    be    calculated    at    the    edge'   of    the    column    shaft 
iatnd  shall  not  exceed   120  Ibs.   per  sq.  inch.      In  computing  shearing  stress  for 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  335 

the  pin  pose  uf  determining  resistance  to  diagonal  tension,  a  point  shall  be 
taken  at  a  distance  out  from  the  column  capital  equal  to  the  effective  depth 
of  the  slab. 

6.  Working  stresses  and  coefficients  shall  in  general  comply  with  Sections 
i  _'5,  and  127  to  132,  inclusive,  of  this  Code.  In  rectangular  panels,  the  long 
dimension  shall  not  be  more  than  four  thirds  times  the  short  dimension. 
Interior  columns  shall  be  capable  of  resisting  the  unbalanced  bending  moment 
produced  by  a  panel  with  live  load  adjacent  to  a  panel  without  live  load. 
Floor  slabs  at  walls  shall  be  considered  as  simply  supported  on  walls  or 
wall  beams.  If  the  proportion  of  the  slab  adjacent  to  a  wall  column  is 
assumed  as  a  cantilever,  the  wall  column  or  pier  shall  be  capable  of  resisting 
the  unbalanced  moment  produced  by  such  cantilever.  Bars  for  negative 
tending  moment  shall  extend  at  least  to  the  quarter  point  of  the  span,  and  if 
the  bars  have  a  greater  diameter  than  %  inch,  special  attention  shall  be 
given  to  bond  and  anchorage. 

Requirements  for  Reinforcement 

SECTION  150.  EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  DEFECTS. — All  reinforcement  shall 
be  free  from  excessive  rust,  scale,  grease,  paint  or  any  coating  which  would 
tend  to  reduce  or  destroy  the  bond  between  the  steel  and  the  concrete.  Bars 
shai'  also  be  free  from  injurious  seams,  slivers,  flaws,  and  other  mill  defects. 
The  weight  of  any  lot  of  bars  shall  not  vary  more  than  5  per  cent  from 
the  standard  weight  of  the  lot  as  given  by  manufacturers'  handbooks. 

SECTION  151.  PLACING  AND  SPACING  OF  REINFORCEMENT. — All  reinforce- 
ment shall  be  accurately  located  and  mechanically  secured  against  displacement 
during  the  placing  of  the  concrete.  Reinforcement  bars  for  slabs  shall  not 
be  spaced  farther  apart  than  two  and  one-half  times  the  thickness  of  the 
slab.  The  spacing  of  parallel  bars  in  beams  shall  be  not  less  than  three 
diameters  from  center  to  center,  nor  less  than  one  inch.  The  clear  spacing 
between  two  layers  of  bars  shall  be  not  less  than  one  inch.  In  restrained 
or  cantilever  construction  reinforcement  shall  extend  beyond  the  supports 
into  adjacent  construction  for  full  and  effective  anchorage,  except  that  when 
this  is  not  practicable,  anchorage  shall  be  obtained  by  other  means  acceptable 
t"  the  Superintendent.  Special  reinforcement  shall  be  provided  to  resist 
concentrated  loads.  Slabs  reinforced  in  one  direction  only,  shall  have 
shrinkage  rods  not  less  than  *4  inch  in  diameter  placed  above  the  reinforce- 
ment and  spaced  not  over  2  feet  apart.  All  reinforcement  shall  be  assembled 
\vill  in  advance  of  the  placing  of  the  concrete,  and  shall  be  inspected  and 
approved  by  the  Superintendent  before  concrete, is  deposited. 

SECTION  152.  PROTECTION  FOR  REINFORCEMENT. — Steel  reinforcement  shall 
IKIVO  a  minimum  protection  of  concrete  on  all  side's  as  follows: 

In  columns  and  girders,  2  inches;  in  beams  and  walls,  i%  inches;  and 
in  floor  slabs,  i  inch. 

'I  lie  steel  in  footings  for  walls  and  columns  shall  have  a  minimum  protec- 
tion of  4  inches  of  concrete. 

SECTION  153.  SPLICES  IN  REINFORCEMENT. — Splices  in  reinforcing  bars 
shall  be  designed  to  transfer  the  calculated  stress  at  the  joint  either  by 
bond  and  shear  through  the  concrete,  or  by  bearing  between  the  steel. 
Splices  at  ^points  of  maximum  stress  shall  be  avoided  where  possible.  Lap 
splices  of  bars  shall  be  of  sufficient  length  to  develop  the  required  stress  in 
the  joint  without  exceeding  the  bond  stress  permitted.  In  columns  where 
necessary  to  splice  vertical  bars  having  areas  in  excess  of  i*4  sq.  inches, 
it  shall  be  done  by  cutting  the  bars  squarely  at  the  ends  and  enclosing  them 
in  a  close-fitting  pipe  sleeve,  or  uniting  them  by  a  threaded  splice  or  other 


336 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


mechanical  connection  that  will  transfer  the  load  from  one  to  the  other 
without  stressing  the  adjoining  concrete  excessively.  The  middle  point  of 
such  splices  shall  be  within  one  foot  above  the  floor  level.  Splices  in  column 
hooping  where  necessary,  shall  be  sufficient  to  develop  the  full  strength  of 
the  hooping. 

Workmanship    for   Concrete 

SECTION  154.  MIXING. — i.  The  separate  ingredients  of  concrete  shall  be 
accurately  measured,  and  thoroughly  mixed  in  a  manner  to  produce  a  homo- 
geneous mass  of  uniform  color  and  of  such  a  viscous  consistency  that  it  will 
flow  to  all  parts  of  the  forms  without  separation  of  the  coarse  aggregate 
from  the  mortar. 

NOTE. — It  is  usual  practice  to  consider  a  bag  of  Portland  cement  weighing 
not  less  than  94  Ibs.,  as  equivalent  to  one  cubic  foot. 

2.  Except  when  limited  quantities  are  required,  or  when  the  conditions  of 
the  work  make  hand  mixing  preferable,  mixing  shall  be  done  in  a  mechanical 
batch  mixer  from  which  a  complete  batch  shall  be  discharged  before  another 
is  received.  All  ingredients  shall  be  mixed  together  for  at  least  one  minute, 
the  mixer  making  at  least  20  revolutions.  The  speed  of  the  mixer  shall  not 
exceed  20  revolutions  per  minute.  In  all  cases,  the  mixing  shall  be  continued 
until  the  consistency  is  constant. 

SECTION  155.  DEPOSITING. — i.  Concrete  shall  be  deposited,  thoroughly 
tamped  and  worked  to  place  before  initial  set  begins,  and  shall  then  be  kept 
free  from  shocks  and  disturbances  of  every  kind  until  it  has  fully  hardened. 
Retempering  of  concrete  after  its  initial  .set  shall  be  prohibited. 

2.  When   the    work   of   placing   concrete    is   suspended,    all    necessary   grooves 
for  joining  future  work  shall  be  made  before  the  concrete  sets. 

3.  Before    depositing    new    concrete    upon    concrete    already    set,    the    contact 
surfaces   shall    be    roughened,    cleaned   of   all    laitance    and    loose    material,   and 
then    drenched    with    water   and    slushed    with    a    grout    consisting   of   one   part 
Portland    cement    and    not    more    than    two    parts    fine    aggregate    immediately 
before    placing    the    fresh    concrete.      If    a    watertight    joint    is    desired,    or    if 
granolithic    is    to    be    deposited    on    old    concrete,    it    is    necessary    that    a    neat 
cement    grout   be    used. 

SECTION  156.  DRYING  AND  FREEZING. — i.  When  fresh  concrete  is  exposed 
to  rapid  drying  conditions,  precautions  shall  be  taken  to  keep  it  moist  for  a 
period  of  at  least  seven  days  after  being  deposited.  Where  practical  this 
shall  be  done  by  a  covering  of  wet  sand,  burlap  or  some  other  equally  effec- 
tive method.  Thorough  wetting  twice  a  day  is  recommended. 

2.  In  freezing  weather  all  materials  used  in  making  concrete,  particularly 
the  coarse  aggregate,  shall  be  heated,  and  precautions  shall  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  concrete  freezing  while  being  'deposited;  and  thereafter  it  shall  be  kept 
above  40  degrees  until  the  concrete  has  obtained  its  final  set,  but  such  period 
shall  be  not  less  than  72  hours. 

SECTION  157.  JOINTS. — i.  Construction  joints  shall  be  avoided  wherever 
practicable,  but  when  they  are  necessary  they  s^iall  be  located  at  such  sections 
as  will  least  affect  the  structural  strength  and  shall  be  made  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  principal  compressive  stress.  In  members  of  floor  systems, 
joints  shall  be  made  within  the  middle  third  of  the  span  where  practicable. 
In  columns,  joints  shall  only  be  permitted  at  the  bottom  face  of  the  lowest 
connecting  floor  members.  Temperature  changes  and  shrinkage  during  setting 
necessitate  joints  in  independent  walls  at  intervals  of  50  to  80  feet  when 
not  otherwise  provided  for  by  effective  reinforcement. 

NOTE. — To  provide  for  stresses  due  to  contraction  in  setting  and  atmospheric 
temperature  changes  in  long  reinforced  concrete  buildings,  it  is  customary  to 
construct  expansion  joints  across  the  buildings  at  intervals  of  about  200  feet. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  337 

2.  Girders,  beams,  and  slabs  shall  not  be  cast  upon  freshly  formed  columns 
until  a  period  of  4  to  6  hours  have  elapsed  to  permit  settlement. 

SECTION  158.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  FORMS.— i.  Forms  shall  be  substantial  and 
unyielding,  and  care  shall  be  exercised  to  make  them  as  nearly  water-tight 
as  practicable. 

2.  Care    shall    be    taken    to    insure    that    all    debris    is    removed    from    forms, 
and   that   they   are   thoroughly   greased   or  wetted   before   concrete   is   deposited 
in    them.      Beam    forms    shall    be    so    designed    that    at    least    one    side    may    be 
removed    without    disturbing    the    bottom    portion    of    the    forms    and    its    sup- 
ports;   and    column    forms,    so    that    they    may    be    removed    without    disturbing 
beam    and    slab    forms.      Cleanout    holes    shall    be    provided  .in    the    bottom    of 
column   forms  where  necessary  to  insure  the  removal   of  wood   chips  or  other 
debris. 

NOTE. — jf  is  considered  good  practice  to  give  a  slight  camber  to  forms  for 
beams  and  girders  to  overcome  the  effects  of  the  unavoidable  settlement. 

SECTION  159.  REMOVAL  OF  FORMS. —  i.  The  time  for  the  removal  of  forms 
shall  always  be  subject  to  approval  by  the  Superintendent. 

NOTE.— It  is  recommended  that  forms  shall  in  no  case  be  removed  in  less 
time  than  fixed  in  the  following  schedule,  except  by  written  permit  from  the 
Superintendent.  This  schedule  presupposes  that  the  concrete  has  been  de- 
posited  while  the  outside  temperature  was  above  40°  Fahr.,  with  a  rising 
temperature,  and  that  ample  supports  are  left  to  carry  the  construction  and 
any  superimposed  loads. 

Schedule 

i:  >tt<iin  of  slabs,  spans  of  6  feet 4  days 

Plus    i    day   extra    for   each    additional    foot    of   span. 

I'.ottom  of  beams  and  girders  of  ordinary  length 14  days 

Reams   of   span   of   20    feet 21  days 

Sides  of   lintels,   girders   and   beams 3  days 

Columns 3  days 

Thin     wall-,     3  days 

j.  Girders  of  25-foot  span  or  over  shall  be  considered  as  special  -cases  and 
shall  be  subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  Superintendent  before  removal  of 
the  supports. 

3.  Composite   floors,   same   as    for   ordinary   beams. 

4.  All   reinforced   concrete   shall   be   carefully   inspected   to   insure   its   sound- 
ness   and    reliability   before    main    supports    are    removed. 

5.  No    loads    shall    be    placed    upon    a    reinforced    concrete    floor    before    the 
removal    of    the    form    supports,    which    would    in    any    way    tend   to   overstress 
such   supports  or  those  below. 

6.  Special    care   shall   be    observed   in    removing    forms    when    the    concreting 
lias  been  done  in  cold  weather.     Concrete  which  has  frozen  accidentally  before 
setting,   shall   be   thawed  and   kept   thawed    until   it   is  determined   whether  the 
cement    will    set.      In    this    case,    sufficient    water    shall    be    provided    for    the 
cement   to   hydrate   during  this   action. 

NOTK. — A  special  permit  should  be  obtained  for  removal  of  forms  from 
concrete  deposited  when  the  outside  temperature  was  below  32°  Fahr.;  and 
the  number  of  days  required  should  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  time  the  temperature  remained  below  32°  Fahr.  after  the  concrete  was 
deposited.  \ 

SECTION  161.  INSPECTION. — Every  reinforced  concrete  building  shall  be 
erected  under  the  constant  supervision  of  a  reputable  and  competent  inspector 
furnished  by  the  owner  or  architect,  and  acceptable  to  the  Superintendent. 
It  shall  be  th#  duty  of  the  inspector  to  keep  a  daily  record  of  the  work 
done,  to  observe  whether  the  materials  employed,  and  the  methods  of  con- 
struction are  in  all  respects  in  accord  with  the  specifications  filed  with  the 
Superintendent,  and  the  requirements  of  this  Code;  and  to  make  record  of 


338  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

all  variations  therefrom.  .  A  copy  of  these  daily  reports  shall  be  filed  with 
the  Superintendent,  who  is  empowered  to  stop  any  improper  construction  until 
its  faults  are  corrected,  or  to  cause  the  removal  of  any  defective  work  which 
he  may  consider  dangerous. 

A  set  of  plans  shall  be  on  file  at  the  building  upon  which  the  Superin- 
tendent shall  mark  in  ink  the  progress  of  the  work,,  and  state,  the  time,  and 
dates  -on  which  concrete  for  each  portion  of  the  structure  was  deposited; 
and  the  Superintendent  shall  indicate  thereon  the  date  upon  w.hich  the  forms 
may  be  removed.  Record  shall  also  be  made  of  the  date  upon  which  fo»ms 
were  actually  removed. 

NOTE.- — For  theory  of  design  and  allowable  practice  in  reinforced  concrete 
construction,  see  Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Concrete  and  Reinforced 
Concrete,  as  published  by  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

i..)    jhritol    .<!     ....i,,,,-.       !»;:;.;  v.,i;<    •-!  .»,..    f.;I...l.l,:i.>j    ft;    M         -jro/; 

Reinforced  Concrete  for  Fireproofing 

SECTION  162.  APPROVED  CONSTRUCTION.--!.  Concrete  is  approved  for  all 
fire-resistive  construction,  also  for  the  protection  of  steel  structural  memhjers, 
or  for  any  other  fire-proofing  purposes  in  any  building. 

2.  Any  system  of  reinforced  concrete  construction  may  t>e  approved  for 
the  construction  of  floor  or  roof  panels,  or  partitions  in  skeleton  frame  or 
any  other  type  of  fire-resistive  building,  provided  that  the  unit  stresses  in 
the  materials  do  not  exceed  those  specified  in  this  Code  as  permissible  for 
use  in  such  design;  and  that  the  concrete  and  the  construction  conform  to 
the  various  other  requirements  herein  specified  for  such  use,  including  the 
fire  test. 

SECTION  163.  MIXTURE. — Concrete  for  fireproofing  purposes  shall  consist 
of  a  mixture  of  viscous  consistency  of  one  part  Portland  cement  ,to  not 
more  than  seven  parts  of  fine  and  coarse  aggregate  by  volume.  The  aggre- 
gate shall  be  mixed  in  the  ratio  of  two  parts  of  fine  to  not  more  than  five 
parts  of  coarse,  or  in  such  proportions  as  will  give  the  densest  mixture. 

NOTE.— A  mixture  of  1:2:4  is  recommended  as  giving  very  satisfactory 
results.  It  is  particularly  advantageous  for  floor  and  roof  slabs  by  reason 
of  its  density  and  consequent  increase  in  waterproofness,  as  well  as  strength. 

SECTION  164.  AGGREGATES. — Fine  aggregates  shall  be  of  quality  described 
in  Section  122. 

Coarse  aggregates  shall  consist  of  gravel,  crushed  stone,  hard  burned' brick, 
terra  cotta,  slag,  or  steam  boiler  cinders,  and  shall  be  clean,  ha'rd,  and  free 
from  deleterious  material.  All  aggregates  shall  be  sized  to  pass  a  i  inch 
screen  and  be  retained  lipon  a  %  inch  screen,  and  shall  be  reasonably  dry 
when  screened. 

SECTION  165.  MANIPULATION. — Corict'ete  for  fireproofing  shall  be  mixed, 
deposited,  and  protected  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  Sections  154 
to  159,  inclusive,  of  this  Code. 

SECTION  166.  REINFORCEMENT. —  i.  The  steel  reinforcement  in  concrete 
used  for  fireproofing,  shall  be  of  quality  required  by  Section  124,  and  the 
installation  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  specifications  of  Section  151.  The 
longitudinal  members  in  mesh  reinforcement  shall  not  be  spaced  more  than 
4  inches  center  to  center,  and  the  least  dimension  of  mesh  opening  shall  be 
2  inches.  Mesh  metal  fabrics  of  all  kinds  shall  have  a  side  lap  of  not  less 
than  3  inches. 

2.  All    reinforcement    essential    to    secure    the    required    strength    of    arches 
or  slabs,  shall  be  fully  embedded  in  the  concrete,  and  shall  have  a  protection 
of   at   least    i    inch   of  concrete   on   the   under   side. 

3.  Exposed  metal  centering  or  exposed  metal  of  any  kind  shall  not  be  con- 


NATIONAL   HOARD   UUILDING  CODE  339 

sidered  a  factor  in  the  strength  of  any  part  of  any  concrete  construction 
subject  to  fire;  and  a  plaster  finish  applied  over  the  metal  shall  not  be  accepted 
as  sufficient  protection. 

SECTION  167.  CINDER  CONCRETE- — i.  Cinder  concrete  may  be  used  con- 
structively as  fireproofing,  only  for  floors  and  roofs  between  steel  beams, 
and  for  interior  non-bearing  walls  or  partitions. 

j.  Cinders  shall  be  composed  of  hard,  well  burned,  vitreous  clinker,  free 
from  sulphides,  fine  ashes  and  foreign  matter.  The  use  of  gas-hcuse,  or 
locomotive  cinders,  or  stove  or  heating  furnace  ashes,  is  prohibited. 

3.  In    the    selection    of    cinders    for    concrete,    care    shall    be    exercised    to 
insure    that    they    carry   only    a    small    percentage    of    unburned    coal    or    coke. 
The  amount  shall  not  exceed   15  per  cent. 

NOTE. — Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  a  properly  proportioned  concrete 
made  from  carefully  selected  cinders  is  a  most  excellent  fire-resistive  material; 
but  the  use  of  inferior  cinders  or  an  improper  mixture,  that  is,  one  which  is 
too  lean  01*  too  dry,  may  be  productive  of  danger,  due  either  to  weakness, 
or  linhilitv  to  produce  corrosion  of  metal  in  contact  with  the  concrete. 

Unburned  coal  and  coke  in  cinders  serve  to  introduce  sulphur  into  the 
concrete,  which  is  likely  to  corrode  metal  embedded  in  it  unless  the  concrete 
is  sufficiently  wet  and  rich  enough  to  furnish  a  coating  of  cement  on  the 
metal.  Sulphides  will  also  tend  to  deteriorate  the  concrete  under  conditions 
of  oxidation. 

Soft  coal  cinders  should  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution.  Satisfactory 
concrete  can  be  made  from  clean,  thoroughly  calcined,  soft  coal  clinker;  but 
>"ft  coal  is  very  liable  to  carry  with  it  considerable  free  sulphide  of  iron 
(iron  pyrites),  and  cinders  from  such  coal  are  almost  sure  to  contain  an 
excess  of  sulphides,  which  are  fatal  to  good  concrete. 

4.  Cinder  concrete   in  the   proportions  of    1:2:5   to  qualify   for  use   for   fire- 
proofing,  except   when   used   as   fill   above  the   floor   arch   proper,   shall   develop 
an    average    crushing   strength    of   not    less    than    800    pounds    per    sq.    inch    at 
28    days,    when    tested    in    accordance    with   the    method   of    test    prescribed   for 
stone  concrete  in   Section   120. 

5.  The    allowable    extreme    fibre    stress    in    compression  ,in    cinder    concrete 
slabs    between    steel    beams    shall    not    exceed    300    pounds    per    sq.    inch.      The 
ratio   of   the   moduli   of  elasticity   of    1:2:5    cinder   concrete   and   steel   shall   be 
taken  as   i    to  30. 

NOTE. — Cinder  concrete  is  very  porous,  and  while  this  property  adds  to  its 
fire-resisting  qualities,  it  is  a  serious  defect  as  regards  resistance  to  water. 
See  Note,  Section  110,  paragraph  3. 

Weight    of   cinder   concrete    and    fill,    Sec.    63. 

SECTION  169.  FLOOR  SYSTEMS  APPROVED  ON  DESIGN. — i.  Segmental  con- 
crete arches  or  flat  slabs  shall  be  approved"1  for  fireproofing  if  designed  and 
constructed  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  Parts  XXII  and  XXIII 
in  so  far  as  they  are  applicable;  but  the  permissible  stresses  for  cinder  concrete 
shall  be  taken  as  specified  in  Section  167. 

2.  The    span    of    concrete    arches    or    slabs    for    fireproofing,    shall    be    taken 
as  the   distance   center  to  center  of  the  supporting  steel  beams,   and   shall   not 
exceed  8   feet   unless  the  coarse   aggregate  in  the  concrete   be  either  stone  or 
gravel,  in  which  case  the  span  shall  be  limited  by  the  design. 

NOTE. — When  the  span  of  cinder  concrete  floor  slabs  exceeds  6  feet,  special 
care  should  be  exercised  in  inspecting  the  details  of  construction,  and  the 
removal  of  forms. 

3.  The   minimum   thickness   of   arches   or   slabs   of   cinder   concrete    for   floor 
and    roof    construction,    shall    be    3%    inches,    and    in    no    case    less    than    one 
eighteenth  of  the  span   length   between   supporting   beams. 

SECTION  171.  TIE  RODS. — i.  Segmental  arches  shall  have  a  rise  of  not  less 
than  %  inch  per  foot  of  span,  and  steel  tie  rods  of  proper  size,  spacing, 


340 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


and  location  to  resist  the  thrust  shall  be  used.  The  rods  shall  be  protected 
as  required  in  Section  in,  paragraph  2. 

2.  In  flat  arches,  if  tie  rods  are  omitted,  the  reinforcement  shall  be  con- 
tinuous, or  the  ends  of  the  bars  shall  be  hooked  over  the  beams  or  otherwise 
securely  fastened  to  them  at  intervals  not  exceeding  3  feet. 

SECTION  172.  CONCRETE  FILL. — Concrete  for  fill  shall  consist  of  one  part 
cement  and  not  more  than  ten  parts  of  aggregate.  Aggregates  shall  be  as 
specified  in  Section  164.  All  concrete  fill  shall  be  well  mixed,  thoroughly 
wet,  tamped  to  place,  and  brought  to  a  level  at  the  required  height.  See 
Section  no,  paragraph  2. 

Chimneys,  Flues  and  Heating  Apparatus. 

SECTION  178.  CHIMNEYS,  SMOKE  FLUES,  GAS  FLUES  AND  FIREPLACES. — i. 
All  chimneys  hereafter  erected  shall  be  of  brick  or  stone  laid  ;n  Portland 
cement  mortar  without  addition  of  lime,  reinforced  concrete  or  other  approved 
incombustible  material,  extending  at  least  3  feet  above  the  point  of  contact 
with  a  flat  roof  or  2  feet  above  the  ridge  of  a  pitch  roof,  and  shall  be  prop- 
erly capped  with  terra  cotta,  stone,  cast  iron,  or  other  approved  incombustible 
weatherproof  material. 

NOTE. — Portland  cement  mortar  is  very  superior  to  lime  mortar  in  resisting 
the  action  of  heatt  and  flue  gases.  The  latter  disintegrates  in  time,  and  is 
liable  to  fall  out  of  the  joints,  thus  producing  a  hole  through  which  a  fire 
is  likely  to  originate. 

2.  The   brickwork   or   reinforced   concrete   of   the   smoke   flues  of  all   boilers, 
furnaces,    baker's    ovens,    large    cooking    ranges,    large  .laundry   stoves,   and    all 
flues  used  for  a  similar  purpose  shall  be  at  least  8  inches  in  thickness.     Walls 
of   smoke    flues   used    exclusively    for   ordinary   stoves   or   open    firepbces    shall 
be   not   less   than   4   inches   thick.      Brick   set   on   edge   shall   not   be    permitted 
in    chimney   construction. 

3.  Where  two  or  more  smoke  flues  are  contained  in  the  same  chimney,  the 
walls    between    the   several   flues   shall   be    not    less    than   4    inches    thick.      The 
walls   of  stone  smoke  flues   shall   be  4   inches   thicker  than   required   for   brick 
or    reinforced    concrete.      No    smoke    flue    shall    have    smoke    pipe    connections 
in    more   than    one   story   of   a  building. 


Lined  hole  fi 
sinoke  pip'e. 

FIG.    29. — Indicates    method    of    building    in    flue    tile    during    construction    of 

chimney 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  341 

4.  Every    smoke    flue    contained    in    a    chimney    hereafter    erected   shall    have 
ah    area   of   at   least    64   square  inches   and,   unless   required   to   be    lined    with 
fire  brick,  shall  be  lined   with  hard  burned  terra  cotta  or  fire  clay   flue  lining 
made   smooth   on   the   insfde.     The   flue   lining  shall   start    from   the   bottom   of 
the    flue,    or    from   the   throat   of   the    fireplace    if   the    flue   starts    from   a   fire- 
place,   and    shall    be    carried    up    continuously    the    entire    height    of    the    flue. 
If  the  thickness  of  the  masonry  surrounding  the  throat  be  less  than  8  inches 
in   any   part,  the   lining  shall  start  at  bottom   of  the   lintel.      The   ends  of   the 
sections   of   all   such    lining   tile    shall   be   laid    in    cement    mortar   and   the    tile 
shall  be  built  in  as  the  flues  are  carried  up.     Fig.   29. 

No  parging  mortar  nor  plaster  shall  be  used  on  the  inside  of  any  fireplace, 
chimney,  or  flue. 

NOTE. — While  walls  4  inches  thick  and  lined  are  permitted  for  chimneys 
serving  as  flues  where  high  temperatures  are  not  maintained,  a  minimum 
wall  thickness  of  8  inches  is  strongly  recommended,  especially  in  localities 
subject  to  long,  severe  winters,  and  continuous  hot  fires  are  a  necessity. 

5.  In  every   building,   where  one  or  more  smoke   flues  start   from   the  cellar 
or    lowest   story,   at   least   one    such   smoke    flue   shall   have    an    internal    cross- 
sectional    area    of    at    least    96    square    inches    and    shall    start    at    least    3    feet 
below    the    ceiling. 

6.  In    no   case    shall   a   chimney    be   corbeled   more    than    8    inches    from    the 
wall,  and  such  corbeling  shall  consist  of  at  least  five  courses  of  brick.      Piers 
which  support  chimneys  shall  start  from  the  foundation  on  the  same  line  with 
the  chimney  breast.      They  shall  be   not   less  than    12   inches  on  the    face   and 
shall    be    properly    bonded    into   the   walls.      No    chimney   shall    rest    upon,    nor 
be    carried    by    woodwork.      No    combustible     furring    or    sheathing    shall    be 
placed  against  any  smoke  flue  or  chimney  breast. 

7.  The    walls    of    flues    used    only    for    gas    burning    appliances    shall    be    of 
brick  or  concrete   at  least  4   inches  thick   and    lined   as   required   in    paragraph 
4   of  this  section.      Where  two  .or  more   such  flues  are   contained  in  the  same 
chimney,  the  walls  between  the  several  flues  shall  be  not  less  than  two  thick- 
nesses  of   the  tile  lining   with  joints   broken,  except   that   at  least  every   third 
partition  shall  be  not  less  than  4  inches  thick  of  brick  or  its  equivalent,  and 
bonded    into    the    walls.      Not    more    than    one    appliance    or    utensil    in    which 
gas   is   used   as    fuel   shall   be    connected   to   a   single   flue,    nor   shall   any   such 
appliance   or  utensil   be   connected  to   any   flue  to  which  a  smoke  pipe  is  con- 
nected. 

8.  The  smoke  flue  of  every  high  pressure  steam  boiler  and  every   appliance 
producing    a    corresponding    temperature    in    the    smoke    flue    shall,    if    built    of 
brick,    stone,    reinforced    concrete    or    other    approved    masonry,    be    lined    on 
all   sides   with   not   less   than   4   inches  of   fire   brick   laid   in   fire   mortar    for  a 
distance    of   at   least    25    feet    from   the   point   where   the   smoke   connection    of 
the    boiler    enters    the    flue. 

9.  Interior  vertical  smoke  stacks  or  flues  for  steam  boilers  or  other  furnaces, 
and    similar    heating   devices   producing   a   corresponding   temperature,    may   be 
of    metal    not    less    than    No.    10    U.    S.    gauge,   properly    riveted,   jointed,    and 
braced   at   intervals   of  at  least   20   feet.      Such   stacks  shall  either  be  enclosed 
by    approved    masonry    walls    not    less    than    8    inches   thick   with    an   air   space 
of  at   least  4   inches  between  lining  and   wall;    or   if  such   stacks  or  flues   are 
not  enclosed   with   masonry   they   shall   have   a  clearance    from   all   combustible 
material    of    not    less    than    one-half    the    diameter    of   the    stack,    but    not    less 
than   24   inches,  unless  the  combustible   material  be  properly  guarded   by   loose 
fitting    metal    shields,    in    which    case    the    distance    shall    be    not    less    than    12 
inches.      Where   such   a  stack   passes   through    a   wooden    framed   roof,    it   shall 
be  guarded  by  a   galvanized   iron   ventilating   thimble  extending   from   at   least 


342 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION  . 


9  inches  below  the  underside  of  the  ceiling  or  roof  beams  to  at  least  9 
inches  above  the  roof,  and  the  ventilating  thimble  shall  have  a  clearance  of 
not'  less  than--  18  inches,  except  that  for  stacks  for^  low  grade  furnaces  such 
as  hot  air,  hot  water,  and  low  pressure  steam  heating  furnaces,  coffee  roasting 
ovens,  candy  furnaces,  etc.,  the  clearance  may  be  reduced  to  12  inches. 
Metal  smoke  stacks  shall  not  be  permitted  to  pass  through  floors.  Smoke 
flues  shall  not  be  permitted  inside  of  vent  flues  for  ranges. 

10.  Exterior  metal  smoke  flues  for  boilers,  large  cooking  ranges,  and 
similar  heating  devices,  shall  be  of  approved  construction  and  supported  on 
approved  masonry  foundations,  and  shall  have  a  clearance  of  at  least  4 
inches  from  the  outside  wall.  \Such  flues  having  an  area  not  exceeding  255 
square  inches  shall  be  constructed  of  not  less  than  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge  metal; 
if  the  area  exceeds  255  square  inches  the  thickness  of  the  metal  shall  be  not 
less  than  No.  10  U.  S.  gauge. 

n.  The  smoke  flue  of  every  smelting  furnace  and  of  every  other  similar 
device  which  heats  the  flue  to  an  extremely  high  temperature,  shall  be  built 
•with  double  walls  of  thickness  suitable  for  the  temperature.  There  shall  be 
an  air  space  between  the  walls,  and  the  inside  wall  shall  be  of  firebrick  not 
less  than  4  inches  thick. 

12.  Chimneys  of  cupola-furnaces,  blast-furnaces,  and  similar  devices,  shall 
extend  at  least  10  feet  above  the  highest  point  of  any  roof  within  a  radius 
of  so  feet,  and  no  woodwork  shall  be  within  3  feet  of  any  part  of  any 
such  device  or  its  chimney. 


Substantial  Iron  Door 
for  removing  ashes 


30. — A  thoroughly  safe  and  substantial  form  of  fireplace  construction. 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  343 

13.  When    a    building    or    structure    extends    more    than    10    feet    above    the 
roof  of  an  adjoining  building  or  structure,  the  owner  of  the  higher  building, 
if  requested  in  writing  during  its  construction  by  the  owner  of  the  adjoining 
building    or    structure,    shall    at    his    own    expense   extend    the    adjoining    flues 
of  such  adjoining  building  to  the   same    height   as   the  chimneys  of   his  build- 
ing,   or   shall    supply    sufficient    flues   connecting   such    adjoining   flues    with    the 
chimneys   of   his   building. 

14.  All    fireplaces    and    chimney    breasts    where    mantels    are    placed,    whether 
intended    for    ordinary    fireplace    use    or    not,    shall    have    trimmer    arches    or 
other    approved    fireproof    construction    supporting    hearths.      The    arches    and 
hearths   shall   be   at   least    20   inches   in   width    measured    from   the    face   of  the 
chimney    breast,    Fig.    30.      The    arches    shall    l>e    of    brick,    stone,    terra    cotta 
or    reinforced    concrete    of    approved    thickness.      The    length    of    the    trimmer 
arch    and   the    length   of   the    hearth   shall    be    not   less   than   the   width   of   the 
chimney   breast.      The  hearth   shall   be  of  brick,   stone,    tile   or   other  approved 
fireproof   material.      False   fireplaces   shall   only   be   permitted   against   unfurred 
masonry   walls. 

15.  No   coal   burning  heater   shall   be   placed   in   a   fireplace,   which   does   not 
conform    to    the    foregoing    requirements    and    have    an    incombustible    mantel. 
No   wood    mantel   or  other   woodwork   shall   be   placed   within   8   inches   of   the 
side  nor   within    12   inches  of   the  top   of   any   open   fireplace.      No  combustible 
summer  piece  or  fireboard  shall  be  used  in  connection  with  any  open  fireplace. 
The    firebacks    of    all    fireplaces    shall    be    of    solid    masonry    not    less    than    8 
inches   thick. 

1 6.  When    a    grate    is    set    in    a    fireplace,    a    lining    of    firebrick    at    least    2 
inches   in   thickness   shall  be  added   to   the   fireback,   or   soapstone,   tile   or  cast 
iron   may   be   used,    if   solidly   backed  with   brick  or   concrete. 

All  flue-holes  when  not  in  use  shall  be  closed  with  tight-fitting  metal  covers. 

Protection    of    woodwork   around    chimneys,    Sec.    77. 

SECTION  179.  SMOKE  PIPES. — i.  No  smoke  pipe  shall  pass  through  any 
floor,  nor  through  a  non-fireproof  roof.  Smoke  pipes  for  large  cooking 
ranges,  hot  air  furnaces,  low  pressure  steam  or  hot  water  boilers  shall  be 
not  less  than  18  inches  below  any  wood  lath  and  plaster  or  other  com- 
bustible ceiling,  unless  at  least  the  upper  half  of  such  smoke  pipe  is  properly 
protected  by  r  inch  or  more  of  asbestos  covering  or  its  equivalent,  or  by  a 
incfal  casing  spaced  2  inches  from  the  upper  half  of  the  pipe.  If  so  pro- 
tected smoke  pipes  shall  be  not  less  than  9  inches  from  any  wood  lath  and 
plaster  construction,  woodwork  or  other  combustible  material.  Smoke  pipes 
from  ordinary  stoves  shall  be  not  less  than  9  inches  from  any  exposed 
woodwork. 

2.  Where  a  smoke  pipe  passes  through  a  wood  lath  and  plaster  or  other 
combustible  partition  or  wall,  a  section  of  the  partition  or  wall  shall  be 
removed  and  the  smoke  pipe  so  placed  that  no  part  of  it  shall  be  nearer 
thnn  12  inches  to  any  remaining  combustible  part  of  the  partition.  The 
section  of  the  partition  or  wall  so  removed  shall  be  replaced  by  approved 
fireproof  material  only,  and  an  air  space  of  at  least  2  inches  shall  be  pre- 
served on  all  sides  of  the  smoke  pipe. 

SECTION  180.  HEATING  FURNACES  AND  APPLIANCES. — i.  High  pressure 
steam  boilers,  bakery  ovens  or  furnaces  in  which  fires  are  maintained  pro- 
ducing a  high  degree  of  heat,  shall  rest  on  the  ground,  a  trimmer  arch. 
or  a  fireproof  floor  constructed  in  accordance  with  Section  in. 

2.  Low  pressure  heating  boilers,  coffee  roasters,  fireheated  candy  kettles, 
laundry  stoves,  coal  ranges  without  legs,  and  similar  appliances  where  hot 
fires  are  used,  shall  rest  upon  fireproof  foundations  as  above  described. 
However,  the  Superintendent's  written  permission  may  allow  thrm  to  be 


344  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

placed  upon  wooden  floors  if  the  floors  are  protected  by  sheet  metal  or  a  % 
inch  layer  of  asbestos  building  lumber,  covered  with  not  less  than  4  inches 
of  masonry  set  in  cement  mortar.  Such  masonry  shall  consist  of  one  course 
of  4  inch  hollow  terra  cotta,  or  of  two  courses  of  brick  or  terra  cotta,  at 
least  one  of  which  shall  be  hollow  and  be  laid  to  preserve  a  free  circulation 
of  air  throughout  the  whole  course.  Concrete  may  be  substituted  for  a 
course  of  solid  brick  if  desired.  The  masonry  work  shall  be  covered  by 
sheet  metal  of  not  less  than  No.  26  gauge,  so  arranged  as  not  to  obstruct 
the  ventilating  passages  beneath.  Such  hearths  shall  extend  at  least  12 
inches  on  the  sides,  back,  and  front  of  the  furnace,  range  or  similar  heating 
appliance;  if  solid  fuel  is  used,  the  front  extension  shall  be  at  least  24  inches. 
All  stoves  or  ranges  with  legs  shall  be  set  on  incombustible  material  which 
shall  extend  at  least  24  inches  in  front  when  solid  fuel  is  used. 

NOTE. — Solid  brickwork  will  conduct  heat  quite  freely.  There  are  records 
of  numerous  fires  starting  by  the  ignition  of  wooden  flooring  underneath 
single  layers  of  brick  which  supported  furnaces  or  ranges  in  which  hot  fires 
were  maintained.  Hence  the  necessity  for  the  double  layer  and  air  space. 

3.  Any    woodwork    or    wooden    lath    and    plaster    partition    within    4    feet    of 
the   sides  or  back,   or   6    feet   from   the   front   of   any  such   boiler,   furnace,   or 
heating    appliances,    shall    be    covered    with    metal    shields    or    other    approved 
incombustible   material   to    a   height   of   at   least   4    feet   above   the   floor.      This 
covering   shall   extend    the    full    length   of   the   boiler,    furnace,   or   heating   ap- 
pliance,  and   to    at   least    5    feet   in    front   of   it.      Such   metal    shields   shall   be 
so  attached   as  to   preserve  an  air  space   behind   them.      In  no  case  shall  such 
combustible    construction    be    permitted    within    2    feet    of    the    sides    or    back 
of  the   heating   appliance,   or    5    feet   in    front   of  same. 

4.  Heating  boilers  shall   be   encased  on  sides  and  top  by   incombustible  pro- 
tective covering  not  less  than   i%  inches  thick,  and  the  overhead  clearance  of 
such   covered   boilers    and   hot   air    furnaces   shall   be   not   less   than    15    inches. 
Any  woodwork  within   2   feet  of  the   top   of  such   boilers   or   furnace  shall   be 
protected  by  a  loose  fitting  metal  shield,  but  such   shields  shall  not  be  placed 
so   as   to    form   concealed   spaces. 

NOTE. — It  is  recommended  that  the  room  or  rooms  in  which  boilers  and  all 
power  and  operating  machinery  are  located,  shall  be  separated  from  other 
portions  of  the  building  by  an  8-inch  wall,  having  an  approved  fire  door  at 
each  opening;  such  rooms  not  to  have  direct  communication  with  the  floor 
above. 

All  boilers  to  be  separated  from  operating  machinery  by  8-inch  walls,  with 
approved  .fire  doors  at  openings. 

SECTION  181.  STOVES  AND  RANGES. — i.  No  kitchen  range  or  stove  in  any 
building  shall  be  placed  less  than  3  feet  from  any  woodwork  or  wooden 
lath  and  plaster  partition,  unless  the  woodwork  or  partition  is  properly 
protected  by  metal  shields,  in  which  case  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  than 
1 8  inches.  Metal  shields  shall  be  so  attached  as  to  preserve  an  air  space 
behind  them. 

2.  Hotel  and  restaurant   ranges  shall  be  provided  with  a  metal   hood  placed 
at  least1 9   inches  below   any  wooden   lath   and  plaster   or   wooden   ceiling,   and 
have    an    individual    pipe    outlet    connected    with    a    flue.      The    pipe    shall    be 
protected   by   at   least    i    inch   of   asbestos   covering,   or   its   equivalent. 

3.  No    furnace,    boiler,    range    or    other    heating    appliance    shall    be    placed 
against    a    wall    furred    with    wood. 

SECTION  182.  HOT  AIR  PIPES  AND  REGISTERS. — i.  All  stone  or  brick  hot  air 
flues  shall  be  lined  with  tin  or  other  suitable  sheet  metal  or  burnt  clay  pipe. 

2.  Horizontal  hot  air  furnace  pipes  shall  be  placed  at  least  6  inches  below 
wooden  floor  beams  or  wooden  lath  and  plaster  ceiling;  if  the  floor  beams 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE 


345 


or  ceijing  are  protected  by  metal  lath  and  plaster,  or  if  the  woodwork  be 
covered  with  loose  fitting  tin,  or  the  pipe  be  covered  with  at  least  %  inch 
of  corrugated  asbestos,  the  distance  from  the  woodwork  may  be  reduced  to 
not  less  than  3  inches. 

3.  Cold    air    ducts    for    hot    air    furnaces    shall    be    made    of    incombustible 
material. 

4.  Hot    air    pipes    where    passing*  through    combustible    partitions    or    floors, 
must  be  doubled  tin  pipes  with  at  least    i    inch  air  space  between  them. 

No  hot  air  pipe  shall  be  placed  in  a  wooden  stud  partition  or  any  wooden 
enclosure  unless  it  be  at  least  8  feet  horizontal  distance  from  the  furnace. 
Hot  air  pipes  contained  in  combustible  partitions  shall  be  placed  inside  another 
pipe  arranged  to  maintain  !/•»  inch  air  space  between  the  two  on  all  sides, 
or  be  securely  covered  with  */%  inch  of  corrugated  asbestos.  Neither  the 


Cross-section  Through    Stud  P&i'tition 
ng  Hot  Air  Pipe 


• —  Wooden  studs—* 


Metal  covered  studs/ —        * 

'Double pipe  or  fa" cor r agate  d  J 
asbestos 


Metdl  lath 


FIG.    31. — Protection    o'f    hot    air    pipe    in    wooden    stud    partition 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

outer  pipe  nor  the  covering  shall  be  within  i  inch  of  wooden  studding,  and 
no  wooden  lath  shall  be  used  to  cover  the  portion  of  the  partition  in  which 
the  hot  air  pipe  is  located,  Fig.  31.  Hot  air  pipes  in  closets  shall  be  double, 
with  a  space  of  at  least  i  inch  between  them  on  all  sides.  The  air  space 
between  pipes  shall  be  open  at  bottom  and  closed  at  top. 

5.  Every    hot    air    furnace    shall    have    at    least    one    register    without    valve 
or   louvres. 

6.  A    register    located   over    a   brick    furnace    shall    be    supported   by   a    brick 
shaft    built    up    from    the   cover    of    the    hot-air    chamber;    said    shaft    shall    be 
lined    with   a  metal    pipe,   and   no   woodwork   shall    be    within    2    inches   of   the 
outer   face   of  the   shaft. 

A  register  box  placed  in  the  floor  over  a  portable  furnace  shall  have  an 
open  space  around  it  of  not  less  than  4  inches  on  all  sides,  and  be  sup- 
ported by  an  incombustible  border. 

Hot  air  registers  placed  in  any  woodwork  or  combustible  floors  shall  be 
surrounded  with  borders  of  incombustible  material,  not  less  than  2  inches 
wide,  securely  set  in  place. 

The  register  boxes  shall  be  of  metal,  and  be  double;  the  distance  between 
the  two  shall  be  not  less  than  i  inch;  or  they  may  be  single,  if  covered 
with  asbestos  not  less  than  Vs  inch  in  thickness,  and  if  all  woodwork 
within  2  inches  be  covered  with  metal. 


346 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SECTION  183.  STEAM  AND  HOT  WATER  PIPES.— No  steam  or  hot  water 
pipe  shall  be  within  i  inch  of  any  woodwork.  Every  steam  or  hot  water 
pipe  passing  through  combustible  floors,  or  ceilings,  or  wooden  lath  arid 
plaster  partitions,  shall  be  protected  by  a  metal  tube  i  inch  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  pipe  and  be  provided  with  a  close-fitting  metal  cap  on  each  side 
of  the  floor  or  partition.  Fig.  32.  All  wooden  boxes,  or  casings  enclosing 
steam  or  hot  water  heating  pipes,  or  wooden  covers  to  recesses  in  walls 
in  which  steam  or  hot  .  water  heating  pipes  are  placed,  shall  be  lined  with 
metal,  and  the  pipes  shall  be  kept  at  least  i  inch  away  from  the  walls  of 
the  box.  Steam  and  hot  water  pipe  coverings  shall  lie  of  incombustible 
material. 

NOTE. — Where  waterproof  floors  are  provided,  it  is  important  that  metal 
sleeves  which  encase  shafts  or  steam  pipes  should  extend  at  least  6  inches 
above  the  floor  level  and  be  capped  as  above  required.  This  provides  a  dam 
to  prevent  water  flowing  to  floors  below,  if  from  any  cause  the  floor  should 
become  flooded. 
r..  ,.'.  V  .;  -  -  »  j .  .  ......  A  \  '  . ,.. , -V, 


,-  Steam  pips 
/Floorplate 


Ceiling  plate 


FIG.  32. — Protection  of  pipe  or  shaft  openings  through  floors 
Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


Steam  pipes  can  ignite  wood  work  in  the  following  manners: 
First — If   the   water   is   allowed   to    run    low    the    steam    becomes 
superheated,  causing  a  true  combustion. 

Second — Pipes  containing  steam  at  the  usual  temperature  may 
cause  the  secondary  phenomenon  of  spontaneous  combustion,  as  the 
steam  pipes  may  slowly  dry  the  wood,  the  moisture  in  time  being 
vaporized  which  causes  the  wood  to  assume  a  ••  state  resembling 
charcoal,  in  which  condition  the  glowing  or  combustion;  well  known 
in  the  case  of  charcoal  takes  plac^  spontaneously.  The  porosity  of 
charcoal  admits  of  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  air,  which 
may  condense  sufficiently  to  cause  oxidation  and  heat  the  charcoal 
up  to  the  ignition  point.  The'  sides  of  timber  can  readily  bear  a 
strong  dead  heat  for  an  indefinite  period  without  igniting,  unless 
a  cross  section  of  the  fibre,  as  exists  around  a  live,  knot,  presents 
itself  to  the  heated  surface,  or  if  the  end  surface  of  the  timber  is 
exposed. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  347 

It  is  by  the  end  that  a  piece  of  wood  exposed  to  heat  most 
readily  ignites,  as  the  gases  which  are  generated  in  the  timber 
pores  are  afforded  a  more  liberal  vent  through  the  ends,  thus 
exposing  the  inflammable  gases  to  the  direct  action  of  the  heat. 
Materials  in  the  form  of  lint  or  dust,  being  in  a  finely  divided  state 
will  oxidize  more  readily  than  when  the  same  materials  are  in 
solid  masses;  such  conditions  can  readily  arise  in  flour  mills,  coal 
mines,  or  where  any  organic  matter  may  be  converted  into  dust. 
Iron  may  be  prepared  in  such  a  finely  divided  state  as  to  take  fire 
on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Frame  Buildings 

In  no  case  shall  a  frame  building  with  wooden  siding  be  erected  or 
altered,  to  extend  within  5  feet  of  the  side  or  rear  lot  line,  nor  within  10 
feet  of  another  building,  unless  the  space  between  the  studs  on  such  side 
he  filled  solidly  with  no.t  less  than  2*£  inches  of  brickwork  or  other  equivalent 
incombustible  material,  and  the  entire  exposed  side  be  covered  with  at  least 
a  %  inch  layer  of  asbestos  board,  or  %  inch  of  plaster  board  back  of  the 
wooden  siding.  When  such  walls  are  thus  filled  and  covered,  their  distance 
from  a  side  or  rear  lot  line  may  be  reduced  to  3  feet;  or  to  5  feet  from 
another  building.  If  the  adjacent  walls  of  two  buildings  have  no  openings, 
and  are  filled  and  covered  as  above  specified,  there  need  be  no  limitation  as 
to  distance  between  them. 

NOTE. — It  is  recommended  that  when  such  buildings  are  nearer  than  3 
feet  to  a  side  or  rear  lot  line,  or  5  feet  to  another  building,  the  cornices 
and  overhanging  eavea  on  the  side,  or  rear  walls  shall  be  of,  or  covered  with, 
incombustible  material.  See  Note  in  Section  85. 

Floor  beams  and  rafters  in  frame  buildings  shall  be  not  less  than  2 
inches  in  thickness.  All  frame  or  wood  buildings  exceeding  15  feet  in 
height  shall  have  their  sills  secured  to  the  foundations  in  an  approved  manner 
and  l>e  erected  with  sills,  posts,  girts  and  plates  of  suitable  size  and  materials 
with  proper  mortise  and  tenon  framing  and  braced  with  studs  at  all  angles, 
but  this  shall  not  prohibit  the  use  of  balloon  framing  with  proper  sills  and 
ribbon  strip  not  less  than  i%  by  5  inches  where  diagonal  sheathing  is  used, 
and  provided  that  the  outside  walls  are  fire  stopped  at  each  floor  level  as 
required  by  Section  190,  paragraph  3. 

Timber  stresses,    Sec.   65. 

SECTION  189.  FOUNDATIONS  FOR  FRAME  BUILDINGS. — i.  The  foundation  walls 
of  frame  buildings  or  structures  exceeding  15  feet  in  height  shall  test  on 
footings  of  stone  or  concrete  not  less  than  8  inches  in  thickness.  All  footings 
shall  extend  at  least  4^  inches  outward  from  each  side  of  the  bottom  of 
the  foundation  walls  which  rest  upon  them. 

2.  The  bottom  of  footings  for  frame  buildings  shall  rest  upon  solid  ground 
at  a  depth  at  least  equal  to  the  frost  line  below  the  surface,  unless  solid 
rock  occurs  above  this  point;  or  upon  piles  or  ranging  timbers  of  wood 
where  necessary.  The  foundation  \valls  of  frame  structures  exceeding  15 
feet  in  height,  if  of  stone,  shall  be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick,  and  if  of 
brick  or  concrete,  not  less  than  12  inches  to  the  grade  and  8  inches  thick 
to  th»  under  side  of  the  sill.  If  the  foundation  and  first  story  walls  are 
constructed  of  brick  or  concrete,  the  foundation  walls  shall  be  not  less  than 
12  inches  thick  to  the  first  tier  of  beams  and  8  inches  thick  from  the  first 
to  the  second  tier  of  beams,  or  if  these  walls  are  constructed  of  stone,  they 


348 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


shall  be  not  less  than  18  inches  for  the  foundation  walls  and  16  inches  for 
the  first  story  wall. 

3.  Foundation    walls    of    hollow    building    blocks    shall    be    not    less    than    12 
inches    thick    in    any    part. 

4.  For  one  story  structures  not  used  for  dwellings,  the  thickness  and  depth 
of   the    foundation    walls    may    be    modified   at   the    discretion    of    the    Superin- 
tendent. 

5.  Footings    and    foundation    walls    shall    be    laid   in    cement   mortar. 
SECTION    190.      WALLS  AND    PARTITIONS   IN    FRAME    BUILDINGS.— i.    In   rows 

of  frame  houses,  the  dividing  walls  or  partitions  between  houses  shall  be 
built  of  brick,  terra  cotta,  concrete,  or  other  approved  incombustible  material; 
or  they  may  be  built  with  4  inch  studs,  filled  solidly  with  brickwork  laid 
in  mortar,  or  with  other  incombustible  material  and  covered  on  each  side 
with  at  least  %  inch  of  metal  lath  and  plaster,  or  plaster  board.  Such 
dividing  partitions  shall  rest  on  masonry  walls  or  wooden  girders  and  shall 
extend  to  under  side  of  roof  boards,  and  a  flush  mortar  joint  shall  be  made 
between  the  roof  boards  and  the  wall  or  partition.  In  rows  of  more  than 
three  houses,  every  alternate  division  wall  or  partition  shall  be  constructed 
of  brick  or  concrete  not  less  than  8  inches  thick.  These  walls  shall  extend 
from  front  to  rear,  be  solid  without  openings,  and  shall  extend  at  least  2 
feet  above  the  roof,  and  be  coped.  If  such  parapet  be  of  concrete,  or  if  the 
top  six  courses  of  brick  be  laid  in  Portland  cement  the  coping  may  be 
omitted. 

Fire  walls  in   frame  buildings,   Sec.   29. 

2.  The   ends   of   floor   beams   entering   such    walls    from    opposite    sides    shall 
be   so    staggered   or    separated    that   there    shall    be    not    less   than    4    inches    of 
masonry   between    the   beams    where   they    rest    on   the    walls. 

3.  Timber    posts    and    girders    or    other    approved    supports    may    be    used 
instead  of  brick  fore  and  aft  partitions,   in  cellars  of   frame  buildings. 

4.  All    stairway    and    other    interior    shafts    in    frame    buildings    which    are 
required    to    be    enclosed,    including    dumbwaiter    shafts,    may    be    constructed 
of    wood,    but    they   shall    be    covered    with    metal   lath,    or    fibre   plaster   board 


Brick  or  other 
Firestopping 


'Brick  orothef 


FIG.  33. — Fire-stopping  of  floor  in  FIG.  34.— ^ire-stopping  of  floor  in 
frame  building  supported  on  founda-  frame  building  supported  by  timber 
tion  wall.  wall  girt. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


NATIONAL  BOARD  BUILDING  CODE  349 

at  least  !/j  inch  thick,  and  plastered  to  a  total  thickness  of  %  inch;  or  the 
plaster  board  may  be  covered  with  sheet  metal.  Doors  opening  into  such 
shafts  shall  be  incombustible. 

5.  In  'all  frame  buildings  which  are  to  be  lathed  and  plastered  or  other- 
wise sheathed  on  the  inside,  all  stud  walls  and  all  partitions  which  rest 
directly  over  each  other,  shall  be  completely  fire-stopped  with  brick  work 
or  other  suitable  incombustible  material  at  each  floor  level.  The  spaces 
between  the  ends  of  floor  joists  which  rest  upon  masonry  foundation  walls 
or  upon  wall  girts,  shall  be  filled  solidly  with  fire-stopping  material  to  the 
full  depth  of  the  joists,  and  the  spaces  between  the  studs  shall  be  filled  in 
the  same  manner  to  a  height  of  6  inches  above  the  floor  level.  See  Figs. 
33  and  34.  Partitions  which  rest  over  each  other  shall  be  firestopped  as 
required  in  Section  97,  paragraph  3.  The  firestopping  shall  be  arranged  to 
cut  off  all  concealed  draft  openings,  and  form  an  effectual  horizontal  fire 
barrier  between  stories. 

SECTION  191.  CELLAR  CEILING  IN  FRAME  BUILDINGS. — The  ceiling  over 
the  cellar  or  lowest  floor  in  every  frame  building  more  than  one  story  in 
height,  except  dwellings,  shall  be  covered  with  metal  lath  and  at  least  a  % 
inch  coat  of  cement  or  cement-tempered  plaster;  or  by  a  %  inch  layer  of 
plaster  board  covered  with  a  *4  inch  coat  of  plaster  of  with  a  layer  of  sheet 
metal. 

SECTION  192.  CHIMNEYS.— All  chimneys  in  frame  buildings  shall  conform 
to  the  requirements  for  chimneys  in  Section  178. 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION 

This  type  of  construction  has  Undergone  the  test  of  time  and  has 
repeatedly  demonstrated  its  merits  both  from  an  economic  stand- 
point- and  as  a  source  of  protection  against  severe  fire  loss. 

This  title  is  often  misapplied  to  structures  which  contain  but  a 
fractional  portion  of  the  salient  features  which  are  necessary  in 
their  entirety  to  warrant  this  title,  as  well  as  the  merits  due  this 
type  of  construction. 

The  primary  object  of  mill  construction  is  to  retard  the  progress 
of  fire  in  its  incipiency  and  in  order  to  accomplish  such  a  result 
a  number  of  conditions  are  involved  in  the  planning  of  this  type  of 
structure;  the  structural  materials,  arrangement  of  stairs  and  ele- 
vators; belt  t6wers,  floor  areas,  division  of  hazards  due  to  the  class 
of  occupancy,  and  the  proper  fire  protective  devices  must  all  be  con- 
sidered in  their  entirety,  and  if  these  conditions  are  not  provided 
for  as  a  whole  the  structure  is  defective  in  comparison  with  the 
standard  type  of  mill  construction.  The  paramount  requirement  of 
mill  construction  is  stability;  to  ascertain  the  correct  conditions  as 
to  the  needs  of  the  structure  is  of  the  utmost  importance ;  the  f  actors 
of  the  proposed  floor  loads  due  to  machinery  and  merchandise,  the 
possible  amount  of  deflection,  and  conditions  conducive  to  vibra- 
tion, must  first  be  determine'd  before  the  arrangement  and  sizes  of 
the  structural  members  can  be  properly  calculated.  Special  condi- 
tions due  to  the  class  of  occupancy  and  the  nature  of  the  surround- 
ing buildings  have  a  direct  bearing  in  the  formulation  of  plans,  all 
of  which  should  be  carefully  considered  in  the  planning  of  this  type 
of  construction. 

Foundations.— Tht  conditions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
underground  strata  should  be  positively  determined  over  the  entire 
area  to  be  occupied  by  the  structure  before  the  plans  are  prepared ; 
provision1  should  be  made  to  guard  against  unequal  settlement,  due 
to  the  arrangement  of  special  foundations  for  machinery,  tank 
towers,  stacks,  etc.  Unequal  settlement  is  a  danger  to  be  especially 
guarded  against  in  mill  construction.  The  supports  for  tanks  used 
in  connection  with  fire  protective  apparatus  should  be  considered, 
unless  such  tanks  are  to  be  arranged  on  special  independent  towers. 

Walls. — Good  hard  burned  brick  laid  in  best  of  lime  or  cement 
mortar  is  considered  the  best  material  for  wall  construction ;  walls 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION 


PINTLE  OVST  IN  ~i\wo  Pieces 


-  GOOD    PLANK  AMP  TIMBER 


CONSTRUCTION  - 


Standard    feacin*  for  Po&  P|NTLE    <*ST  1N  OMfL  ^  |     o 

and  Girders  MILL  XONSTRUCTKTN 


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Po^t  - 

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ind  R:>sts  wic 

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spaced^witn  infcermediafce  bc^his 
arranAed  to  Support  FVxw  Plartc. 


PLAN 


POST  CAP 


FIG.    35 


352  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

in  top  story  to  be  at  least  one  foot  thick  and  increased  in  thickness 
in  the  lower  stories  to  support  the  required  loads ;  outside  walls 
as  a  rule  arranged  of  pier  or  pilaster  construction  to  admit  of  maxi- 
mum window  areas.  Such  walls  should  be  well  laid  and  all  joints 
flushed  up  full  with  cement ;  piers  in  upper  stories  should  be  not 
less  than  twenty  inches  thick,  non-bearing  walls  or  walls  between 
piers  to  be  not  less  than  one  foot  thick.  Fire  walls  or  walls  exposed 
to  fire  from  outside  surroundings  should  be  parapeted  by  carrying 
same  at  le"ast  three  feet  above  roof  lines ;  the  top  of  such  walls 
should  be  covered  with  a  durable  non-combustible  coping,  prefer- 
ably terra  cotta,  such  walls  to  be  laid  up  in  cement. 

Fire  Walls. — As  fire  walls,  division  walls  and  party  walls  should 
act  as  direct  barriers  to  retard  the  progress  of  fire  a  sufficient  thick- 
ness of  brick  work  is  required  to  make  such  a  wall  absolutely  self- 
sustaining  in  case  of  fire ;  a  minimum  thickness  of  sixteen  inches 
is  considered  necessary.  If  such  walls  are  over  sixty  feet  in  length 
an  additional  thickness  is  necessary  or  proper  piers  or  buttresses 
should  be  provided  for  the  strengthening  of  wall.  It  is  preferable 
to  have  no  beams  enter  fire  or  division  walls,  but  where  the  same 
are  necessary  there  must  be  at  least  eight  inches  of  solidly,  built  up 
brickwork  between  the  ends  of  beams  if  they  enter  walls  at  opposite 
sides. 

Window  and  door  arches  should  be  of  brick,  window  sills  of 
brick  laid  on  edge  in  cement,  or  sand  stone.  Door  openings  in  divi- 
sion walls  should  be  arranged  for  the  installation  of  standard  fire 
doors,  the  sills  for  fire  doors  to  be  made  of  non-combustible  mate- 
rials. All  openings  in  any  walls  where  fire  can  communicate  between 
floors  or  rooms  to  be  arranged  for  the  installation  of  fire  doors. 
Where  angle  walls  exist  at  adjoining  sections  which  are  cut  off 
from  each  other  by  fire  or  division  walls  the  two  angle  walls  should 
be  treated  as  exposed  walls  for  a  distance  of  at  least  thirty  feet 
from  the  corner,  and  windows,  if  any,  in  this  space  should  be  of 
wired  glass  in  standard  metal  frames. 

Stairs,    Elevators,    Belt    Enclosures,    Pipe    Shafts,    etc. — The 

proper  treatment  of  these  features  is  of  vital  importance  in  the 
planning  of  mill  construction.  The  floors  must  be  continuous  from 
wall  to  wall  without  holes  through  the  same  for  stairways,  elevators, 
belts  or  pipe  shafts  in  order  that  a  fire  may  be  confined  to  the  floor 
in  which  it  originates,  and  stairways,  elevators,  and  main  belts 
should  be  enclosed  in  brick  towers,  with  the  communicating  open- 
ings into  main  buildings  protected  with  standard  fire  doors  which 
should  be  self-closing.  In  modern  mills  belts  or  ropes  which  may 
be  used  for  transmission  of  power  to  the  various  floors  are  arranged 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION  353 

in  vertical  belt  towers,  the  walls  of  which  are  constructed  of  brick 
or  non-combustible  materials,  and  the  power  is  transmitted  by  shafts 
through  the  walls  in  the  several  stories.  Where  openings  are 
necessary  they  should  be  protected  by  standard  fire  doors. 

Floors. — The  floor  planking  should  be  of  spruce  or  yellow  pine 
three  or  more  inches  in  thickness  according  to  the  spacing  of  the 
bay  timbers  and  nature  of  the  floor  loads  and  machinery.  The 
planking  should  be  spiked  directly  to  the  floor  timbers  and  kept  at 
least  two  inches  clear  of  the  inside  face  of  brick  walls  to  allow  for 
expansion;  a  quarter  round  moulding  is  generally  placed  around 
the  inside  along  the  wall  and  around  columns. 

The  planking  should  be  grooved  for  hard  wood  splines. 

In  bays  eight  feet  and  under,  three  inch  splined  plank  is  generally 
used/  For  bays  eight  to  ten  feet,  four  inch  splined  plank;  in  bays 
ten  to  twelve  feet,  six  inch  plank  or  two  inch  by  six  inch  timbers 
placed  solidly  side  by  side  on  edge ;  in  bays  twelve  to  fourteen  feet 
wide,  planking  should  be  eight  to  twelve  inches  thick,  generally 
arranged  with  two  inch  by  twelve  inch  timbers  placed  solidly  side 
by  side,  thus  giving  the  required  thickness. 

In  the  best  work  a  double  top  floor  is  laid  on  the  planking,  the 
lower  one  being  laid  diagonally  upon  the  plank.  The  upper  or  wear- 
ing floor  should  be  of  maple  or  birch  laid  lengthwise.  With  the 
double  floor  the  worn  sections  may  readily  be  replaced.  The  diagonal 
subfloor  braces  the  entire  floor  area,  reduces  vibration  and  tends  to 
distribute  the  floor  load  to  the  best  advantage. 

Between  the  planking  and  the  top  floor  there  should  be  two  or 
three  layers  of  heavy  tarred  paper  laid  to  break  joints,  each  layer 
to  be  mopped  with  hot  tar  or  similar  material  to  secure  a  reason- 
ably water-tight  and  dust-tight  floor.  Floor  scuppers  should  be 
arranged  to  reduce  water  damage  in  lower  stories. 

Basement  or  lower  floors  should  preferably  be  .  of  cement  as 
rapid  decay  or  dry  rot  is  likely  to  ensue  if  wood  floors  are  laid  in 
such  locations  unless  special  provision  is  made  to  protect  the  wooden 
floors  from  deterioration. 

The  best  method  where  wooden  floors  are  required  is  to  prepare 
a  foundation  of  crushed  stone,  cinders  or  slag,  covering  the  same 
with  a  thick  layer  of  hot  tar  concrete,  over  which  is  laid  tarred 
felt  well  mopped  with  hot  tar  or  asphalt.  The  wood  floor  should 
be  of-two  inch  well  seasoned  plank,  and  pressed  on  the  hot  tar  or 
asphalt  foundation  floor.  The  plank  should  be  nailed  on  edge  with- 
out perforating  the  waterproofing  under  it ;  the  finished  hardwood 
floor  boards  should  be  nailed  across  the  plank.  Suitable  provision 
should  be  made  for  draining  basement  floors. 


354  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Roofs  to  be  of  three  inch  splined  pine  plank  spiked  to  the  roof 
timbers  and  covered  with  five-ply  tar  and  gravel  or  approved  com- 
position roofing;  roofs  should  pitch  one-half  inch  to  three-fourths 
inch  per  foot.  Where  there  are  exposing  buildings  the  walls  should 
be  parapeted  and  coped  with  terra  cotta. 

Timbers  and  Columns. — No  timbers  less  than  six  inches  in 
width  should  be  used.  Timber  should  be  of  sound  Georgia  pine. 
Single  sticks  are  preferred  for  sizes  up  to  fourteen  by  sixteen 
inches,  but  owing  to  the  market  conditions  large  timbers  are  not 
always  available,  in  which  event  it  is  customary  to  bolt  two  seven 
or  eight  inch  by  sixteen  inch  timbers  together,  without  air  space 
between.  Timbers  should  not  be  painted,  varnished  or  filled  for 
several  years  on  account  of  danger  due  to  dry  rot.  The  ends  of 
timbers  should  be  protected  against  dry  rot  by  providing  an  air 
space  in  the  masonry  around  the  same.  All  timbers  should  be 
arranged  to  rest  on  cast  iron  plates  or  beam  boxes  in  the  walls 
and  on  cast  iron  caps  on  the  columns.  Beam  boxes  are  of  value 
as  they  strengthen  the  walls  and  distribute  the  loads  evenly.  The 
laying  of  the  brickwork  and  erecting  the  beams  is  also  facilitated. 
The  proper  air  space  around  end  of  beams  is  also  insured  by  this 
arrangement. 

Columns  to  be  of  southern  pine.  There  should  be  a  one  and 
one-half  inch  hole  bored  through  the  centre,  and  one-half  inch 
vent  holes  top  and  bottom.  In  making  calculations  to  safely  bear 
the  superimposed  loads  allowance  should  be  made  to  provide  for 
sectional  areas  of  columns  which  will  carry  the  loads  after  two 
inches  of  their  diameter  have  been  reduced  to  charcoal  by  fire. 

Columns  should  be  accurately  set  on  pintles,  which  may  be  cast 
in  one  piece  including  the  cap,  or  separately. 

Where  floor  loads  are  heavy,  cast  iron  or  steel  columns  are  often 
found  more  practical  than  wood,  but  the  use  of  structural  metal 
should  be  avoided  unless  it  is  thoroughly  fireproofed.  No  ordinary 
fire  is  likely  to  consume  an  upright  post  of  twelve  inches  diameter, 
since  the  charring  of  the  surface  tends  to  preserve  the  inner  and 
untouched  core ;  experience  has  demonstrated  the  value  of  mill  con- 
struction, especially  when  buildings  are  equipped  with  proper  fire 
protective  devices,  but  it  is  seldom  wise  to  incorporate  this  type  of 
construction  in  buildings  over  four  stories  in  height.  In  fact  with 
the  competitive  costs  of  fire  proof  construction,  it  is  becoming  more 
feasible  to  construct  buildings  requiring  calculations  for  heavy  floor 
loads  entirely  of  fireproof  materials,  especially  structures  over  four 
stories  in  height  and  where  the  floor  loads  are  150  pounds  to  the 
square  foot  and  over. 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION  355 

Mill  construction  or  slow-burning  construction  requires  the  as- 
sembling of  the  heavy  timbers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  retain  the 
full  strength  of  the  timbers,  whether  in  columns,  beams  or  girders. 
As  all  timber  is  more  or  less  subject  to  shrinkage  due  to  the  present 
methods  of  seasoning,  and,  in  addition,  the  physical  changes  con- 
stantly taking  place  in  manufacturing  or  warehouse  properties,  this 
condition  must  be  properly  met  and  curtailed  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  assembling  of  the  beams  and  girders.  Otherwise,  the  settle- 
ment in  girders  or  beams  might  necessitate  cutting  out  the  flooring, 
or  where  shafting  is  arranged  in  connection  with  hangers  supported 
by  the  beams,  the  unequal  alignment  is  likely  to  cause  hot  bearings 
in  addition  to  constant  expenditures  in  the  maintenance  of  proper 
alignment. 

Mill  construction  originally  involved  the  assembling  of  the  posts 
and  girders  in  such  a  manner  that  the  posts  were  spaced  from  eight 
to  ten  feet  apart,  the  girders  being  supported  directly  over  the  posts. 
Modern  requirements  demand  the  maximum  available  amount  of 
unobstructed  floor  space  thus  eliminating  as  many  posts  as  possible, 
with  the  result  of  a  change  in  the  method  of  supporting  the  floor 
planking.  The  elimination  of  posts  requires  the  adoption  of  main 
girders  to  carry  intermediate  beams ;  the  method  of  supporting  the 
beams  from  the  girders  largely  determines  the  proper  rating  of 
this  class  of  construction,  as,  the  framing  is  governed  by  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  connecting  support  or  hanger.  ( 

Wrought  iron  and  steel  stirrups  have  been  used  extensively  for 
the  support  of  floor  beams,  headers,  and  girders,  and  until  recent 
years  no  comparative  tests  have  been  made.  Several  accidents  and 
scientific  tests  have  demonstrated  the  inherent  weakness  which 
always  exists  in  this  form  of  support.  There  is  a  tendency  to  fail 
by  the  bending  of  the  stirrup  as  well  as  the  crushing  of  the  wood 
at  the  top  of  the  supporting  beam  which  causes  the  stirrup  to  rise 
on  the  opposite  side,  with  the  constant  danger  of  the  stirrup  slipping 
over  the  carrying  beam. 

Patent  joist  hangers  are  on  the  market  which  have  been  success- 
fully tested  and  are  now  approved  by  the  underwriters'  organiza- 
tions. These  hangers  have  been  designed  with  a  view  to  minimizing 
settlement  due  to  shrinkage  in  the  main  supporting  beams  and 
girders. 

Wall  hangers  should  incorporate  the  same  principles  as  joist 
hangers;  the  object  being  to  secure  a  proper  distribution  of  the 
loads  over  the  bearing  surface  of  the  masonry,  while  at  the  same 
time  possessing  the  requisite  tensile  strength  in  the  sides  and  bot- 
tom. A  proper  wall  hanger  will  meet  the  following  requirements: 


356  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

ist.  The  regular  bond  of  masonry  will  not  be  broken.  2d.  The 
bearing  of  timbers  on  the  walls  will  be  adequate.  3d.  Secure 
anchorage  will  be  maintained.  4th.  Dry-rot  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  5th.  The  timbers  will  be  self-releasing  in  case  of  fire. 

SEMI-MILL   CONSTRUCTION 

Semi-mill  or  compromise  construction  is  the  stepping  stone  be- 
tween the  ordinary  joisted  construction  and  standard  mill  construc- 
tion;  instead  of  a  number  of  joist  spaced  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  apart,  heavier  timbers  are  used  and  spaced  from  three  to 
six  feet  apart,  these  timbers  being  designated  as  beams  in  semi-mill 
construction.  In  both  joisted  and  semi-mill  construction  the  joist 
and  beams  are  generally  carried  by  main  girders  which  are  spaced 
from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet  apart,  the  common  method  being 
to  support  the  beams  on  iron  hangers  or  stirrups  where  they  inter- 
sect the  main  girders.  This  arrangement  is  ,used  frequently  instead 
of  the  preferable  method  of  allowing  the  beams  to  rest  on  top  of 
the  girders,  the  stirrup  arrangement  being  used  to  save  head  room. 
Large  beams  are  frequently  hung  in  stirrups  having  but  two  or 
three  inches  .of  bearing,  which  requires  extra  ties  or  straps.  With 
such  an  arrangement  the  beams  are  not  self-releasing  and  are  likely 
to  cause  severe  damage  in  case  of  shock  or  vibration,  or  of  condi- 
tions ,due  to  unequal  loading  on  the  floors. 

The  arrangement  of  floor  timbers  in  semi-mill  construction  often 
defeats  an  object  which  is  of  vital  importance,  that  is,  in  securing 
the  utmost  effectiveness  from  the  fire  protective  devices,  whether 
from  hose  streams  or  automatic  sprinklers,  as  the  beams  often 
obstruct  the  full  action  of  the  hose  streams  or  automatic  sprinklers. 
There  is  a  variance  of  opinion  as  to  the  consistent  arrangement 
and  number  of  automatic  sprinklers  required  for  the  proper  pro- 
tection1 of  buildings  so  constructed  owing  to  the  obstruction  to  dis- 
tribution occasioned  by  the  beams. 

The  stairs  and  elevators  in  this  type  of  building  are  often  ar- 
ranged within  the  main  areas  instead  of  within  substantial  brick 
towers  as  in  standard  mill  construction. 

The  introduction  of  wood  sheathing  and  light  frame  partitions 
is  a  frequent  condition  found,  which  defeats  the  object  of  good 
construction.  The  roof  construction  is  frequently  of  light  timbers, 
with  the  introduction  of  unnecessary  hip  or  valley  rafters  which 
complicate  and  add  to  the  expense  of  automatic  sprinkler  equip- 
ments. While  buildings  of  this  type  are  as  a  rule  superior  to  joisted 
or  quick  burning  construction  they  are  vastly  inferior  to  a  mill  of 
standard  construction. 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION  357 

COMPOSITE  CONSTRUCTION— STEEL  AND  PLANK 

The  requirements  for  certain  classes  of  manufacture  call  for  a 
maximum  amount  of  unobstructed  floor  space,  or  clear  girder  spans 
which  are  impractical  by  the  use  of  plank  and  timber  forms  of 
construction.  Well  seasoned,  sound  timber,  suitable  for  girders  of 
long  spans,  is  rapidly  becoming  scarce  in  most  markets,  or  else  the 
prices  are  becoming  prohibitive.  Solid  sticks  of  timber  for  spans 
over  25  feet  are  impractical  when  used  for  floor  girders  in  connec- 
tion with  manufacturing  or  warehouse  properties.  Structural  steel 
I  beams  fill  the  requirements  for  spans  up  to  30  feet.  Building 
operations  in  the  zone  of  the  steel  markets,  where  the  materials 
and  expert  labor  are  available,  have  been  successful  through  the 
employment  of  structural  steel  columns  and  girders,  with  the  intro- 
duction of  plank  floors. 

In  the  designing  of  this  type  of  construction,  it  is  necessary  to 
fabricate  the  metal  to  meet  the  class  of  proposed  occupancy.  The 
conditions  as  to  fixed  or  vibrating  machinery  should  be  well  con- 
sidered in  the  design  and  spans  of  the  structural  members.  Pro- 
vision should  always  be  made  for  the  proper  tieing  of  the  structural 
members  to  the  wall  masonry,  and  the  possible  deflection  or  vibra- 
tion of  beams  and  girders  should  be  considered  in  the  design. 

As  structural  metal  work  is  readily  destroyed  under  the,  influence 
of  fire,  provision  should  be  made  in  the  designing  of  columns,  to 
arrange  the  units  or  sections  in  such  a  manner  as  to  readily  admit 
pf  the  application  of  fireproofing  materials. 

The  columns  in  this  class  of  construction  are  usually  fireproofed 
by  the  application  of  wire  lath  and  cement  plaster.  Some  engineers 
prefer  to  encase  the  columns  in  solid  concrete,  which  is  poured  in 
wooden  forms  arranged  around  the  structural  metal  work.  A 
minimum  thickness  of  2  inches  between  the  metal  and  concrete 
should  always  be  provided.  With  the  column  solidly  encased  in 
concrete,  the  danger  from  rust  is  remote ;  and  with  solidly  encased 
columns  and  beams,  these  structure  members  become  more  monolith 
in  character,  which  tends  to  reduce  vibration  and  deterioration. 

The  floor  planking  is  secured  to  the  I  beams  by  arranging  a 
timber,  usually  4  inches  thick,  on  the  top  flange  of  the  beam.  In 
order  to  secure  a  maximum  amount  of  rigidity  this  timber,  or  nail- 
ing piece,  should  be  bolted  to  the  flange  of  the  beam,  suitable  holes 
having  .been  punched  at  the  steel  mill  for  this  purpose.  The  splined 
plank  and  hardwood  wearing  floor  can  be  arranged  similarly  to  the 
standard  mill  constructed  floor. 

The  desired  stiffness  of  the  floor  between  the  girders  may  be 
secured  by  providing  a  suitable  thickness  of  planking,  which  would 


358  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

be  governed  by  the  spacing  of  the  girders  and  conditions  due  to 
floor  loads  or  specific  kind  of  machinery. 

As  this  type  of  floor  is  practically  a  single  unit,  and  as  longi- 
tudinal contraction  is  likely  to  ensue  under  certain  conditions,  espe- 
cially where  the  floors  may  be  constructed  by  joists  or  timbers  on 
edge  spiked  together,  provision  should  be  made  for  a  continuous 
joint  in  the  under  flooring,  at  intervals. 

The  spacing  of  columns  and  girders  is  governed  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  structure;  girder  spacings  of  from  6  to  12  feet  are 
often  adopted  and  columns  are  spaced  from  8  to  20  feet.'  In  the 
greater  widths,  the  cross  girders  are  often  arranged  to  bear  on  main 
longitudinal  girders  running  from  column  to  column. 

This  type  of  construction  admits  of  a  maximum  amount  of  floor 
area;  permits  provision  being  made  for  a  maximum  amount  of 
light,  and,  with  the  plank  floors,  machinery  and  shafting  can  be 
rearranged  or  installed  at  a  minimum  cost.  Machine  shops  and 
light  manufacturing  processes  have  been  successfully  arranged  in 
this  type  of  structure.  Properties  constructed  for  tenant  purposes 
are  a  success  in  this  form  of  construction  as  changes  or  new  instal- 
lations in  machinery  can  be  accomplished  without  destroying  the 
floor  construction,  and  such  changes  can  be  made  at  a  minimum  cost. 

FIREPROOF  FLOORS   BETWEEN   STEEL  BEAMS 
Monolithic   Construction 

Monolithic  Construction. — This  type  of  construction  consists  of 
a  structural  steel  frame  with  segmental  arches  or  flat  slabs  between 
or  over  the  steel  beams.  The  material  is  generally  placed  in  posi- 
tion in  a  plastic  state  on  temporary  wood  or  permanent  metal  cen- 
tering and  allowed  to  set  or  harden.  In  the  monolithic  construction 
the  thrust  is  largely  eliminated  and  there  is  no  liability  of  settling 
or  displacement  of  parts.  If  the  insulating  material  is  properly 
made  and  applied,  such  material  should  be  of  a  nature  to  resist  the 
action  of  fire  with  the  resultant  expansion  stresses  due  to  sudden 
application  of  hose  streams.  Sufficient  material  should  be  used  to 
insure  adequate  protection  to  the  structural  members.  A  concrete 
made  of  cinders  in'  such  a  manner  that  the  voids  will  be  well  filled 
provides  a  good  protection  for  structural  steel  against  corrosion  as 
well  as  fire.  Cinder  concrete,  however,  in  a  damp  atmosphere  where 
the  cinders  are  not  imbedded  in  a  sufficient  matrix  of  cement  mor- 
tar would  be  conducive  to  the  rapid  corrosion  of  the  structural  metal 
work.  It  is  important  that  the  structural  metal  be  cleaned  of  mill 
scale  and  rust  prior  to  the  placing  of  the  protective  materials.  Some 
authorities  advocate  covering  the  surface  of  the  metal  with  a  simple 
mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  sand  as  an  extra  precaution. 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION 


359 


Finished    Hardwood     Flcxir 


piece  for  floor  j(        -  Bolts. 


ALTERNATE.  METHOD 

Rods  'if1  used  may  be  sharpens 
and  driven  and  Fastened  with  J 

heavy  staple.  — 7 

Provide  at  least  J- in.  of 
plaster  outside  the  lath  two 
coatworK 


K 


:or  rods  wrap 

lower  hanfc  wth  piece  of  metal 
lath  to  prwicjc  ample  thickness  of 
pkshr  wer  Flande. 


3  inch  Splmed 

^Channel- punched   for 
2  inch    wire  nails 

Mdal  Lath- to  be  veil 
stapled  on  to  the  wood 

•%  m .  rod  or^r-  in.  channd, 
Spaced  every  18m  vhere< 
beam  is  more  than  10 in 
deep.-  MetaJ  lath  to  be 
wined  to  channel  or  rod- 


<an  be  cut  axd/for  hanacrs 
and  pomted  up  after  han&rs 
are  in  place. 


STEETL    COLUMNS  5t  FLCX)R   BEAMS 

ARRANGED      FOR      PLANK    FLOORS 

Buildings  liavino  combustible  contents  all  structurdh 
metal   should    oc  FIREPRCXDFED. 


CROSS      SECTJON    OF  RCX5f? 


^  Ift  "in.  to  20  inT  Beas  *~~ 


TYPICAL    FLOOR    PLAN. 

FIG.    36 


360  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Construction   Consisting   of   Assembled   Parts 

Assembled  Parts. — This  system  involves  the  use  of  segmental  or 
flat  arches  constructed  of  hollow  tile,  which  arrangement  makes  it 
necessary  to  provide  for  the  proper  tieing  of  the  floor  beams  to  take 
up  the  thrust  of  the  arches.  It  is  of  vital  importance  that  the  arches 
be  properly  erected,  and  that  all  joints  be  perfect,  allowing  full 
bearing  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  joints.  Special  precautions 
should  be  taken  in  the  case  of  "  End  Construction  " — that  is  where 
the  cellular  spaces  and  webs  run  at  right  angles  to  the  beams, — 
the  blocks  should  be  accurately  set  so  that  the  adjacent  ribs  or 
webs  come  opposite  each  other  and  form  a  continuous  rib  or  web 
from  skewback  to  skewback.  With  imperfect  joints  arches  of  this 
class  will  settle,  causing  cracks,  which  will  not  only  destroy  the 
finished  ceiling,  but  cause  failure  as  a  fire  retardant. 

In  arches  adjacent  to  exterior  walls  the  tie  rods  should  be  care- 
fully protected  so  as  to  prevent  thrust  against  the  walls  in  case 
of  fire. 

Construction  with   Light   Metal   Constituents 

Construction  with  Light  Metal  Constituents. — Fireproofing 
material  in  the  form  of  a  flat  arch  or  flat  slab  acts  like  a  beam,  the 
upper  portion  of  the  section  being  in  compression  and  the  lower 
portion  in  tension.  As  no  building  materials  adapted  for  this  pur- 
pose are  as  strong  in  tension  as  in  compression,  light  metal  elements 
or  units  are  introduced  to  strengthen  that  portion  of  the  section 
that  is  in  tension.  By  the  use  of  metal  as  a  reinforcing  material  a 
much  thinner  and  lighter  construction  of  the  requisite  strength  may 
be  obtained.  In  assembled  construction  the  metal  elements  are  im- 
bedded in  the  mortar  joints.  In  monolithic  construction  the  metal 
is  imbedded  in  the  material  while  in  a  plastic  state. 

The  metal  generally  consists  of  steel  in  the  form  of  wire,  rods, 
bars,  or  sheet  metal  expanded  into  open  meshes.  If  properly  im- 
bedded the  metal  adds  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  construction. 
As  that  portion  of  the  material  which  is  in  tension  is  usually  the 
underside  of  the  beam  or  slab,  the  metal  in  order  to  develop  its 
maximum  efficiency  should  be  located  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
neutral  axis  or  near  the  under  surface  of  the  construction.  In  this 
position,  however,  it  is  very  much  exposed  and  in  case  of  fire  of 
any  magnitude  the  heat  would  soon  render  the  metal  constituents 
valueless.  As  an  element  of  strength  in  constructions  of  this  class, 
the  imbedded  metal  should  be  located  as  far  as  practicable  from  the 
under  surface. 

Fireproofing. — Types  of  fireproof  floors  in  which  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  materials  of  construction  is  below  the  lower  flange  of 


FLOOR  DRAINAGE  AND  SCUPPERS  361 

the  steel  beams  afford  generally  a  better  protection  for  the  beams 
than  those  types  in  which  the  beams  project  below  the  flooring  and 
are  protected  by  a  covering.  In  the  latter  case  three  sides  of  the 
beam  or  girder  covering  are  exposed  to  the  flame,  and  heat  in  case 
of  fire.  The  thickness  of  covering  in  such  forms  of  construction 
should  be  carefully  designed  so  as  to  provide  suitable  protection 
as  the  special  conditions  may  warrant. 

For  warehouses,  factories,  stores  and  such  buildings  which  may 
he  filled  with  inflammable  and  other  goods,  and  in  which  the  floors 
are  subject  to  heavy  moving  or  jarring  loads,  the  segmental  arch 
form  of  construction  will  generally  be  found  the  strongest,  safest 
and  most  economical. 

For  public  buildings,  libraries,  and  other  high  class  buildings  in 
which  expensive  interior  finish  enters,  the  monolithic  construction 
with  flat  ceilings  gives  the  best  results.  The  finished  ceilings  are 
generally  suspended  under  the  rough  constructive  members,  the 
finished  plastering  being  applied  to  wire  or  expanded  metal.  The 
monolithic  construction  will  preserve  the  integrity  of  the  floor 
finish  and  the  wire  ceilings  if  properly  constructed  will  prevent 
the  cracking  and  discoloration  of  the  finished  plaster  work. 

FLOOR  DRAINAGE  AND  SCUPPERS 

Water  damage  in  many  cases  is  much  in  excess  of  the  actual 
fire  loss.  To  guard  against  this,  thoroughly  waterproof  floors  are 
essential ;  even  in  apartments,  as  evidenced  by  the  heavy  water 
damage  in  the  Alwyn  Apartment  fire  in  New  York,  this  water- 
proofing should  be  provided.  In  this  case,  although  the  building 
was  fireproof,  the  water  necessary  to  extinguish  a  fire  on  one  floor 
seeped  through  to  several  floors  below,  because  sufficient  attention 
had  not  been  paid  to  waterproofing. 

In  joisted  buildings,  the  flooring  is  usually  so  thin  and  poorly 
laid  as  to  readily  let  water  through,  but  even  with  such  floors,  if 
a  proper  pitch  is  given  to  the  floor  to  drain  to  a  doorway,  stairwell 
or  elevator  opening,  much  damage  can  be  prevented  by  salvage 
corps  and  firemen  by  sweeping  the  water  away. 

In  mill  or  iireproof  buildings  the  waterproofing  is  a  simpler 
matter  and  requires  only  a  little  care  in  the  laying  or  "placing  of 
the  floors  and  the  flashing  around  the  walls. 

It  is  considered  good  practice  to  build  floors  with  a  pitch  of  one 
inch  in  twenty  feet; — basement  floors  should  be  pitched  towards 
and  drained  to  elevator  pits  which  should  be  three  feet  deep  and 
connected  to  sewer  or  a  well  to  carry  off  the  water. 

Standard  brick  stair  and  elevator  towers  often  provide  good 
means  for  disposing  of  water  but  there  is  more  or  less  delay  in 


362  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

sweeping  up,  especially  where  the  floors  are  not  properly  graded 
or  where  the  floor  areas  are  large ;  the  drains  and  pits  at  bottom 
of  elevator  shafts  are  frequently  too  small  to  carry  off  quantities  of 
water,  such  a  condition  could  readily  lead  to  heavy  water  losses 
in.  basements  containing  perishable  materials. 

To  secure  an  efficient  watertight  floor,  it  is  necessary  to  arrange 
not  only  a  suitable  surfacing,  but  special  precautions  should  be 
taken  at  all  openings  where  pipes  or  conduits  extend  through  the 
floors,  watertight  metal  thimbles  should  be  arranged  around  pipes, 
suitable  curbing  should  be  arranged  at  the  walls  and  around  columns. 

In  all  buildings  where  goods  are  stored  or  manufactured,  and 
especially  if  the  building  is  equipped  with  sprinklers,  there  should 
be  properly  designed  scuppers  of  sufficient  capacity  to  prevent  the 
water  rising  to  a  height  that  will  damage  goocls. 

Several  makes  of  scuppers  are  on  the  market  but  these  are 
patented.  The  most  common  type  is  one  extending  through  the 
side  wall,  with  a  slight  slant  and  with  a  wider  mouth  on  the  inside. 
Another  type  consists  of  pipes  extending  down  through  the  various 
stories  with  inlet  slots. 

There  are  no  insurance  regulations  covering  scuppers;  a  National 
Fire  Protection  Association  Committee  issued  an  advance  report 
on  this  subject  at  the  annual  meeting  in  1915,  but  it  was  not  adopted, 
because  it  described  patented  articles. 

There  are  several  features  which  must  be  covered :  they  must 
be  of  such  design  as  not  to  allow  any  water  to  stand  on  the  floor 
before  starting  discharge,  must  not  allow  passage  of  fire  or  smoke 
from  one  floor  to  another  and  must  be  of  such  capacity  and  in  such 
number  as  to  prevent  water  from  a  reasonable  number  oi  sprinkler 
heads  or  fire  streams  flooding  the  floor  sufficiently  to  wet  goods 
on  4  to  6-inch  skids.  In  addition  they  must  be  so  located  and  pro- 
tected as  to  give  a  free  opening  and  not  be  stopped  up  by  the  piling 
of  goods.  Also  they  must  not  be  of  a  design  that  will  allow  such 
an  amount  of  cold  air  in  the  winter  time  that  there  will  be  a  ten- 
dency to  stuff  paper  or  rags  in  the  opening. 

ROOF  COVERINGS 

Roof  Coverings  inspected  and  classified  in  accordance  with  Underwriters' 
Laboratories'  "  Standard  for  Roof  Coverings,  Test  Specifications  and  Classifi- 
cation Schedule,"  bear  labels  attached  to  each  container  of  finished  roofing 
or  roofing  material.  Labels  for  different  classes  are  lettered  and  colored  as 
follows : 

Letter  Color  Background  Lettering 

Class  A White Orange 

Class  B White/ Red 

Class  C Red Yellow 

Class  D Yellow Red 

Class  E.  . . Red White 

Class  F .Orange.  . .  . . White 


ROOF  COVERINGS  363 


As  regards  the  fire  hazard,  roof  coverings  are  classified  as  (i)  Standard, 
(2)  Fire  Retarding,  and  (3)  Flammable. 

1.  Standard. — Includes    the    Underwriters'    Laboratories'    Classes    A    and    B. 

2.  Fire   Retarding. — Includes   the   Underwriters'    Laboratories'    Classes   C,   D, 
E  and  F. 

3.  Flammable. — Includes   the   Underwriters'    Laboratories'    Classes   G  and    H. 
For    dwellings,    standard    or    fire    retarding    roof    coverings    are    acceptable. 

Where    flammable    roof    coverings    are    used    on    this    class    of    property,    the 
increased    fire    hazard    should    be    recognized. 

For  mercantile  and  other  business  property  standard  roof  coverings  should 
be  used.  In  general  where  fire  retarding  or  flammable  roof  coverings  are 
used  on  this  class  of  property,  the  differences  in  the  fire  hazard  should  be 
recognized. 

Class  A  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  flammable  and  do  not  carry 
or  communicate  fire;  which  afford  a  very  high  degree  of  heat  insulation  to 
the  roof  deck;  which  possess  no  flying  brand  hazard;  which  do  not  slip  from 
position  when  exposed  to  high  temperature,  and  which  are  durable  and  do  not 
require  frequent  repairs. 

Class  B  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  readily  flammable  and  do 
not  carry  or  communicate  fire;  which  afford  a  high  degree  of  heat  insula- 
tion to  the  roof  deck;  which  possess  little  or  no  flying  brand  hazard;  which 
do  not  slip  from  position  to  a  serious  degree  when  exposed  to  high  tem- 
perature, and  which  are  durable  and  do  not  require  frequent  repairs. 

Class  C  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  readily  flammable  and  do  not 
carry  or  communicate  fire  to  a  serious  degree;  which  afford  at  least  a  moderate 
degree  of  heat  insulation  to  the  roof  deck;  which  possess  little  or  no  flying 
brand  hazard;  which  do  not  slip  from  position  to  a  serious  degree  when 
exposed  to  high  temperatures,  and  which  are  durable  but  may  require  occa- 
sional repairs. 

Class  D  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  readily  flammable  and  do 
not  carry  or  communicate  fire  to  a  serious  degree;  which  afford  at  least  a 
slight  degree  of  heat  insulation  to  the  roof  deck;  which  may  possess  a  slight 
flying  brand  hazard;  which  do  not  slip  from  position  to  a  serious  degree 
when  exposed  to  high  temperatures,  and  which  are  durable,  but  may  require 
occasional  repairs. 

Class  E  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  readily  flammable  but  will 
carry  and  communicate  fire  when  exposed  to  severe  fire  conditions;  which 
afford  at  least  a  slight  degree  of  heat  insulation  to  the  roof  deck;  which 
may  possess  a  slight  flying  brand  hazard;  which  do  not  slip  from  position 
to  a\  serious  degree  when  exposed  to  high  temperatures;  which  are  durable 
but  may  require  maintaining. 

Class  F  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  not  readily  flammable  but  will 
carry  and  communicate  fire  when  exposed  to  severe"  fire  conditions;  which 
afford  but  little  heat  insulation  to  the  roof  deck;  which  may  possess  a  slight 
flying  brand  hazard;  which  do  not  slip  from  position  to  a  serious  'degree 
when  exposed  to  high  temperatures,  and  which  are  durable  but  may  require 
maintaining. 

Class  G  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  flammable  and  will  carry  and 
communicate  fire  when  exposed  to  fire  conditions;  which  afford  little  or  no 
heat  insulation  to  rpof  deck;  which  possess  a  serious  flying  brand  hazard; 
which  slip  from  position  to  a  serious  degree  when  exposed  to  high  tempera- 
tures, and  which  may  require  frequent  repairs  and  renewals. 

Class  H  includes  roof  coverings  which  are  a  menace  to  property  and  which 
have  repeatedly  demonstrated  their  hazardous  nature  as  conflagration  breeders. 
The   following   manufacturers   are   equipped   to    furnish   labeled    roofings   and 
roofing  materials  as  described  below: 


364  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Built  Up  Type 
CLASS   A.— 

Barrett  Specification  Roof  Coverings  with  gravel  or  crushed  slag  com- 
posed of  Barrett  Specification  Roofing  materials. 

Built  up  type,  non-combustible  surfaced.  Five  plies.  Flashings  and  trim- 
mings of  1 6  oz.  copper  or  heavier.  Assembled  in  accordance  with  Barrett 
specifications.  Attached  by  nailing,  mopping  of  pitch,  or  both.  Limited  to 
non-combustible  roof  decks  of  standard  construction  having  inclines  not 
exceeding  i  inch  to  foot  horizontal. 

New   York,    Barrett   Mfg.    Co.,    17    Battery   PI. 

J.  M.  Specification  Asbestos  Roof  Coverings,  three-ply  pattern,  composed 
of  J.  M.  Specification  Asbestos  Roofing  materials. 

Built  up  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Three  plies.  Flashings  and  trimmings. 
J.  M.  Asbestos  Flashing  Material  or  16  oz.  copper  or  heavier.  Assembled 
in  accordance  with  J.  M.  specifications  laid  directly  over  and  attached  by 
cement  and  nails  to  non-combustible  roof  decks  having  inclines  riot  exceeding 
3  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Mew   York,  Johns-Manville   Co.,   H.    W.,   Madison   Ave.   and  4ist   St. 

CLASS   B.— 

Barrett  Specification  Roof  Coverings  with  gravel  or  crushed  slag  com- 
posed of  Barrett  Specification  Roofing  materials. 

Built  up  type,  non-combustible  surfaced.  Five  plies.  Flashings  and  trim- 
mings of  1 6  oz.  copper  or  heavier.  Assembled  in  accordance  with  Barrett 
specifications.  Attached  by  nailing,  mopping  of  pitch,  or  both.  Limited  to 
combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  having  inclines  not  exceeding  3 
inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

New    York,    Barrett   Mfg.   Co.,    17    Battery   PI. 

J.  M.  Specification  Asbestos  Roof  Coverings,  three-ply  pattern,  composed 
of  J.  M.  Specification  Asbestos  Roofing  materials. 

Built  up  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Three  plies.  Flashings  and  trimmings. 
J.  M.  Asbestos  Flashing  Material  or  16  oz.  copper  or  heavier.  Assembled 
in  accordance  with  J.  M.  specifications  laid  directly  over  and  attached  by 
cement  and  nails  to  non-combustible  roof  decks  having  inclines  not.  exceeding 
6  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Four    and    five-ply    patterns. 

Built  up  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Four  or  five  plies.  Flashings  and  trim- 
mings J.  M.  Asbestos  Flashing  Material  or  16  oz.  copper  or  heavier.  Assem- 
bled in  accordance  with  J.  M.  specifications,  laid  directly  over  and  attached 
by  cement  and  nailing  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks,  capable 
of  receiving  and  retaining  nails,  where  inclines  do  not  exceed  6  inches  to 
foot  horizontal. 

New   York,   Johns-Manville   Co.,    H.    W.,   Madison    Ave.    and   4ist    St. 


Prepared  Type 

CLASS   B.— 

Brooks  Brand  Asbestos  Roof  Coverings.  Four-ply  pattern.  Composed  of 
Brooks  Brand  Asbestos  Roofings. 

Prepared  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Single  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  ins.  to  ft.  horizontal. 

New   York,  Johns-Manville  Co.,   H.   W.,   Madison   Ave.    and  4ist   St. 

CLASS    C.— 

Brooks  Brand  Asbestos  Roof  Coverings.  Three-ply  pattern.  Composed  of 
Brooks  Brand  Asbestos  Roofings. 


ROOF  COVERINGS  365 

Prepared  type,  smooth  surface.  Single '  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks-  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  ins.  to  ft.  horizontal. 

New    York,   Johns-Manville   Co.,   H.    W.,   Madison   Ave.    and   4ist    St. 

CLASS    I*'. — 

Arc  Ready  Roof  Coverings.  Two  and  three-ply  patterns.  Composed  of 
Arc  Ready  Roofings. 

Prepared  type.  Smooth,  sanded,  or  grit  surfaced,  single  thickness.  At- 
tached by  nailing.  Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks 
capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  not  exceeding  3 
inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Chicago,    Amalgamated    Roofing    Co.,'  431    S.    Dearborn    St. 

Mule-Hide  Roof  Coverings.  Two,  three  and  four-ply  patterns.  Composed 
of  Mule-Hide  Roofings. 

Prepared  type.  Smooth  surfaced.  Single  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  not  exceeding  3  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Chicago,    Lehon    Co.,    The,    W.    45th    St.    and    Oakley    Ave. 

Arrow  and  Protection  Brands  Asphalt  Ready  Roof  Coverings.  Composed 
of  Arrow  or  Protection  Brand  Roofings. 

Prepared  type,  grit  surfaced.  Single  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing.  Lim- 
ited to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  ins.  to  the  ft.  horizontal. 

New   York,   N.   Y.,  Asphalt  Ready   Roofing  Co.,   9   Church   St. 

Regal  Brand  Asbestos  Roof  Coverings.  Two  and  three-ply  patterns. 
Composed  of  Regal  Brand  Asbestos  Roofings. 

Prepared  type,  smooth  surface.  Single  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  ins.  to  ft.  horizontal. 

New  York,  Johns-Manville  Co.,  H.    W.,   Madison   Ave.   and  4ist   St. 

Ru-ber-oid  Roof  Coverings.  Heavy  and  extra  heavy  patterns;  and  colored 
Ru-ber-oid  heavy  pattern.  Composed  of  Ru-ber-oid  roofings. 

Prepared  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Single  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  inches  to  the  foot  horizontal. 

New  York,    Standard  Paint   Co.,   The,   Wool  worth   Bldg. 

Vulcanite  Prepared  Asphalt  Roof  Coverings.  Two,  three  and  four-ply 
standard,  extra  heavy  patterns.  Composed  of  Vulcanite  Prepared  Roofings. . 

Prepared  type.  Smooth,  sanded  and  grit  surfaced.  Single  or  laminated. 
Attached  by  nailing.  Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks 
capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  3  inches 
to  the  foot. 

Chicago,   111.,    Patent   Vulcanite    Roofing  Co.,   Oakley  Ave.    and  49th   St. 

Shingle    Type 

CLASS    E.— 

Asbestos  Century  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Composed  of  Asbestos  Century 
shingles. 

Thatched  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Three  thicknesses.  Flashings  and  trim- 
mings i6-oz.  copper,  No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron  or  heavier,  and  Asbestos 
Ridge  Rolls.  Assembled  at  building,  laid  directly  over  and  attached  by  nailing 
to  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  nails,  where  inclines  exceed 
4  inches  to  the  foot  horizontal. 

Asbestos  Century  Shingle  Roof  Coverings,  laid  American  method.  Com- 
posed of  Asbestos  Century  Shingles. 


366 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Thatched  type,  smooth  surfaced:  .  Two  thicknesses.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Ambler,    Pa.,    Keasby    &    Mattison    Co. 

J.-M  Transite  Asbestos  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Two  thicknesses.  Laid 
American  method.  Composed  of  J-M  Transite  Asbestos  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Flashings  and  trimmings  i6-oz.  copper, 
No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron  or  heavier,  and  J-M  Transite  Asbestos  Ridge 
Rolls.  Attached  by  nailing.  Limited  to  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  fall  to  the  foot  horizontal. 

New   York,   Johns-Manville   Co.,    H.    W.,    Madison   Ave.    and   4ist    St. 

CLASS    C.— 

Asbestos  Century  Shingle  Roof  Coverings,  laid  French  method.  Composed 
of  Asbestos  Century  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  smooth  surfaced.  One  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  decks  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines 
exceeding  4  inches  fall  to  foot  horizontal. 

Ambler,    Pa.,    Keasbey    &    Mattison    Co. 

J-M  Transite  Asbestos  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  One  thickness.  Laid 
French  method.  Composed  of  J-M  Transite  Asbestos  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  smooth  surfaced.  Flashings  and  trimmings  i6-oz.  copper, 
No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron  or  heavier,  and  J-M  Transite  Asbestos  Ridge 
Rolls.  Attached  by  nailing.  Limited  to  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  fall  to  the  foot  horizontal. 

New   York,   Johns-Manville   Co.,    H.    W.,    Madison   Ave.    and  4ist    St. 

CLASS   E.  — 

Nu-tile  Asphalt  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Extra  heavy  pattern.  Com- 
posed of  Nu-tile  Asphalt  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  grit  surfaced.  Three  thicknesses.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Chicago,    111.,   Amalgamated   Roofing   Co.,    431    S.    Dearborn    St. 

Reynolds  Flexible  Asphalt  Slate  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Composed  of 
Reynolds  Flexible  Asphalt  Slate  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  grit  surfaced.  Three  thicknesses.  Flashings  and  trim- 
mings of  same  material,  i6-oz.  copper,  No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron  or 
I.  C.  Terne  Plate,  2o-lb.  coating  or  heavier.  Assembled  at  buildings,  laid 
directly  over  and  attached  by  nailing  to  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails,  where  inclines  exceed  4  inches  to  the  foot  horizontal. 

Grand   Rapids,   Mich.,    Reynolds   Asphalt   Shingle   Co.,   H.    M. 

CLASS  F.— 

Nu-tile  Asphalt  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Heavy  pattern.  Composed  of 
Nu-tile  Asphalt  Shingles. 

Thatched  type,  grit  surfaced.  Three  thicknesses.  Attached  by  nailing. 
Limited  to  combustibje  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  to  foot  horizontal. 

Chicago,   111.,   Amalgamated   Roofing   Co.,   431    S.    Dearborn   St. 

Arc-Strip  Shingle  Roof  Coverings.  Heavy  pattern.  Composed  of  Arc 
Shingle  Strips. 

Thatched  type,  grit  surfaced.  One  thickness.  Attached  by  nailing.  Lim- 
ited to  combustible  and  non-combustible  roof  decks  capable  of  receiving  and 
retaining  nails  and  to  inclines  exceeding  4  inches  to  foot. 

Chicago,   111.,  Amalgamated  Roofing  Co.,  431    S.   Dearborn  St. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS* 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  (CLASS  A)  OF 

OPENINGS  IN  DIVISION  WALLS  BETWEEN 

SEPARATE  BUILDINGS  OR  SECTIONS 

OF  BUILDINGS 

The  great  importance  of  fire  walls  as  a  safeguard  to  life  and  in  prevent- 
ing the  spread  of  fire,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  liable  to  be  severely  exposed 
to  fire  for  considerable  periods,  makes  it  essential  that  all  openings  in  such 
walls  be  protected  by  the  most  efficient  methods.  Only  such  fire  retardants 
are  included  in  this  class  as  have  been  shown  by  experience  and  tests  to 
furnish  a  high  degree  of  fire  protection  when  installed  on  both  sides  of 
the  wall,  and  if  used  as  exit  doors,  to  offer  no  serious  accident  hazard  under 
normal  or  emergency  conditions  in  this  situation. 

General  Regulations 

i  and  2.  NUMBER  SIZE  OF  WALL  OPENINGS. — The  number  and  size  of 
openings  in  fire  walls  should  be  proportionate  to  the  number  of  occupants 
who  may  have  to  use  the  openings  as  a  means  of  exit  at  time  of  fire.  It  is 
important  that  openings  in  fire  walls  be  as  small  as  the  circumstances  will 
permit;  they  should  not  exceed  80  square  feet,  except  in  some  cases  for  the 
ground  floor,  where  wagons,  etc.,  must  be  passed  through.  Generally  speak- 
ing, the  openings  should  be  as  remote  from  each  other  as  possible.  From 
the  fire  protection  viewpoint,  the  number  of  openings  should  be  as  few  as 
possible,  as  there  is  always  the  chance  that  fire  doors  will  be  open  at  time 
of  fire,  either  through  neglect  to  close  them,  failure  of  the  automatic  closing 
devices,  or  inability  to  close  doors  that  have  been  opened  to  afford  better 
opportunity  for  fighting  fire.  For  these  reasons  openings  found  to  be  un- 
necessary should  be  closed  with  masonry  well  bonded  in. 

3.  NUMBER  OF  DOORS. — Each  side  of  the  wall  at  every  opening  in  an  interior 
fire  wall   to  be  provided   with  an   approved  self-closing  or  automatic  fire  door, 
except    openings    in    enclosing    walls    to    fireproof    rooms    separating    specially 
hazardous    processes    from    the    remainder    of    the    building    may    be    provided 
with  doors  on  one  side  of  the  wall. 

NOTE. — Self-closing  doors  are  normally  closed  doors,  which,  when  opened, 
will  close  and  latch  or  lock.  Automatic  doors  are  doors  arranged  to  close 
when  released  by  the  action  of  heat. 

4.  MASONRY    AT    WALL    OPENINGS. — (a)    Walls    to    be    plumb    and    true,    and 
present    smooth    masonry    surfaces    without    any   wood   or    combustible    trim    at 
openings. 

(b)  Where  swinging  tin-clad  fire  doors  shut  into  a  brick  rabbet  in  wall, 
rabbet  to  be  at  least  3x4  inches,  and  to  have  true  sides  and  angles  so  that 
door  will  close  snugly. 

*  Regulations  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  issued  in  1915. 
Illustrations  are  reproduced  from  original  cuts  by  permission  of  the  National 
Board. 

367 


368 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


5.  SILLS. — On  account  of  the  number  of  methods  specified,  inspection  de- 
partments having  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted  before  the  installation  of 
sills. 

(a)  Concrete  for  sills  to  be  made  of  one  part  Portland  cement,  two  parts 
clean  sharp  sand,  and  four  parts  clean  broken  stone  which  will  pass  through 
%-inch  mesh.  To  be  thoroughly  mixed,  well  tamped  and  finished  smooth  and 
flush  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  sill.  Concrete  to  be  a  wet  mixture. 


Fiq-  1.  Angle  Iron  and  Concrete  Sill. 


Ficj.  2  Anqle  Iron  ar\d    Concrete  Sill, 
with  Plate  on Top ' 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(b)  To  be  of  concrete  not  less  than  4  inches  in  thickness,  and  placed 
between  a  3^  x  5  x  %-inch  steel  angle  on  each  side  of  the  wall.  Angles 
to  extend  at  least  6  inches  past  the  opening  on  each  side.  Long  side  of 
angles  to  rest  against  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  short  side  to  extend  out 
under  the  bottom  of  the  door.  Upper  face  of  angles  to  be  covered  with 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


369 


a  tread  having  an  anti-slip  surface  flush  with  the  floor  and  sill.  Angles 
to  be  fastened  together  through  the  wall  by  %-ineh  bolts  placed  close  to 
each  side  of  the  wall  opening,  and  not  to  exceed  18  inches  apart  at  any 
point.  Bolts  to  have  nuts  at  each  end.  See  Figure  i. 

NOTE. — Where  sliding  fire  doors  are  used,  the  upper  face  of  the  angle  should 
be  notched  out  at  one  end  on  each  side  of  the  wall,  or  angles  drilled,  and 
%-inch  bolts  installed  so  as  to  permit  the  proper  installation  of  the  stay 


Fl£.3.An£le  Iron  and  Concrete  Sill- 
SuplDoHed  by  a  Corbel  of  Two  Courses  of  Brick. 


(T£4.An£le  Iron  and  Concrete  Sill. 
1 S  uftjorfed  byaCorbel  of  Three  Courses  of  BricK 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


roll   for  holding  the  door  in   position.      In   new  buildings  this   should  be    done 
before    the    angles   are   installed. 

Where  the  wall  is  rabbeted  for  a  swinging  fire  door,  a  steel  plate  not 
less  than  %-inch  thick  and  5  inches  wide  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
steel  angle  on  that  side  of  the  wall,  or  the  steel  angle  may  be  installed  so 
that  the  short  side  extends  into  the  wall. 


370 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(c)  To    be    constructed    as    specified    in    Role    b    and    covered    with    a    tread 
having    an    anti'slip    surface   extending   out   flush    with    the    outer    edges    of   the 
angles    on    each    side    of    the    wall    and    held    securely    in    position    by    %-inch 
counter     sunk     machine     screws     spaced     not    to   exceed    9    inches    apart.      See 
Figure    2. 

(d)  To    be    of    concrete    not    less    than    3%    inches    in    thickness    and    placed 
between    a    3^  x  6  x  %    inch    steel    angle    on    each    side    of    the    wall.       Angles 


Fig. 5.  Z  Bar  and  Concrete  Sill 


Ficj.6.6tee\  PI  ate  Sill. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

to  extend  at  least  6  inches  past  the  opening  on  each  side.  The  short  side 
of  the  angle  to  be  parallel  with  and  set  out  4  inches  from  the  face  of  the 
wall.  The  long  side  of  the  angle  to  extend  into  the  wall.  Angles  to  be 
fastened  together  through  the  wall  as  specified  in  Rule  sb. 

In    new    walls,    two    courses    of    brick    work    to    be    corbeled    out    to    support 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  371 

the    angles,    the    upper   course    to    be    i1/^    inches    back    from    the    perpendicular 
face   of    the    angle.      See    Figure    3. 

Where  a  large  amount  of  heavy  trucking  is  done,  the  concrete  should 
be  at  least  6  inches  in  thickness,  the  steel  increased  proportionately,  and 
three  courses  of  the  brick  corbeled  out  to  the  outer  edges  of  the  sill.  See 
Figure  4. 


Raised  An£le  Iron  and  Concrete 
Sill  with  Inclines. 


Fig.  8.  Z  Bar  and  Concrete  Sill  with  Inclines. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


In  old  walls  Z-bars  made  of  two  4-inch  angles  %  inch  thick  bolted  together 
or  equivalent  solid  Z-bars  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  steel  angles  and 
corbeling.  The  concrete  to  be  not  less  than  7  inches  in  thickness,  and  the 
Z-bars  fastened  together  by  %-inch  wall  bolts  through  both  perpendicular 
faces.  See  Figure  5. 


372 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE. — When  sliding  fire  doors  are  used  the  angles  or  Z-bars  should  be 
drilled  and  %-inch  bolts  installed  so  as  to  permit  the  proper  installation  of 
standard  stay  roll  for  holding  the  door  in  position.  In  new  buildings  this 
should  be  done  before  the  steel  work  is  placed  in  the  sill. 

Where  the  wall  is  rabbeted  for  a  swinging  fire  door,  a  steel  plate  not  less 
than  %  inch  thick  and  8  inches  wide  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  angles 
or  Z-bars. 

(e)  To  consist  of  an  iron  or  steel  plate  having  an  anti-slip  surface  securely 
attached  to  concrete  support  not  less  than  6  inches  thick.  Concrete  support 


.  9 

Steel    Lintel 


Fig.  10 
Steel   Lintel 


11 
Cast  Iron  Lintel 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

to  be  built  into  wall  at  least  6  inches  on  each  side  of  the  opening  and  extend 
under  and  flush  with  the  outer  surface  of  the  door.  Three  courses  of  the 
brick  work  under  sill  to  be  corbeled  out  flush  with  the  outer  surface  on 
each  side  of  the  wall.  See  Figure  6. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  373 

NOTE. — Where  sliding  fire  doors  are  used,  the  plate  should  be  notched  out 
at  one  end  and  on  each  side  of  the  wall  so  as  to  permit  the  proper  installa- 
tion of  the  stay  roll  for  holding  the  door  in  position.  In  new  buildings 
this  should  be  done  before  the  tread  is  installed. 

(.0  To  be  constructed  in  accordance  With  any  of  the  above  methods  raised 
il/2  to  2  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  floor  and  provided  with  inclines  on 
each  side,  and  at  each  end  having  a  pitch  not  more  than  i  inch  vertical  to 
6  inches  horizontal. 

NOTE. — Raised  sills  are  of  advantage  in  preventing  water  from  running 
through  the  door  openings  at  time  of  fire,  but  offer  an  appreciable  accident 
hazard  and  should,  therefore,  be  avoided  at  openings  used  as  exits. 

(g)  To  consist  of  an  iron  or  steel  plate  having  an  anti-slip  surface  raised 
2  inches  above  the  surface  of*  the  floor  and  extended  out  flush  with  the 
face  of  the  wall  on  each  side.  Plate  to  be  attached  to  a  3  x  4  x  %  inch  steel 
angle  on  each  side  of  the  wall  by  %-inch  machine  screws  spaced  not  exceeding 
9  inches.  Ends  of  angles  to  be  securely  attached  to  steel  wall  frame.  Angles 
to  be  fastened  together  through  the  wall  by  %-inch  bolts  spaced  not  exceeding 
18  inches.  Space  between  wall  and  sill  plate  to  be  filled  solid  with  concrete 
or  cement  grout.  See  Figures  14,  28,  29  and  30. 

NOTE. — This  sill  is  designed  for  solid  steel  fire  doors  where  a  raised  sill 
is  required.  The  channel  for  sliding  doors  is  bolted  or  riveted  to  the  sill 
angles  on  each  side  of  the  wall. 

6.  LINTELS. — A  brick  arch  is  preferable,  but  lintels  made  of  steel,  cr.st  iron 
or  reinforced  concrete  may  be  used  if  constructed  as  specified  in  the  following 
rules.      Stone   or   tin-clad  wooden   lintels  are   prohibited. 

(a)  To    be    of    standard    steel    sections    securely    riveted    or    bolted    together, 
protected  by   at  least   4   inches   of  solid   brickwork  flush   with   the    face    of   the 
wall  on  each  side  and  provided  with  a  full  header  course  of  brick  just  above 
the    steel    work.      Spaces    between    sections    to    be    filled    solid    with    brickwork, 
concrete  or  grout.     See  Figures  9  and   10. 

(b)  To  be   of  cast-iron   tee  sections   not  less   than    i    inch   in   thickness,   pro- 
tected by  not  less  than  4  inches  of  solid  brickwork  flush  with  the  face  of  the 
wall    on    each    side.      See    Figure    1 1 . 

(c)  To    be    of    solid    reinforced    concrete    the    full    thickness    of    the    wall. 
Reinforcing   members   to   be   protected   by    at  least    il/2    inches   of   concrete   on 
exposed    faces. 

7.  WALL  FRAMES.- — Steel  wall  frames  are  of  particular  value  where  swinging 
tin-clad  doors  are  mounted  flush  with  the  face  of  the  wall,  and   for  mounting 
steel   fire    doors.      They   provide    for   a   tight-fitting   door,   serve    to    protect   the 
brickwork  from  injury,   furnish  a  secure  fastening  for  the  hardware,   and  are 
neat   in  appearance.     Where  used  they  should  be  constructed  and   installed   in 
accordance   with  the  following   rules: — 

(a)  Frames  for  tin -clad  doors  to  be  made  of  3^s  x  3%  x  %  inch  steel  angles 
at  the  sides  and  top  of  the  opening  on   each  side   of  the   wall.     Angles  to  be 
riveted    together   at   upper   corners,    to   extend    into    the   sill   at   least    2   inches, 
to  be  bolted  in  position  by   %-inch  bolts  spaced  not  exceeding  24   inches,   and 
provided  with  %  x  ^  inch  stops  attached  by  %-inch  rivets  spaced  not  exceed- 
ing   12    inches.      Catches    for    the    latches    and    the    pin    blocks    to    receive    the 
hinges   to    be    of    heavy    steel    and    properly    riveted    to   the    frame    by    at   least 
two    %-inch   rivets.      See   Figure    12. 

(b)  Frames    for    tin-clad    doors    to    be    made    of    3  x  3  x  %    inch    steel    angles 
set  into  rabbets  in  the  brickwork  at  sides  and   top   on  each  side   of  the   wall. 
Angles    to    be    riveted    together    at    upper    corners,    to    extend    into    the    sill    at 
least    2    inches    and   to    be    fastened    in    position    by    iV4  x  14    inch    bars    spaaed 
not    exceeding    24    inches    apart    all    around.      Bars    to    be    fastened    to    angles 


374 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


by  two  %-inch  countersunk  rivets  or  bolts  at  each  end.  Catches  for  the 
latches  and  hinge  pins  or  pin  blocks  to  be  of  heavy  steel  properly  riveted 
to  the  frame  by  at  least  two  %-inch  rivets.  See  Figure  13. 

NOTE. — Where  the  frames  are  mounted  during  the  construction  of  the 
wall  the  connecting  bars  should  be  attached  to  the  legs  of  the  angles  to 
which  the  catches  and  pin  blocks  are  attached. 


-betdil- 


Iron   Door  Frame  -for ' 
Tin  Clad  Fire  Doors. 

Useful   when  door  openings  are  made 
after  wall  hds  been  erected- 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(c)  Frame  for  solid  steel  doors  to  be  made  of  4  x  3  x  %  inch  steel  angles 
at  the  sides  and  top  of  the  opening  on  each  side  of  the  wall.  Angles  to 
be  riveted  together  at  upper  corners,  to  extend  into  the  sill  at  least  2  inches, 
and  to  be  fastened  in  position  by  i*4  x  }4  inch  bars  spaced  not  exceeding  24 
inches  apart  all  around.  Bars  to  be  fastened  to  angles  by  two  %-inch  counter- 
sunk rivets  or  bolts  at  each  end.  Catches  for  the  latches,  hinge  pins  or  hinge 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


375 


blocks,    and    binders    for    sliding   doors    to    be    of    heavy    steel    properly    riveted 
to   the    frame   by  at   least   two    %-inch   rivets.      See   Figure    14. 

XOTE. — The  thickness  of  the  wall  should  be  accurately  measured  so  that 
the  bars  fastening  the  wall  frame  together  can  be  cut  to  exact  length. 
Where  sliding  doors  having  channels  at  the  bottom,  or  swinging  doors 
having  raised  sills  are  used,  the  wall  frame  should  be  securely  attached  to 
the  sill  angles  as  specified  in  Rule  sg.  Channels  for  sliding  doors  to  be 
riveted  or  bolted  to  the  sill  angles. 


Fio-13  Rabbeted    Ancjle  Iron 

for  Tin   Clad  Fire  Doors. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(d)  Wall  frame  used  to  protect  the  brickwork  from  injury  to  be  made 
of  4  x  4  x  %  or  4  x  4  x  Va  inch  steel  angles  at  sides  and  top  of  the  opening 
on  each  side  of  the  wall.  Frames  to  be  held  in  position  as  described  in 
Rule  7c  or  provided  with  plate  fillers  on  the  face  of  the  jambs  securely 
riveted  to  the  angles  on  each  side  of 'the  wall. 


376 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE. — Angles  extending  only  part  way  up  on  the  sides  of  the  wall  opening 
prevent  the  fire  doors  from  forming  a  tight  closure  at  the  upper  portion  of 
the  wall  opening  and  are  prohibited. 

8.  MEASUREMENTS  FOR  SIZE  OF  FIRE  DOORS. — Openings  in  walls  to  be  care- 
fully measured  before  the  doors  are  built.  Where  wall  frames  are  not  used, 
the  measurements  to  be  from  the  edges  of  the  brickwork,  irrespective  of  any 


Rfi.  14  Angle  Iron  Wai  I  Frame  for  Iron 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Ed.  of  Fire  Und's. 

steel    work    in    the    opening.      Where    wall    frames    are    employed,    the    size    of 
the  door  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  opening  in  the  frame. 

9.  SLIDING  FIRE  DOORS. — Doors  of  this  type  to  be  employed  unless  features 
relating  to  exit  facilities,  service  requirements,  location  or  installation  make 
other  types  preferable. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  377 

NOTE. — Sliding  fire  doors  can  be  mounted  close  to  the  wall,  require  only 
a  small  amount  of  floor  space,  are  less  likely  than  many  other  types  to  be 
rendered  inoperative  by  obstructions.  They  can  be  counterbalanced  so  as 
to  be  operated  without  great  difficulty  and  can  be  made  to  close  automatically 
without  the  use  of  complicated  apparatus.  They  are  particularly  suitable 
for  large  opening,  but  the  method  of  operating  them  is  not  as  obvious  as 
that  of  swinging  doors,  and  they  are  more  subject  to  injury  from  falling 
materials  at  times  of  fire  than  doors  that  close  flush  with  the 'face  of  the 
wall.  They  can  be  used  only  where  there  is  sufficient  wall  space  at  the 
side  of  the  wall  opening. 

10.  SWINGING  FIRE  DOORS. — Doors  of  this  type  may  be  employed  where  the 
character  and  size  of  the  opening  make  the  use  of  this  type  of  door  advisable. 
Where  egress  is  in  one  direction  only  the  doors  should  open  in  the  direction 
of   travel. 

NOTE. — Where  egress  is  in  one  direction  only,  swinging  doors  are  easier 
to  operate  than  any  other  type  of  door,  especially  under  emergency  con- 
ditions. Swinging  fire  doors  require  considerable  clear  door  space,  arc 
more  liable  to  be  rendered  inoperative  by  obstructions  than  sliding  fire 
doors,  and  are  difficult  to  make  automatic  without  the  use  of  complicated 
apparatus.  Swinging  doors  in  pairs  do  not  furnish  as  satisfactory  protection 
against  fire  as  single  doors. 

11.  VERTICAL    DOORS. — Doors    of    this    type    may    be    employed    where    hori- 
zontally  sliding   or   swinging  doors   cannot   be    used,   and   where   the    doors   do 
not  serve  as  exit  doors  at  time  of  fire. 

NOTE. — Vertical  doors  require  considerable  head  room  above  the  door 
opening  and  must  be  counterweighted  to  render  them  operative.  They  can 
be  made  automatic  without  the  use  of  complicated  apparatus  They  are 
difficult  to  operate,  especially  after  they  have  closed  automatically,  and 
their  use  in  any  given  case  should  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  effect 
upon  hazard  to  life. 

12.  ROLLING  STEEL  FIRE  DOORS. — Doors  of  this  type  may  be  employed  where 
the    transmission    of    heat    through    the    doors    is    not    liable    to    result    in    the 
spread  of  fire,  and  where  the  doors  do  not  serve  as  exit  doors  at  time  of  fire. 

NOTE. — Rolling  doors  are  capable  of  being  installed  in  locations  where 
space  limitations  prevent  the  installation  of  other  types  of  doors.  They  can 
be  mounted  flush  with  the  face  of  the  wall  so  that  no  floor  space  is  required, 
and  are  less  likely  than  many  other  types  to  be  rendered  inoperative  by 
obstructions.  They  can  be  counterbalanced  so  as  to  operate  without  great 
difficulty,  but  the  method  of  operating  them  is  not  as  obvious  as  that  of  other 
types  of  doors,  and  some  types  of  rolling  doors  are  difficult  to  operate  after 
they  have  closed  automatically.  The  type  and  use  of  these  doors  in  any 
given  case  should  be  considered  in  its  relation  upon  hazard  to  life. 

13.  NORMALLY    CLOSED    DOORS. — To    be    arranged    to    close    by    gravity,    or 
equipped    with    an    approved    door    check    or    device    to    insure    proper    closing 
after  the  door  has   been   opened. 

14.  AUTOMATIC   DOORS. — To   be   operated   by   at   least  one   approved   releasing 
device    above    the    door    and    close    to    the    ceiling.      Where    desired    the    door 
may    be    also    arranged    to    close    by    the    operation    of    an    additional    releasing 
device  near  the  top  of  the  door  opening. 

15.  OPENINGS  FOR  SHAFTING^- Where  a  shaft  passes  through  a  fire  wall,  the 
hanger    to   be    placed    on    one   side   of    the    wall,    and    the    opening    around    the 
shaft    bricked    up    as    closely    as    possible    without    touching    the    shaft.      The 
remaining  space  around   the   shaft  to   be   finished  with  cement  mortar,   leaving 
a   hole   one   inch    larger    in    diameter   than    the    shaft   and    concentric    with    the 
shaft. 

NOTE. — In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  place  a  hanger  on  each  side 
of  the  wall.  The  space  around  the  shaft  permits  adjustment  and  insures 
clearance  between  shaft  and  wall. 

16.  OPENINGS   FOR   BELTS. — To   be   protected  by   two   approved   sliding   doors 
coming   together    in    the   middle    of   the   opening   through   the    wall.      Doors   to 


378  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

slide    in    approved    upper    and    lower    guard    rails    or    channels    retaining    them 
in   place,   and   be   provided   with   suitable    fastenings    for   holding   them   together 
in    the    closed    position.      Guard    rails   to    be    long   enough    to    retain    the    doors 
when  open,  and  secured  by  %-inch  bolts  through  the  wall. 
See  Figure  34  showing  tin-clad   doors  used   for  this  purpose. 

NOTE. — Care  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  slots  are  of  sufficient  size  to 
insure  free  and  unobstructed  belt  travel.  The  dimensions  of  the  slots  will 
vary  considerably  with  the  size  of  the  belt,  length  of  span,  tightness  of 
belt,  presence  or  absence  of  guide  rolls  and  other  local  conditions. 

17.  CARE    AND    MAINTENANCE. —  (a)    Fire    doors    should    be    ready    for    instant 
use   at  all   times,   therefore  it   is   necessary   to  keep   the   surroundings   clear   of 
everything    that    would    be    likely    to    obstruct    or    interfere    with    their    free 
operation.      They    should    be    kept    closed    and    fastened    nights,    Sundays    and 
holidays,  and   whenever  the  openings   are   not   in   use. 

(b)  Never    tack    any    tin    on    a    tin-clad    door.       When    tin    becomes    worn 
substitute    new    sheets    in    the    same    manner    as    when    covering    a    new    door. 
Damaged  parts  of  other  types  of  fire  doors  should   be   replaced!  by   new  parts. 

(c)  The    following    notice    should    be    posted    at    each    opening    protected    by 
fire   doors,    preferably    stenciled    on    each    side    of    the    fire    door    itself,    "  Keep 
This   Fire    Door   Shut." 

(d)  Doors    of    the    sliding    pattern    should    be    stenciled    on    both    sides    with 
the    words    "  To    Open,"    and    an    arrow    indicating    the    direction.      Swinging 
doors    should    be    stenciled,    "  Turn    Knob    and    Push  "    (or    pull),    or    "  Press 
Down    Lever   and    Push  "    (or   pull),   as   the   case   may   be. 

1 8.  PAINTING    FIRE    DOORS. — (a)    Solid    steel    doors    and    rolling    steel    doors 
to   be  given  one  good  coat  of  paint  before  they  leave   the  shop  and  one   coat 
after  installation.      Rolling  steel  doors  not  to  be  opened    (coiled  up)    until  the 
paint    has    dried    sufficiently    to    prevent    adhesion    between    the    parts.      Paint 
to    be    satisfactory    to    inspection    departments   having   jurisdiction. 

NOTE. — Where  possible,  both  coats  of  paint  should  be  applied  to  steel 
rolling  doors  before  they  are  erected. 

(b)  When  subject  to  rapid  deterioration  as  a  result  of  corrosion,  tin-clad 
and  sheet  metal  doors  to  be  given  at  least  two  good  coats  of  paint  which 
is  satisfactory  to  inspection  departments  having  jurisdiction. 

NOTE.— Doors  of  this  type  do  not  require  painting  where  they  are  used 
in  clean,  dry  localities. 

Tin-Clad  Fire  Doors 
GENERAL 

Standard  tin-clad  fire  doors  are  fairly  substantial  in  construction,  prac- 
tical under  most  conditions,  and  easy  to  install.  Doors  on  both  sides  of  the 
wall  furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  to  the  transmission  of 
heat  for  long  period  of  exposure,  and  resist  fire  streams  well.  Under  adverse 
conditions  of  service  they  are  liable  to  deteriorate  rapidly  and  are  difficult 
to  maintain. 

19.  VENT  HOLE. — Cut  a  hole  4  inches  in  diameter  through   the  middle  plate 
on  the  exposed  side  of  the  door,  but  not  through  the  wood  core.      Secure  the 
tin  around  this  opening  with  small  nails,  and  thoroughly  paint, the  wood  thus 
exposed.      See    Figure    19. 

NOTE. — The  hole  will  prevent  excessive  bulging  of  the  tin  covering  and 
rupture  of  the  joints  between  the  plates  by  permitting  the  escape  of  gases 
generated  from  the  wood  core  when  the  door  is  exposed  to  fire.  Care  should 
he  taken  to  ascertain  which  is  the  exposed  side  of  the  door  before  the  hole 
is  made.  Usually  the  hole  should  be  made  after  the  door  is  mounted. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


379 


20.  MOUNTING  TIN-CLAD  DOORS. — The  doors  should  be  completely  tinned 
before  the  hardware  is  attached,  and  only  such  hardware  as  has  been  found 
satisfactory  after  examination  and  test,  should  be  used.  (See  list  of  approved 
hardware.) 

Read    all   of  the    rules    for   mounting   before   starting. 


ficj.15.Door  Closed g, Properly 
Onetra<;K  bolt  under  each  hanqer 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

SLIDING  TIN-CLAD  DOORS 

21.  SIZE  AND  SHAPE  OF  DOORS. — Doors  to  overlap  sides  and  top  of  wall 
opening  4  inches.  Where  steel  lintels  are  used  doors  to  overlap  the  brick- 
work 4  inches  above  upper  edge  of  steel  unless  such  lintels  are  fireproofed 
in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 
Top  of  door  to  conform  to  incline  of  track,  %  inch  to  one  foot. 


380  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

22.  MOUNTING  SLIDING  DOORS. — (a)  Mounting  Track. — Length  of  track  to 
be  equal  to  twice  the  width  of  the  wall  opening  plus  21  inches. 

Wall  bolts  to  be  so  spaced  that  one  bolt  will  be  located  directly  opposite 
each  hanger  when  the  door  is  closed,  and  so  that  front  and  back  bumpers 
can  be  attached.  Holes  to  be  13/16  inch  in  diameter. 

NOTE. — Doors  for  openings  in  excess  of  6  feet  in  width  require  three 
hangers. 

Track   to   have  an  incline  of   %   inch  to  one   foot  when   mounted. 

Place  door  in  proper  position  over  opening  with  %  inch  of  blocking  between 
sill  and  bottom,  and  ^4-inch  strip  on  upper  edge  of  door.  Place  track  in 
exact  position  over  door,  and  carefully  mark  circles  on  wall  at  holes  for 
track  bolts.  Mark  long  crosses  through  circles  after  track  has  been  removed 
so  that  centers  of  holes  can  be  maintained,  and  carefully  drill  holes  through 
wall.  Bolt  track  in  the  position  first  marked,  placing  a  wall  bracket  at  each 
bolt.  The  front  and  back  bumpers  should  also  be  installed  when  the  track 
is  bolted  in  position. 

Never  attach  track  to  wood  frame,  even  if  frame  is  tin-clad,  and  never 
use  wood  or  lead  plugs  in  the  wall  to  support  wall  bolts. 

(b)  Attaching    Hangers. — Doors    for    openings    six    feet    and    less    in    width 
to   be  provided  with  two  hangers.      Doors   for   openings   in   excess   of   six   feet 
to    have    three   hangers. 

Place  hangers  on  track  directly  opposite  wall  bolts,  and  carefully  mark 
location  of  bolt  holes  on  door.  Bore  holes  exactly  where  marked,  and  bolt 
hangers  to  door,  using  %-inch  special  countersunk  carriage  bolts,  and  placing 
heads  of  bolts  on  the  back  of  the  door. 

Remove  blocking  from  under  door  and   from  between   door  and  track. 

(c)  Attaching    Binders.— Two    binders    are    required,    the    upper    binder    to 
be    placed   about    24   inches    from   the   top    of   the   door,    and   the    lower   binder 
about    1 8   inches   above   the   sill. 

When  the  door  is  in  contact  with  the  front  bumper  place  the  binders  in 
contact  with  the  edge  of .  the  door  so  that  it  will  strike  both  binders  and 
bumper  in  closing,  and  mark  and  drill  the  wall  as  described  for  track  bolts. 
Bolts  for  fastening  the  binders  to  be  %  inch  in  diameter,  and  extended 
through  the  wall.  See  Figure  15. 

NOTE. — Care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  the  bolt  holes  unnecessarily  large. 
In  some  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  set  the  binders  in  cement  when  they 
are  bolted  to  the  wall.  A  mixture  of  one-half  clean,  sharp  sand  and  one- 
half  Portland  cement  is  recommended  for  this  purpose. 

(d)  Attaching    Stay    Roll. — Chip   out    brickwork    carefully,    so    that    the    stay 
roll   will  be   flush   with   the  surface   of   wall   and   sill,   and   carefully   mark   and 
drill  wall  for  through  bolt  and  eye  bolt  at  the  side  of  the  door  opening.      Set 
the  parts  with  cement,  if  necessary,  and  bolt  firmly  to  wall.     When  the  door 
is  closed  adjust  the  roller  against  the   wedge   at  the   end  of  the  chafing  strip 
so    that    the    door    will    be    held    close    to,    but    not    tightly,    against    the    wall. 
See    Figure    16.  v; 

NOTE. — The  brickwork  should  be  chipped  out,  and  the  stay  roll  fitted  to 
the  wall  before  the  door  is  in  position.  It  can  then  be  more  easily  installed 
after  the  door  is  hung.  Where  stay  rolls  are  bolted  together  through  the 
wall  see  last  part  of  Rule  a.  The  stay  rolls  shown  in  Figures  i,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
7,  8  and  17  are  bolted  to  the  steel  work  of  the  sill,  and  are  recommended 
for  new  work. 

(e)  Attaching    Chafing    Strips.— Three    chafing    strips    required.      Two    half 
oval  strips  on  the  back  of  the   door,   with  flat  companion   strips  on   the    front 
of  the  door,  and  one  flat  strip  on  the   front  of  the  door  near  the  bottom. 

Strips  on  the  back  of  the  door  to  be  placed  one  third  the  distance  from 
the  top  and  about  24  inches  from  the  bottom.  Length  of  the  strips  to  be  4 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  381 

inches  less  than  the  door  opening.  Strips  to  be  parallel  with  the  door  track 
and  bolted  through  the  door  to  the  flat  strips  on  the  front  of  the  door  with 
^4-inch  bolts  spaced,  not  exceeding  9  inches,  placing  the  end  bolt  one  inch 
from  the  ends  of  the  strips.  See  Figures  18,  19  and  15. 

Strip  on  the  front  of  the  door  to  be  parallel  with  the  door  track  and  so 
placed  as  to  take  the  wear  of  the  stay  roller.  To  be  5  inches  less  than  the 
width  of  the  door  and  fastened  to  the  door  by  i%-inch  wood  screws,  spaced 
not  exceeding  12  inches  apart.  See  Figures  19  and  15. 


16.  \j  Sh^ed  Stay  Roll 
Used  with  Old  and  Concrete^: 
and  Steel  Plate  5i  I  la.  ^ 


Fig.  1 7.  Opening  Protected  by 
'  Standard  Double  Slidir£  Doors 
Mounted  withStandard  Hardware. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(f)  Attaching   Wedge. — To   be   placed   back   of   the   stay   roll   when   the   door 
is  closed,  and  to  be  fastened  to  the  door  by  one  1^4-inch  and  one  2-inch  wood 
screw.      See    Figure    19. 

(g)  Attaching    Bumper    Shoes. — Four    necessary,    one    opposite    each    bumper 


382  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

and    one    opposite    each    binder.      To    be    fastened    to    the    edges    of    the    door 
by   ii/4-inch  wood  screws.      See   Figures    18  and   19. 

NOTE.— The    front    and    back    bumpers    are    mounted    with    the    track.       See 
Rule    223. 

(h)   Attaching  Handles. — Flush  pull  oji  the  back  of  the  door  to  be  counter- 
sunk   flush    with   the    surface    of   the    door.      Heavy,    bow-shaped    handle   to    be 


Fig.1 8.   Rear  View  of  Door  witK  Trimmings. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


attached   to   front   of   door.      Handles    to   be   bolted   together   through   the   door 
or  otherwise   securely  attached.      See    Figures    18,    19   and    15. 

(i)  Bolts  and  Washers. — Bolts  for  track,  binders  and  stay  roll  to  be  % 
inch  in  diameter,  to  extend  through  the  wall,  and  to  be  provided  with  washers 
4  inches  in  diameter  on  opposite  side  of  the  wall.  See  Figures  15  and  17. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


383 


NOTE. — Where  the  above  members  are  bolted  together  through  the  wall 
the  washers  are  unnecessary. 

Use  %-inch  bolts  in  attaching  stay  roll  shown  in  Figures  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  7, 
8  and  17  to  the  steel  work  of  the  sill. 

(j)  Operation  of  Door. — The  ^3oor  should  hang  and  operate  freely.  If 
the  wall  is  unusually  rough  and  uneven  it  may  be  necessary  to  dress  it  off, 
so  as  to  remove  all  obstructions  and  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  tin 
covering  by  cliating.  The  introduction  of  thin  plates  (1/16  to  %  inch)  be- 


0 


Fig.  1 9.    Front  View  of  Door  with  Trimmings. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

twcen  the  wall  and  brackets  on  the  portion  of  the  track  at  the  side  of  the 
opening  will  sometimes  remedy  the  defects  due  to  slight  unevenness  in 
the  wall. 

The   holes   for   the   track   bolts   should   be   drilled   with   sufficient   accuracy   so 


384 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


that  the  door  will  not  sag  and  chafe  on  the  sill.  If  the  door  does  sag, 
substantial  metal  strips  should  be  installed  under  the  track  bolts  so  as  to 
raise  the  door  sufficiently  to  prevent  chafing.  Short  length  of  %-inch  gas 
pipe  around  the  track  bolts  will  often  remedy  this  defect. 

(k)  Slatted  Framework. — When  necessary,  a  framework  of  slats  should 
be  built  outside  of  sliding  doors  to  prevent  piling  of  stock,  etc.,  against 
them. 


Fig  20.  Wall  Eye  and  Pin 

If  x  2i  inches. 


tinch  Rn 


Fig.  21 .  Hinges  with  Eye  or  Pin. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(1)  Protection  of  Covering. — When  the  front  edge  of  door  is'  liable  to 
injury  from  trucks,  etc.,  a  continuous  U-shaped  strip  made  of  No.  14  U.  S. 
gauge  steel,  and  extending  high  enough  to  prevent  injury,  should  be  installed. 
Strips  should  lap  the  sides  of  the  dwor  4  to  6  inches  and  should  be  fastened 
on  by  i  ^4-inch  wood  screws  on  each  side  of  the  door,  spaced  not  exceeding 
12  inches  apart  and  staggered.  The  above  strip  will  render  the  lower  bumper 
shoe  unnecessary. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  385 

SWINGING  TIN-CLAD  DOORS 

J3.  SIZE  AND  SHAPE  OF  DOORS. — Doors  to  shut  into  rabbet  in  wall,  into 
approved  wall  frame,  or,  when  acceptable  to  inspection  departments  having 
jurisdiction,  doors  may  overlap  sides  and  top  of  wall  openings  as  required 
for  sliding  doors.  See  Rules  4,  7,  a,  b,  d,  8  and  10. 


Fiq-22  Swmqmq    Door  in  Rabbeted    Frame 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


24.  MOUNTING  SINGLE  SWINGING  DOORS.  —  (a)  Attachment  of  Wall  Eyes, 
Wall  Pins  and  Catches.—  To  be  built  in  the  wall,  bolted  through  the  wall 
with  %-inch  bolts  with  3/1  6-inch  steel  washers  on  each  side  of  wall,  or  to 
be  securely  fastened  to  approved  steel  wall  frames.  See  Figures  12,  13,  20, 
21,  22  and  23. 


386 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(b)  Attachment  of  Hinges. — Doors  in  excess  of  7  feet  in  height  or  6 
feet  in  width  to  be  provided  with  three  hinges. 

Place  door  in  proper  position  at  wall  openings,  with  ^-inch  blocking 
between  bottom  of  door  and  sill  on  hinge  side  and  i^-inch  blocking  on  lock 
side.  Place  hinges  in  exact  position  on  door  arid  carefully  mark  location  of 
bolt  holes  on  door.  Bore  holes  exactly  where  marked  and  bolt  hinges  to 
door  using  %-inch  carriage  bolts  or  machine  bolts  with  washers  under  heads 
on  the  back  of  the  door.  Nuts  to  bear  against  the  hinges. 


Rcj.23  Swirxcjinc}  Door  without  Rabbet 
in  wall. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

Remove   blocking   and    see   that    door   opens   and   closes   properly. 

(c)  Attaching  Latches. — Doors  in  excess  of  5  feet  in  height,  to  be  pro- 
vided with  at  least  three  latches  working  together.  Upper  and  lower  latches 
to  be  spaced  not  to  exceed  12  inches  from  top  and  bottom  of  door  opening. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


Latches   to   be   operated    from   either   side   of   door   and   so   as   not   to   interfere 
with   the    hinges.      See    Figures    22   and    23. 

Place  latches  in  exact  position  on  door  with  latches  in  catches,  and  with 
connecting  bar  adjusted  for  expansion  allowances.  Carefully  mark  location 
of  bolt  holes  for  operating  handle  and  pivot  plates.  Bore  holes  exactly 
where  marked  and  bolt  latches  to  door,  using  %-inch  machine  bolts  with 
bearing  plates  on  back  of  door.  Attach  operating  handle. 


Fiq-24  Vertical   Balance  Automatic  Door 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Hod's. 

NOTE.— The  bar  connecting  the  latches  should  be  adjusted  so  that  it  will 
not  lift  the  latches  by  expansion  when  heated. 

Place  keepers  in  position  over  latches  making  allowance  for  the  move- 
ment of  the  latches.  Mark  location  of  bolt  holes  on  door,  bore  holes  and 
bolt  keepers  to  door, .  using  %-inch  machine  bolts  with  bearing  plates  on 
back  of  door.  See  Figures  22  and  23. 


388  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

NOTE. — Where  the  door  is  mounted  on  the  face  of  the  wall,  the  keepers 
should  be  placed  about  5  inches  back  from  the  edge  of  the  door,  so  that 
the  plates  and  bolt  heads  on  the  back  of  the  door  will  not  be  in  contact 
with  the  wall  when  the  door  is  closed. 

Attach  spring  to  prevent  rebound  of  latches  and  insure  latching  when 
door  is  slammed. 

NOTE. — The  destruction  of  the  spring  at  time  of  fire  does  not  affect  the 
reliability  of  the  hardware. 

(d)  Operation  of  Door.  The  door  should  swing  easily  and  freely  on  its 
hinges.  The  latches  should  operate  freely  on  their  pivots  and  ride  up  the 
inclines  on  the  catches  and  snap  into  position  when  the  door  is  slammed 
shut  or  closed  with  moderate  force. 

25.  MOUNTING   SWINGING    DOORS   IN    PAIRS. — The   rules    for   mounting   single 
doors    apply    to    doors    in    pairs    with    the    following    additions. 

(a)  Attaching     Door     Bolts. — The    standing    door    of    the    pair    to    be     pro- 
vided with   a   %-inch  steel  bolt  at  top   and   bottom.      Both  bolts. to   enter   sub- 
stantial   strike   plates   or   catches   securely    fastened   into   arch   and    sill. 

Place  door  bolts  in  exact  position  on  the  back  of  the  door  and  carefully 
mark  location  of  bolt  holes.  Bore  holes  exactly  where  marked  and  bolt  door 
boJts  to  the  door,  using  %-inch  machine  bolts  with  bearing  plates  on  front 
of.  the  door.  Where  door  bolts  are  operated  together,  the  handle  to  be 
bolted  in  position  through  the  door. 

With  the  standing  door  in  the  closed  position,  carefully  mark  the  posi- 
tion where  the  door  bolts  strike  the  head  and  sill  of  the  door  opening  and 
securely  anchor  or  bolt  the  strike  plates  or  catches  in  exact  position. 

(b)  Attaching     Catches. — With     both     doors     closed,     place     the     catches     in 
exact    position    under    the    latches    and    mark    position    of    bolt    holes    on    door. 
Bore    holes    exactly    where    marked    and    bolt    catches    to    door,    using    %-inch 
machine    bolts    and   plates    on    back    of    door. 

(c)  Attaching  Astragal. — Place   astragal   in   exact   position   on  edge   of   door, 
mark    position    of    bolt    holes,    bore    holes    and    bolt    to     door,     using     %-inch 
machine    bolts,    with    washers    under    heads    on    back    of   door. 

VERTICAL  TIN-CLAD  DOORS 

26.  SIZE  AND  SHAPE  OF  DOORS.— Doors  to  overlap  sides  and  top  of  wall  open- 
ing   4    inches.      When    steel    lintels    are    used,    doors    to    overlap    brickwork    4 
inches    above    upper    edge    of    steel,    unless    such    lintels    are    fireproofed    in    a 
manner  satisfactory  to  the  inspection  department   having  jurisdiction. 

27.  MOUNTING     VERTICAL     DOORS. —  (a)     Mounting     Guides.— Place     door     in 
proper    position   over   opening    with    side  -edges    plumb.      Place    guides    in    exact 
position    with    %-inch    strip   between    door   and    guide    on    each   side.      Carefully 
mark    circles    on    wall    at    holes    for    wall    bolts,    remove    guides    and    carefully 
drill   holes   through   wall.      Replace   guides   and   bolt   to   wall   with    %-inch   bolts, 
placing    4-inch    washers    on    the    back    of    the    wall.       Remove    spacing    strips. 
See    Figure    24. 

(b)  Attachments    to    Door. — Place    attachments    in    exact    position    on    door 
and   carefully   mark  location   of   bolt   holes.      Bore    holes   exactly   where   marked 
and   bolt  each   piece   to   door,   using  plates   or   washers   on  back   of   door.      See 
Figure   24. 

(c)  Pulleys    and     Counterweight.^-Attach    pulleys     for    counterweight     cable 
securely  in  position  above  door,   attach  the  wire  cable  and  permanent  counter- 
weight.     See   Figure   24. 

(d)  Automatic   Device. — Attach   pulleys   for  auxiliary  counterweight  securely 
in    position    above    door,    attach   cord    to   bottom   of    door   and    install   auxiliary 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


389 


counterweights,    placing    a    fusible    link    in    the    cord    near    the    bottom    of    the 
door   and   also   near  the   ceiling  when   the   door   is  open.      See    Figure   24. 

Solid  Steel  Fire  Doors- 

GENERAL 

Standard  solid  steel  fire  doors  are  substantial  in  construction  and  prac- 
ticable under  most  conditions.  Doors  on  both  sides  of  wall  furnish  a  high 
degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  a  fairly  high  resistance  to  the  transmission 


Fi&  25  Sliding  Iron  Door,  Closed. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

of  heat   for  long  periods  of  exposure  and  resist   fire  streams  well.     They   are 

durable  and  easy  to  inspect  and  maintain,  but  are  somewhat  difficult  to  install. 

28.   SETTING   WALL    FRAMES. — Solid   steel   fire   doors   to   be   mounted  on    steel 

wall    frames,   which   should   be   set   perfectly  level   and   plumb   and   bricked    into 


390 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


the  wall.  If  the  frame  is  installed  in  an  old  wall,  the  opening  should  be 
cut  larger  than  the  frame  and  the  brickwork  built  up  to  the  frame  and 
well  bonded  to  the  wall,  using  cement  mortar  and  thoroughly  painting  up 
around  the  frame.  See  Rule  7c  for  the  construction  of  wall  frame. 


SLIDING  SOLID  STEEL  DOORS 

29.   SIZE    OF    DOORS.  —  Doors    in    excess    of    4    feet    in 
sides    of    wall    frame    at    least    2    inches    and    at    least    i 


width    to    overlap    the 
inch    at    top.      Angle 


Wheel  ^'x  44"lnches— 
Track  i'*z       • 
Wai  I  Frame  4  xi"'     * 


Machine  BOIT£  •  -  J ^T 

Door  Plate  —- 1 -»• 

Panel  Frame  » 

2x2'|nches 


5crew  l-ieThreads^       | 

Sill 

Plate  35x1 -^ 


ai  I  Showing  Han^randTopandBoTTom  Channels 
for  Sliding  Iron  Doors 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Ed.  of  Fire  Und's. 

at  bottom  of  door  to  extend  at  least  i  inch  into  groove  at  sill.  The  angle 
at  bottom  of  door  and  groove  in  sill  may  be  omitted  for  doors  4  feet  and 
less  in  width.  See  Figures  25,  26,  27  and  28. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  391 

30.  Top  AND  BOTTOM  CHANNELS. — (a)  Doors  in  excess  of  4  feet  in  width 
to  operate  in  channels  or  grooves  at  top  and  bottom.  The  groove  at  bottom 
may  be  omitted  for  doors  4  feet  and  less  in  width.  Length  of  upper  channel 
to  be  equal  to  twice  the  width  of  the  opening  in  the  wall  frame  plus  8 
inches.  Upper  channel  to  be  provided  with  a  *£  x  %  inch  steel  strip  to  serve 
as  a  track  for  the  wheels  of  the  door  hangers.  Lower  channel  or  groove, 


~b    CD 

¥    b 

I     §» 


I   ... 


6 


£       00 

c       c 


OJ 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 


where   used,   to  extend  beyond  the  wall   frame  at  least   12   inches  on   the   side 
toward  which  the  door  opens.      See   Figures  25   and   26. 

(b)  Upper  and  lower  channels  to  be  attached  to  wall  frame  by  %-inch 
rivets  or  bolts  spaced  not  exceeding  12  inches.  Upper  channels  to  be  attached 
to  wall  by  %-inch  bolts  spaced  not  exceeding  14  inches. 


392 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


31.  MOUNTING  SLIDING  DOORS. — (a)  After  the  wall  frame  is  set,  place  the 
upper  and  lower  channels  in  position  and  bolt  them  to  the  frame.  Care- 
fully mark  circles  on  wall  at  holes  in  upper  channel  for  wall  bolts.  /  Remove 
upper  channel  and  mark  long  crosses  through  circles  so  that  centers  of 
holes  can  be  maintained,  and  carefully  drill  holes  through  wall.  Place  the 
door  in  proper  position  over  opening  with  %-inch  blocking  between  sill  and 
bottom  of  door.  Place  upper  channel  in  position  under  the  hanger  wheels 


FiQ.28.Detdi\  s  nbwlFTcj    Latch ,  B i nder  and 
Incline  To  Sill  for  Sliding  Iron  Doors 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

and  bolt  it  to  the  wall  frame  and  through  the  wall,  placing  washers  between 
the  channel  and  wall,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  wall  at  wall  bolts. 
Remove  blocking  from  under  door.  Door  should  slide  freely  and  should  be 
forced  close  to  the  wall  frame  by  the  binders  when  closed  and  latched. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


393 


(b)  When  necessary  a  framework  of  slats  should  be  built  outside  of 
sliding  doors  to  prevent  piling  of  stock,  etc.,  against  them. 

32.  AUTOMATIC  SLIDING  DOORS. —  (a)  To  be  so  arranged  that  when  the 
releasing  device  is  operated  by  heat,  a  sufficient  excess  in  weight  will  be 
exerted  to  pull  and  latch  the  door  closed. 


RCJ.  29  Swinqino    Iron   Door. 
Showing  Hm^es, Latches  and  Catches. 

Reproduced  by  pern»esion  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

(b)  Substantial   phosphor  bronze  or  galvanized  steel  wire  cable   or  approved 
chain    to    be    used    for    attaching    the    weights    to    the    door.      Cables    or    chains 
to   pass  over  sheaves  so   designed   that  they  cannot  jump   the   grooves. 

(c)  The    weights    used   to   close   the   door,   to   be   enclosed    in    a    suitable   box 
from    floor   to   top    of    weights   in   extreme    upward   position. 

(d)  Door   latch    to   be   provided    with    a   suitable   coiled   spring   to   hold    it    in 
proper  position  and  insure   fastening. 


394 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SWINGING  SOLID  STEEL  DOORS 

33.  SIZE  OF    DOORS. — Door  plates   to  overlap   the   sides   and   top   of  the  wall 
frame    at    least    i    inch.      Where    doors    are    used    in    pairs,    swinging    door    to 
overlap  the  standing  door  at  least    i    inch   when   they  come   together. 

34.  MOUNTING    SINGLE    SWINGING     DOORS. — After    the    wall     frame    is    set, 
place    the   door    in    proper    position    over    the    opening    with    sufficient    blocking 


%  30  Double  Swinging  Doors  inPairs. 
Showing  Spring  Catch. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

between  the  bottom  of  the  door  and  sill  to  elevate  it  so  that  the  hinges  and 
latches  will  engage  properly.  Jnstall  the  hinge  pins  and  remove  the  blocking. 
Door  should  turn  easily  and  freely  on  the  hinges.  The  latches  should 
operate  freely  and  ride  up  the  inclines  on  the  catches  and  snap  into  position 
when  the  door  is  slammed  shut  or  closed  with  moderate  force.  See  Figure  29. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  395 

NOTE. — Solid  steel  doors  are  provided  with  at  least  3  hinges  and  at  least 
3  latches  working  together.  The  doors  and  frames  are  completed  and  the 
hardware  attached  at  the  shop. 

35.  MOUNTING   SWINGING   DOORS  IN   PAIRS. — The   rules   for  mounting  single 
doors    apply    to    doors    in    pairs.      Standing    door    of    the    pair .  to    be    provided 
with   spring   bolts   at   top   and   bottom   which  enter   substantial   strike    plates  or 
catches  at  head  and  sill.     See  Figure  30. 

36.  AUTOMATIC    SWINGING    DOORS. — (a)    To    be   so   arranged   that   when    the 
releasing    device    operates    by    heat,    a    sufficient    excess     in    weight     will    be 
exerted   to   pull   and    latch    the    door   closed. 

(b)  Substantial  phosphor  bronze  or  galvanized  steel  wire  cable  or  approved 
chain  to   be   used    for    attaching   the   weights   to   the   door.      Cable   or   chain    to 
pass   over   sheaves  so   designed   that   they   will   not   jump   the   grooves.      Cables 
or    chain    to   be    sufficiently    weighted   to    keep    them    taut    when    the    doors   are 
opened   and   closed. 

(c)  The    weights   used   to   close   the    door   to   be    enclosed    in    a   suitable    box 
from  Hoor  to  top  of  weights  in  the  extreme  upward  position. 

(d)  Automatic  swinging  doors  in  pairs  to  be  so  arranged  that  the  standing 
door  must   close   and   latch   before   the   swinging  door.      This   requires   the   use 
of    an    automatic   stop    or    trigger    which    will    hold    the    swinging    door    in    the 
open  position  until  the  standing  door  has  closed. 

Sheet  Metal  Sliding  Fire  Doors 

Standard  sheet  metal  fire  doors  are  fairly  substantial  in  construction,  prac- 
tical under  most  conditions  and  easy  to  install.  Doors  on  both  sides  of  wall 
furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  to  the  transmission  of  heat 
for  long  periods  of  exposure.  They  resist  fire  streams  well  and  are  durable 
and  easy  to  maintain. 

37.  SIZE    AND    SHAPE    OF    DOORS. — Doors   to    overlap    sides    and    top    of    wall 
opening   4    inches.      Where   steel   lintels   are   used,    doors   to   overlap    the   brick- 
work   4    inches    above    upper    edge    of    the    steel,    unless    such    lintels    are    fire- 
proofed   in   a  manner  satisfactory   to   the    Inspection    Department   having   juris- 
diction.    Top  of  the  door  to  conform  to  incline  of  track,   %-inch  to  the  foot. 

38.  MOUNTING  SLIDING  DOORS.— (a)   The  rules  for  mounting  sliding  tin-clad 
doors   should   be    followed   except   as    specified    in    the    following   rules. 

NOTE. — Parts  of  the  hardware  for  mounting  sheet  metal  doors  are  espe- 
cially designed,  and  members  such  as  chafing  strips,  bumper  shoes,  handles 
and  necessary  reinforcements  are  installed  before  the  doors  leave  the  shop. 

(b)  Mounting  Track. — -The  space  between  the  top  of  the  door  and  the  track 
to   be   at   least    i    inch   to   allow    for   the   upward   expansion   of   the   door   when 
heated. 

NOTE. — Sheet  metal  doors  are  provided  with  track  binders  or  lugs  which 
engage  the  track  and  hold  the  door  in  position  in  case  the  hanger  wheels 
are  lifted  from  the  track  by  expansion. 

(c)  Attaching  Hangers. — Hangers  to  be  bolted  to  door  when  in  position. 

NOTE. — Sheet  metal  doors  are  provided  with  bolt  holes  and  any  necessary 
reinforcements  for  the  attachment  of  the  hangers  before  they  leave  the  shop. 

(d)  Attaching   Binders. — Track  binders  to  lap  the  track  at  least  %  inch.     To 
be    located    2    inches    to    one    side    of    the    center    line    of    the    wall    bolts    when 
the  door  is  closed. 

NOTE. — The  track  binders  are  located  to  one  side  of  the  track  bolts  so 
that  they  will  clear  the  track  brackets  when  the  door  expands  upward. 

Where  possible,  doors  are  to  be  provided  with  one  or  more  rear  binders  in 
addition  to  the  front  binders  and  stay  roll  specified  for  tin-clad  doors.  Rear 


396 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


binders  to  be  equally  distributed  between  top  and  bottom  of  door  and  attached 
by    through    bolts   as   specified    for   front   binders. 


Rolling  Steel  Fire  Doors 

Standard  rolling  steel  fire  doors  are  substantial  in  construction  and  prac- 
ticable under  most  conditions  but  are  somewhat  difficult  to  install.  Doors 
on  both  sides  of  wall  furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fine,  and  a  fairly 
high  resistance  to  the  transmission  of  heat  for  long  periods  of  exposure.  They 
resist  fire  streams  well,  and  are  durable,  fairly  easy  to  maintain  and  are 
capable  of  being  installed  in  locations  where  space  limitations  prevent  the 
installation  of  other  types  of  doors.  Some  types  of  rolling  doors  are  difficult 
to  operate  after  they  have  closed  automatically.  The  type  and  use  of  these 
doors  in  any  given  case  should  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  the  effect 
upon  hazard  to  life. 

39.  POSITION  OF  DOORS. — (a)   Doors  subject  to  damage  from  falling  materials 
at  time  of  fire,   to   be  mounted  in   reveal   of   wall   so  that   no   portion   projects 
beyond  the   face  of  the   wall. 

NOTE. — The  brackets  and  hood  of  rolling  steel  doors  mounted  on  the  face 
of  the  wall  project  materially  from  the  wall  and  are  especially  subject  to 
damage  by  falling  material  at  time  of  fire. 

(b)  Doors  not  subject  to  damage  from  falling  materials  at  time  of  fire 
may  be  mounted  on  the  face  of  the  wall.  Inspection  departments  having 
jurisdiction  to  be  consulted  before  installation. 

NOTE. — Doors  mounted  on  the  face  of  fire  walls  should  usually  be  confined 
to  fireproof  buildings  where  there  is  little  if  any  danger  of  the  collapse 
of  the  building  and  injury  to  the  door  from  falling  materials. 

40.  SIZE  OF  DOORS. — Doors  to  overlap  the  sides  of  the  wall  opening.     Hood 
to   fit   closely   against   the   lintels   or   where   the    door   is   mounted   on   the   face 
of  the   wall;   hood  to  be   placed   above  the   top  of  the  opening   so   that  bottom 
of    the    curtain    will    be    flush    with    or    above    the    top    of    the    opening    when 
the   door   is   fully   open. 

41.  MOUNTING  ROLLING  DOORS. — Rolling  steel  doors  are  complicated  in  con- 
struction  and   not   easily   installed   by   workmen   unfamiliar   with   them.      Where 
possible,    their   installation    should    be    under   the    supervision    of    the    manufac- 
turer.      Specifications     and '  blue    prints    should     be     furnished     covering     the 
details   of    installation. 

(a)  Mounting  Guides. — Place  one  of  the  guides  in  proper  position  at  side 
of  wall  opening  (on  highest  side  if  sill  is  not  perfectly  level)  and  see  that 
it  is  plumb  and  that  proper  clearance  is  allowed  for  expansion  between 
bottom  of  guide  and  sill.  Mark  slots  on  wall  at  holes  for  wall  bolts.  Remove 
g/iide  and  mark  long  crosses  at  end  of  slots  furthest  from  fixed  end  of 
guide  and  carefully  drill  holes  through  wall.  Place  opposite  guide  in  posi- 
tion on  wall  and  bolt  both  guides  together  with  %-inch  through  bolts,  care 
being  taken  to  see  that  guides  are  plumb  and  in  proper  position  after  bolting. 

Mark  a  level  line  horizontally  from  top  of  guides  to  opposite  side  of  wall 
opening,  and  install  guides  on  this  side  as  described  above.  Use  gauge 
stick  to  maintain  proper  horizontal  distance  between  the  bottom  of  grooves 
in  guides. 

NOTE. — Each  guide  is  provided  with  slotted  holes  spaced  not  more  than 
18  inches,  and  plates  with  slip  joints  to  allow  for  expansion  of  the  guides 
when  heated.  Sufficient  clearness  is  provided  between  the  sides  of  the 
curtains  and  the  bottom  of  the  grooves  in-  the  guides  to  allow  for  the 
expansion  of  the  curtain  when  heated. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  397 

(b)  Mounting  Brackets. — Place  brackets  in  proper  position  at  top  of  guides 
and    mark    holes    on    lintel    or    wall.       Remove    brackets    and    drill    holes    for 
bolts.      Bolt  brackets  in  position,  care  being  taken  to  see   that  they  are  plumb 
and    true,    that    they    are    the    proper    distance    apart,    that    the    bearings    are 
level   with   each   other,   and   that   the   mouth   of   the   brackets   register   perfectly 
with    the   grooves. 

NOTE. — Clearance  is  provided  between  the  ends  of  the  barrel  and  the 
brackets  to  allow  for  expansion  when  the  barrel  is  heated.  The  mouth  of 
the  bracket  must  register  with  the  grooves  in  order  to  prevent  interference 
with  the  movement  of  the  curtain. 

(c)  Mounting    Barrel. — Place    barrel    in    position    in    bearings    so    that    it    is 
perfectly   level   and   will   turn   without   binding.      Install   attachments   to    barrel. 

(d)  Mounting   Curtain. — Remove   one   guide   and   bolt   top   section   of   curtain 
to    barrel    or    rings.      Slip    the    lower    sections    of    curtain    together    and    fasten 
by   end  locks   when   in  position.      Replace  guide   and  balance  curtain  by   adjust- 
ment  of   spring. 

NOTE. — The  curtains  of  some  doors  are  installed  without  being  separated 
into  sections. 

(e)  Mounting    Hoods. — Place    hoods    in    position    and    bolt    to    brackets    and 
lintel.      When    mounted    on    face    of    wall,    attach    wall    piece    of    hood   securely 
to   the   wall   by   bolts   or   nailing   into   mortar   joints.      Bolt   housing   on   outside 
of   brackets   in   position. 

(f)  Test. — Test    operation    of    the    doors    after    installation    and    alter    adjust- 
ments   if    necessary    to    make    them    operate    freely. 


Hollow  Metal  Swinging  Fire  Doors 

Standard  Class  A  hollow  metal  fire  doors  are  provided  with  insulated 
stiles  and  rails  at  least  i%  inches  in  thickness,  and  insulated  panels  at  least 
i  inch  in  thickness.  In  moderate  sizes  they  are  substantial  in  construction, 
practical  under  most  conditions,  fairly  easy  to  install  and  permit  the  use  of 
concealed  hardware.  Mounted  on  both  sides  of  the  wall,  they  furnish  a 
high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  to  the  transmission  of  heat  for  long 
periods  of  exposure.  They  resist  fire  streams  well,  are  durable  and  are  easy 
to  operate,  and  fairly  easy  to  maintain. 

42.  SIZE    OF    DOORS. — (a)    Single    swinging    doors    not    to    exceed    4    feet    in 
width   or   8    feet   in    height,    to   shut    into    rabbets    formed   by   thet  stops    on   the 
wall    frame    and    fit    the    opening    closely. 

(b)  Swinging  doors  in  pairs  not  to  exceed  6  feet  in  width  or  8  feet  in 
height,  to  shut  into  rabbets  formed  by  the  stops  on  the  wall  frame,  to  fit 
the  opening  closely,  and  to  be  provided  with  rabbeted  edges  or  an  astragal 
where  they  come  together  at  the  middle. 

43.  MOUNTING   SINGLE    SWINGING   DOORS. —  (a)    To   be   mounted    in   approved 
wall    frames    properly    installed    in    the    wall. 

(b)  Doors    not    exceeding    3^    feet    in    width    or    5    feet    in    height    to    be 
provided  with  at   least  two   approved   hinges.      Doors   in   excess   of   5    feet   and 
not    more    than    7^    feet   in    height    to    be    provided    with    at    least    3    approved 
hinges.      Doors   in   excess   of   7%    fee^t   and   not   more   than   8    feet   in   height   to 
be   provided   with   at   least   4   approved   hinges. 

(c)  To  be  equipped  with  an  approved  three-point   locking  mechanism.      The 
latch   bolts  to  engage   catches   in  the  jamb  of  the   wall   frame   at   least    %    inch. 

44.  MOUNTING    SWINGING    I>OORS    IN    PAIRS. —  (a)    Doors    to    be    mounted    in 
an   approved    wall    frame   properly    installed   in   the    wall. 

(b)  Each  door  to  be  provided  with  approved  hinges  as  specified  for  single 
doors.  See  Rule  43"- 


398 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(c)  The  active  door  of  the  pair  to  be  provided  with  an  approved  three- 
point  locking  mechanism  as  specified  for  single  doors.  The  latch  bolts  to 
engage  catches  in  the  stile  of  the  opposite  door  at  least  %  inch. 

(.d)  The  standing  or  normally  stationary  door  to  be  provided  with  an 
approved  two-point  locking  mechanism  engaging  catches  in  the  head  and 
sill  at  least  %  inch. " 

(e)  Doors  to  be  provided  with  an  approved  interference  device  to  prevent 
the  wrong  door  from  closing  first. 

45.  OPERATION  OF  DOORS. — Doors  to  be  mounted  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
will    swing    easily    and    freely    on    their    hinges    and    close    accurately    against 
the  stops  on  the   wall  frame,   fitting  the  opening  snugly  but   without   binding. 
The   latch   bolts  should   operate    easily   and   register  properly   with   the   catches, 
securely    fastening    the    door    when    closed    easily    or    with    considerable    force. 

NOTE. — Doors  installed  in  new  buildings  may  require  several  readjustments 
of  the  locking  mechanism  to  insure  proper  operation  of  locks  and  engage- 
ment of  the  latches,  as  slight  settlements"  in  new  buildings  are  practically 
unavoidable  and  sometimes  disarrange  the  proper  registration  of  the  latch 
bolts. 

Constant  operation  of  the  door  causes  the  hinges  to  wear,  and  this  wear 
may  in  time  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  door  to  bind  in  the  frame.  Hinges 
should  therefore  be  examined  at  fairly  frequent  intervals,  and  repaired  or 
replaced  if  necessary. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  (CLASS  B)  OF 

OPENINGS  IN  ENCLOSURES  TO  VERTICAL 

COMMUNICATIONS,  THROUGH 

BUILDINGS 

Enclosures  to  vertical  openings  through  buildings  are  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  safeguarding  life,  are  next  in  importance  to  fire  walls  in  pre- 
venting the  spread  of  fire,  and  require  the  use  of  doors  that  can  be  reliably 
operated  at  exits,  and  of  fire  retardants  of  a  high  order  at  all  wall  openings. 
While  ihese  enclosures  are  subject  to  fire  exposures  of  the  same  severity  as 
fire  walls,  the  conditions  in  these  situations  in  buildings  are  such  that  a 
single  'fire  retardant  can  be  safely  employed  in  standard  shafts.  This  is 
made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  failure  of  two  fire  retardanls,  always 
located  a  considerable  distance  apart,  must  occur  before  fire  can  pass  from 
one  fire  section  to  another  or  from  story  to  story.  Only  such  fire  retardants 
are  included  in  this  class  as  have  been  shown  by  experience  and  tests  to 
furnish  a  high  degree  of  fire  protection  when  installed  on  one  side  of  the 
wall,  and,  if  .used  as  exit  doors,  to  offer  no  serious  accident  hazard  under 
normal  or  emergency  conditions  in  this  situation. 

Fire  retardants  fulfilling .  the  requirements  for  division  can  be  employed 
for  openings  into  vertical  shafts  where  the  type  and  pattern  are  suitable. 

General  Regulations 

46.  NUMBER  AND   SIZE  OF  WALL  OPENINGS.      See   Rules    i    and   i,  page   367. 

48.  NUMBER  OF  DOORS. — (a)  Each  opening  in  standard  shafts  communicat- 
ing with  more  than  one  building  or  section  of  a  building  to  be  provided 
with  an  approved  fire  door.  Doors  to  be  of  the  normally  closed  or  auto- 
matic type. 

NOTE.— -Normally  closed  doors  are  preferable  where  the  nature  of  the 
business  is  such  that  they  are  not  likely  to  be  blocked  open. 

(b)  Each  opening  in  sub-standard  shafts  communicating  with  more  than 
one  building  or  section  of  a  building  to  be  provided  with  an  approved 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  399 

fire  door,  and  in  addition,  each  opening  into  the  shaft  through  the  fire  wall 
to  be  provided  with  an  approved  door  for  'division  walls.  Doors  to  be 
of  the  normally  closed  or  automatic  type. 

49.  MASONRY  AT   WALL   OPENINGS.      See    Rule   4,   page    367. 

50.  SILLS. —  (a)    Any    of    the    flush    sills    specified    in    Rule    5    may    be    used 
in   shaft   openings. 

(b)  To   be   substantial   metal  threshold  plates   with  anti-slip   surface,   extend- 
ing   into    the    masonry    at    each    side    of    the    opening    and    anchored    to    the 
masonry   beneath   them. 

NOTE. — Where  the  threshold  plates  specified  above  are  used  in  connection 
\sith  metal  frames,  they  may  be  attached  to -such  frames  in  lieu  of  projec- 
tion into  the  masonry  at  the  sides  of  the  opening. 

(c)  In    buildings    with    non-combustible    floors    no    special    sill    construction 
is   necessary,   if  the   floor   structure   is  extended   through   the   opening. 

51.  LINTELS. — Any    of    the    lintels    specified    in    Rule    6,    page    373,    may    be 
used   in   shaft   openings. 

5J.  WALL  FRAMES. —  (a)  Any  of  the  frames  specified  in  Rule  7,  page  373, 
may  be  used  in  shaft  openings. 

(b)  Frames  to  be  made  of  substantial  structural  steel  channels  at  the  sides 
and    top    of    the    opening*      Channels    to    be    securely    fastened    together    at    the 
upper    corners    and    to    the    sill,    or    threshold    plate    where    used.      In    case    no 
sill    is    used,    channels    at   sides    of   opening    to    extend    into    iloor    structure    at 
least    3   inches.      Jambs   to   be   securely   anchored   to   masonry    at   sides   of   open- 
iuj>;,    at    intervals    nut    exceeding   24    inches.      Where    swinging   doors   are    used, 
head   and  jambs   to   be   provided   with   metal   door   stops   projecting   at   least    lfa 
inch    and    securely     fastened    to    the     frame    members.       These    stops    may    be 
formed     in     special     sheet     metal     channels     overlapping     the     structural     steel 
channels. 

Where  channel  iron  frames  do  not  overlap  both  sides  of  the  wall,  anchors 
to  extend  back  in  such  a  manner  as  to  engage  the  masonry  at  the  middle 
of  the  wall. 

(c)  Frames    for    swinging    doors    may    be    made .  of    channel    shaped    sections 
uf   sheet   metal   at   least   No.    18    U.    S.    gauge   hi   thickness.      Channels   to   be   at 
least    5    inches   wide,   securely    fastened  together   at   the    upper   corners   and   to 
the   sill  or  threshold  plate  if  one  is  used.      In  case  no  sill  is  used,  channels  at 
sides    of   opening   to   extend   into   floor   structure    at    least    3    inches.      Jambs   to 
be    secured    to    masonry    at    sides    of    opening    at    intervals    not    more    than    24 
inches.     Where  flanges  of  channels  do  not  lap  both  sides  of  the   wall,  anchors 
to   extend   back  in  such   a   manner  as  to  engage   the   masonry   at  the   center   of 
the    wall. 

Head  and  jambs  to  be  provided  with  metal  door  stops  projecting  at  least 
\-2  inch,  securely  fastened  to  the  frame  members.  These  stops  may  be  formed 
in  special  sheet  metal  channels  overlapping  the  channel  in  contact  with 
the  masonry.  i  , 

53.  MEASUREMENT   FOR   SIZE  OF   FIRE  DOORS.      See  Rule  8,  page  376. 
Openings    in    walls    to    be    carefully    measured    before    doors    are    built    and 

maximum  dimensions  used  in  determining  overlap  of  doors.  Where  wall 
frames  are  employed  the  size  of  the  door  is  determined  by  the  opening  in 
the  frame. 

54.  TYPE    OF    DOOR,    DIRECTION    OF    OPERATION. -—(a)    Doors    at    openings    to 
stairways    to    be    of    the    swinging    type    where    practicable.       To    open    in    the 
direction    of    exit    travel    in    such    manner    as    not    to    obstruct    the    passage    or 
the   operation   of   other   doors: 

NOTE. — Properly  installed  swinging  doors  are  easier  to  operate,  especially 
under  emergency  conditions,  than  any  other  type  and  offer  less  resistance  to 
rapid  and  emergency  egress. 


4OO  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(b)  Horizontally    sliding    doors     may     be    used     at     openings    to     stairways 
where  conditions  prevent  the  use  of  swinging  doors.     To  open  in  such  manner 
as  not  to  obstruct  the  passage  or  the  operation  of   other  doors. 

NOTE. — Sliding  doors  are  more  difficult  to  operate  than  swinging  doors, 
especially  at  times  of  emergency,  but  are  less  objectionable  at  exits  than 
vertical  sliding  or  rolling  doors. 

(c)  Vertical  doors  and  rolling  doors  not  to  be  used  at, openings  to  stairways. 
NOTE. — Doors   of   this   type   are   usually   difficult   to   operate,   and   the   method 

of  operating  them  is  not  obvious  or  as  well  understood  as  the  methods  of 
operating  swinging  or  horizontally  sliding  doors.  They  may  be  safely  em- 
ployed at  openings  in  enclosures  to  vertical  shafts  that  are  not  used  as 
emergency  exits. 

55.  AUTOMATIC    DOORS. — Doors    at    openings    to    enclosures    to    vertical    com- 
munications   through    buildings    to    be    of    the    normally    closed    or    automatic 
types.       Doors    not    to    be    provided    with    attachments    that    will    prevent    the 
operation  of  the  closing  devices. 

NOTE.— Normally  closed  doors  are  doors  arranged  to  close  by  gravity,  or 
doors  equipped  with  an  approved  door  check  or  device  to  insure  proper 
closing  after  the  door  has  been  opened.  Automatic  doors  are  doors  equipped 
to  close  by  the  action  of  heat  if  left  open. 

56.  CARE    AND    MAINTENANCE. — (a)    Doors    should    be    ready    for    instant    use 
at  all  times.      Therefore,  it   is  necessary   to  keep  surroundings  clear  of  every- 
thing that  would  be   likely   to  obstruct   or  interfere   with  their   free   operation. 
They    should    be    kept   closed    and    fastened    as    much    of   the    time    as    possible. 

(b)  Where  subject  to  deterioration   from  corrosion,   doors  should  be  painted 
at    fairly    frequent    intervals. 

(c)  Hardware    should    be    examined    at    frequent    intervals,    and    any    parts 
rendered   inoperative   should   be   promptly    replaced. 

(d)  Hinges    are    especially    subject    to    wear    and    for    this    reason    should    be 
inspected    frequently    and    kept    in    repair. 

(e)  Guides   and   bearings   to   be   kept   well    greased   to   facilitate    operation. 

(f)  Doors    of    the    sliding    pattern    should    be    stenciled    on    the    room    side 
with   the  words,    "  To   Open,"   and   an   arrow   indicating   the    direction.      Swing- 
ing   doors    should    be    stenciled,    "  Turn    Knob    and    Push,"    or    "  Press    Down 
Lever  and   Push,"   as   the   case   may   be. 

•Swinging  Hollow  Metal  Fire  Doors- 
Standard  Class  B  hollow  metal  fire  doors  are  provided  with  insulated 
stiles  and  rails  at  least  i%  inches  in  thickness,  and  insulated  panels  at  least 
14  inch  in  thickness.  In  moderate  sizes  they  are  substantial  in  construc- 
tion, practical  under  most  conditions,  fairly  easy  to  install,  and  permit  the 
use  of  concealed  hardware.  Mounted  on  one  side  of  vertical  shaft  walls,  they 
furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  a  fairly  high  degree  of 
resistance  to  the  transmission  of  heat  for  long  periods  of  'exposure.  They 
resist  fire  streams  well,  are  durable  and  easy  to  operate,  and  fairly  easy  to 
maintain. 

See   Rulee   42   to   45    inclusive,   pages   397   and    398. 

Tin-Clad  Fire  Doors 

Standard  Class  B  tin-clad  fire  doors  are  the  same  as  Class  A  tin-clad 
doors,  except  that  the  cores  are  made  of  two  plies.  In  moderate  sizes  they 
are  fairly  substantial  in  construction,  practical  under  most  conditions,  and 
easy  to  install.  Mounted  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  they  furnish  a  high  degree 
of  resistance  to  fire  and  to  the  transmission  of  heat  for  fairly  long  periods 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  401 

of  exposure,  and  resist  fire  streams  fairly  well.  Under  adverse  conditions 
of  service  they  are  liable  to  deteriorate  rapidly,  and  are  difficult  to  maintain. 
The  rules  covering  vent  holes,  size  and  shape  of  doors,  and  mounting 
sliding  and  swinging  Class  A  tin-clad  fire  doors  to  apply  to  two-ply  tin-clad 
fire  doors  for  Class  B  situations.  Se  Rules  19  to  27  inclusive,  pages  378 
to  388,  and  list  of  Approved  Hardware  for  these  doors. 

Rolling  Steel  Elevator  Doors 

Standard  rolling  steel  doors  are  substantial  in  construction,  practical 
under  most  conditions,  but  are  somewhat  difficult  t6  install.  Mounted  on 
one  side  of  vertical  shaft  walls  they  furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to 
fire  for  long  periods  of  exposure,  and  a  sufficient  resistance  to  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  in  these  situations.  They  resist  fire  streams  well,  are  durable, 
fairly  easy  to  maintain,  and  capable  of  being  installed  in  locations  where 
space  limitations  prevent  the  installation  of  other  types  of  doors. 

Some  types  of  rolling  steel  elevator  doors  are  difficult  to  operate  after 
they  have  closed  automatically.  The  type  and  use  of  these  doors  in  any 
given  case  should  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  effect  upon  hazard  to  life." 

POSITION  OF  DOORS. — (a)  Doors  in  enclosing  walls  of  elevator  shafts  which 
communicate  with  more  than  one  fire  section,  and  which  are  subject  to 
damage  from  falling  materials  at  time  of  fire,  to  be  mounted  in  icveal  of 
wall  so  that  no  portion  projects  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall. 

(b)  Doors  in  enclosing  walls  of  elevator  shafts  which  do  not  communicate 
with  more  than  one  fire  section,  and  doors  which  are  not  subject  to  damage 
from  falling  material  ai  time  of  fire,  may  be  mounted  on  the  face  of  the 
wall.  Inspection  departments  having  jurisdiction  to  be  consulted  before 
installation. 

NOTE. — Doors  mounted  on  the  face  of  the  wall  should  usually  be  confined 
to  elevator  shafts  in  fireproof  buildings,  and  to  elevator  shafts  serving  a 
single  fire  section  only. 

SIZE  OF  DOORS. — Doors  not  to  exceed  sizes  suitable  for  openings  8  feet  in 
width  and  9  feet  in  height.  To  overlap  the  sides  of  the  wall  opening.  Hood 
to  fit  closely  against  the  lintel,  or  where  the  door  is  mounted  on  the  face 
of  the  wall,  hood  to  be  placed  above  the  top  of  the  opening  so  that  the 
bottom  of  the  curtain  will  be  flush  with  or  above  the  top  of  the  opening 
when  the  door  is  fully  open. 

MOUNTING  ROLLING  DOORS. — The  rules  for  mounting  rolling  steel  doors  at 
openings  in  fire  walls  to  be  followed,  except  that  doors  are  installed  only 
on  one  side  of  wall.  See  Rule  41  a  to  f  inclusive,  page  396. 


Counterbalanced  Elevator  Doors 

Standard  counterbalanced  elevator  doors  are  substantial  in  construction, 
practical  in  many  elevator  enclosures,  but  are  somewhat  difficult  to  install. 
Mounted  on  one  side  of  shaft  walls  they  furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance 
to  fire  for  long  periods  of  exposure  and  a  sufficient  resistance  to  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  in  these  situations.  They  resist  fire  streams  well,  are  durable 
and  generally  easy  to  maintain. 

SIZE  OF  DOORS. —  (a)  Doors  not  to  exceed  sizes  suitable  for  openings  8  feet 
in  width  and  10  feet  in  height.  To  lap  the  opening  at  least  2  inches  on 
the  sides,  and  at  least  3  inches  at  top  and  bottom. 

(b)  Door  sections  to  engage  the  guides  on  each  side  at  least  i  inch  with 
%-inch  clearance  in  each  guide  for  lateral  expansion. 


462  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

MOUNTING  COUNTERBALANCED  ELEVATOR  DOORS. — Counterbalanced  elevator 
doors  are  not  easily  installed  by  workmen  unfamiliar  with  them.  Where 
possible,  their  installation  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  manufac- 
turer. Specifications  and  blue  prints  should  be  furnished  covering  the 
details  of  installation.  The  elevator  should  be  available  during  the  installa- 
tion of  doors. 

(a)  Mounting    Wall    Guides. — Place    the    guides    in    proper   position    at   sides 
of  opening  and  see   that  they  are  perfectly  plumb,   th^   proper   distance   apart, 
and   that   the   attachments   on   each   guide   are   directly   opposite   each    other   on 
a    level    line.      Mark    slots    on    wall    at    holes    for    wall    bolts,    remove    guides 
and   mark   long   crosses    at   ends   of  slots    furthest   away    from    the   fixed   point 
on    the   guides    and   drill    holes    through    wall   exactly    where    marked.      Replace 
guides    and    bolt    to    wall    with     ^-inch    through    bolts,    placing    washers    on 
opposite    side    of    wall. 

NOTE.— The  guides  are  assembled  at  the  shop  in  unit  lengths  approxi- 
mately equal  to  story  heights,  2  inches  being  allowed  between  units  for 
clearance  and  expansion.  The  guides  are  provided  with  one  round  hole 
and  slots  spaced  not  more  than  18  inches  at  the  door  opening  and  not  more 
than  42  inches  above  the  door  opening.  The  wall  bolt  at  the  round  hole 
is  the  fixed  point  on  the  guides. 

Where  the  doors  are  mounted  on  non-standard  enclosing  walls,  the  ends 
of  the  wall  guides  to  be  securely  anchored  to  the 'floor  structure  at  floor  levels. 

NOTE. — If  securely  attached  to  the  floors,  the  wall  guides  serve  as  struc- 
tural supports  to  both  door  and  wall. 

Wall  guides  may  be  attached  to  standard  wall  frames  by  slotted  clips  and 
bolts.  See  Rules  7  and  52b,  pages  373  and  399. 

NOTE. — The  wall  frames  are  liable  to  bulge  when  exposed  to  fire  and 
affect  the  fire  retardant  properties  of  doors  attached  to  them,  unless  slotted 
connections  are  employed. 

(b)  Mounting    Door    Sections. — Place    door    sections    in    position    in    guides 
so   that   latches  and   stops   engage   properly,    attach   chains   to   counterbalancing 
mechanism,    and    adjust    so    that    the    door    closes    and    latches    properly    when 
operated. 

Metal-Clad   Doors 

Standard  Class  B  metal-clad  fire  doors  are  provided  with  framed  wooden 
cores,  covered  with  sheet  metal,  with  stiles  and  rails  at  least  i%  inches  in 
thickness  and  with  depressed  panels.  In  moderate  sizes  they  are  fairly  sub- 
stantial in  construction,  practical  under  most  conditions,  fairly  easy  to  install, 
but  do  not  permit  of  concealed  hardware.  Mounted  on  one  side  of  vertical 
shaft  walls  they  furnish  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  and  to  the  trans- 
mission of  heat  for  fairly  long  periods  of  exposure,  and  resist  fire  streams 
fairly  well.  Under  adverse  conditions  of  service  they  are  liable  to  deteriorate 
rapidly  and  are  difficult  to  maintain.  h^.">,-;i; 

SWINGING  METAI,-CLAD  DOORS 

StZE  OF  DooRs.^ — (a)  Single  swinging  doors  not  to  exceed  4  feet  in  width 
of  8  feet  in  height,  to  shut  into  rabbets  formed  by  the  stops  on  the  wall 
frame  and  fit  the  opening  closely. 

(b)  Swinging  doors  in  pairs  not  to  exceed  6  feet  in  width  or  8  feet  in 
height,  to  shut  into  rabbets  formed  by  the  stops  on  the  wall  frame,  to  fit 
the  opening  closely,  and  to  be  provided  with  rabbeted  edges  or  an  astragal 
where  they  come  together  at  the  middle. 

MOUNTING  SINGLE  SWINGING  DOORS. — (a)  To  be  mounted  in  approved 
wall  frames  properly  installed  in  the  wall. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  <  )PENINGS  403 

(b)  Doors   not   exceeding   31/-.    feet   in   width   or    5    feet   in   height   to   be   pro- 
vidt-d   with   at  least   two  approved   hinges.      Doors  in  excess  of   5    feet,  and  not 
inure   than   7%   feet  in  height  to  be   provided   with   at   least  3   approved   hinges. 
Doors  in  excess  of  7%  feet  and  not  more  than  8  feet  in  height  to  be  provided 
with  at  least  4  approved  hinges. 

(c)  Doors    to    be    equipped    with    an    approved    three-latch    mechanism,     in- 
stalled as  nearly  as  possible  in   the   manner  specified   for   swinging  tin-clad  fire 
doors.      See    Rule    24C,    page    386. 

MOUNTING  SWINGING  DOORS  IN  PAIRS. — (a)  To  be  mounted  in  approved 
wall  frames  properly  installed  in  the  wall. 

(b)  Each    door    to    be    provided    with     approved     hinges     as     specified     for 
single  doors. 

(c)  The    active    door   of    the    pair   to    be    equipped   with    an    approved    three- 
latch   mechanism,   installed   as   nearly   as   possible   in   the   manner   specified    for 
swinging   tin-clad   fire   doors.      See   Rule   24C,   page   386. 

(d)  The    standing    or    normally    stationary    door    to    be    equipped    with    an 
approved    door   belt    at   top    and   bottom    and    with    catches    for   the    latches   on 
the    active   door,    installed    as    nearly    as   possible    in    the    manner    specified    for 
tin-clad    doors.      See    Rules    253,    b,    page    388. 

(e)  Doors  to  be   provided   with   an   approved   interference  device   to  prevent 
the    wrong   door    from    closing   first. 

OPERATION  OF  DOORS. — Doors  to  be  mounted  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
will  swing  easily  and  freely  on  their  hinges,  and  close  accurately  against  the 
stops  on  the  wall  frame  without  binding.  The  latches  should  operate  freely 
on  their  pivots  and  ride  up  the  inclines  on  the  catches  and  snap  into  position 
when  the  door  is  slammed  shut  or  closed  with  moderate  force. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  (CLASS  C)  OF 
OPENINGS  IN  CORRIDOR  AND  ROOM  PARTITIONS 

Partitions  used  for  the  subdivision  of  fire  sections  of  buildings  are  of 
very  considerable  value  in  safeguarding  life  and  preventing  the  rapid  spread 
of  fire  through  buildings.  While  of  lesser  importance  from  the  fire  protec- 
tion viewpoint  than  fire  walls  and  enclosures  to  vertical  communications 
through  buildings,  all  openings  in  interior  partitions  should  be  provided  with 
effective  barriers  to  the  passage  of  fire.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  fire  retardants  that  fulfill  all  service  requirements  but  do  not  possess 
the  qualifications  for  the  protection  of  openings  in  fire  walls,  openings 
in  enclosing  walls  to  rooms  containing  specially  hazardous  processes,  and 
vertical  shafts.  Only  such  fire  retardants  are  included  in  this  class  as  have 
been  shown  by  experience  and  tests  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fire  for  fairly 
long  periods  when  installed  on  one  side  of  corridor  and  room  partitions,  and 
to  offer  no  serious  accident  hazard  under  normal  or  emergency  conditions 
in  this  situation. 

Fire  retardants  fulfilling  Class  A  and  Class  B  requirements  can  be  em- 
ployed for  openings  in  corridor  and  room  partitions  where  the  type  and 
pattern  are  suitable. 

General  Regulations 

NUMBER  AND  SIZE  OF  OPENINGS. — Openings  to  he  in  sufficient  number  and 
of  ample  size  to  provide  for  rapid  egress  toward  the  exits,  otherwise  to  be 
as  few  and  as  small  as  the  circumstances  will  permit. 

THRESHOLDS. — To  be  made  of  non-combustible  material  with  upper  surface 
treated  to  prevent  slipping. 


404  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

LINTELS. — Lintels  to  be  of  non-combustible  material  capable  of  safely  sus- 
taining the  superimposed  loads,  or  partitions  to  be  so  constructed  that  the 
frame  will  not  be  subjected  to  material  stress. 

WALL  FRAMES. — (a)  To  consist  of  structural  or  sheet  steel  channels  of 
sufficient  width  to  lap  the  sides  of  the  partition. 

(b)  To  be  securely  anchored  to  partition,  and  where  they  extend  from 
floor  to  ceiling,  to  be  securely  anchored  at  top  and  bottom. 

FINISH  AT  OPENINGS. — The  casing  and  trim  at  openings  to  be  preferably 
of  non-combustible  material. 

'!  '        * . 

Hollow  Metal  and  Metal-Clad  Doors 

Standard  Class  C  doors  of  these  patterns  may  be  provided  with  wired  glass 
upper  panels,  and  limited  amounts  of  heat  insulating  materials.  In  moderate 
sizes  they  are  fairly  substantial  in  construction,  practical  under  most  condi- 
tions, and  fairly  easy  to  install.  Mounted  in  corridor  and  room  partitions 
they  furnish  a  fairly  high  degree  of  resistance  to  fire  for  limited  periods 
and  sufficient  resistance  to  the  transmission  of  heat  in  this  situation.  When 
equipped  with  wired  glass  panels  they  afford  only  a  limited  resistance  to 
fire  streams.  Under  adverse  conditions  of  service  the  metal-clad  doors  are 
liable  to  deteriorate  rapidly  and  are  difficult  to  maintain. 

SIZE  OF  DOORS. —  (a)  Single  swinging  doors  not  to  exceed  4  feet  in  width 
or  9  feet  in  height,  ,to  shut  into  rabbets  formed  by  the  stops  on  the  wall 
frame  and  fit  the  opening  closely. 

(b)  Swinging  doors  in  pairs  not  to  exceed  8  feet  in  width  or  9  feet  in 
height,  to  shut  into  rabbets  formed  by  the  stops  on  the  wall  frame,  to  fit 
the  opening  closely,  and  also  to  fit  together  closely  where  they  come  together 
at  the  middle. 

MOUNTING  SWINGING  DOORS. —  (a)  To  be  mounted  in  approved  wall  frames 
properly  installed  in  the  wall  or  partition. 

(b)  Doors  not  exceeding  3%    feet  in  width  or   5    feet   in   height  to   be  pro- 
vided  with   at   least   2   approved   hinges.      Doors  in   excess   of    5    feet   and   not 
more  than  7%  feet  in  height  to  be  provided  with  at  least  3   approved  hinges. 
Doors  in  excess  of  7%  feet  and  not  more  than  9  feet  in  height  to  be  provided 
with   at   least   4   approved   hinges. 

(c)  Doors  to  be  equipped  with  the  ordinary  heavy  hardware. 

(d)  Doors    to    be    mounted   in    such    a   manner   that    they    will    swing    easily 
and   freely  on  their  hinges  and  open  and  close   without   binding. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  (CLASS  D)  OF 

OPENINGS  IN  EXTERIOR  WALLS  SUBJECT  TO 

SEVERE  FIRE  EXPOSURE 

The  importance  of  exterior  walls  as  a  safeguard  to  life  at  time  of  fire, 
and  in  preventing  fire  from  entering  and  spreading  through  buildings,  makes 
it  essential  that  all  openings  in  such  walls  subject  to  severe  exposing  fires 
be  protected  by  efficient  methods.  Only  such  fire  retardants  are  included  in 
this  class  as  have  been  shown  by  experience  and  tests  to  furnish  a  high 
degree  of  fire  protection  when  installed  on  one  side  of  the  wall,  and,  if 
used  at  exit  openings,  to  offer  no  serious  accident  hazard  under  normal  or 
emergency  conditions  in  this  situation. 

Fire  retardants  fulfilling  Class  A  or  Class  B  requirements  can  be  employed 
for  the  protection  of  openings  in  exterior  walls  subject  to  severe  fire  ex- 
posure where  the  type  and  pattern  are  suitable. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  405 

General   Regulations 

NUMBER  AND  SIZE  OF  WALL  OPENINGS. — Openings  to  be  in  sufficient  num- 
ber and  of  ample  size  to  provide  for  rapid  egress  from  the  building,  and 
to  turnish  sufficient  light  and  ventilation,  otherwise  to  be  as  few  and  small 
as  the  circumstances  will  permit. 

MASONRY  AT  WALL  OPENINGS.'— Walls  to  be  plumb  and  true  and  present 
smooth  masonry  surfaces  without  combustible  trim  at  openings. 

SILLS. — (a)  To  be  of  non-combustible  material  suitable  for  the  service 
intended,  and  provided  with  any  grooves,  holes  or  recesses  necessary  for  the 
proper  installation  of  the  fire  retardants  used  to  protect  the  openings. 

(b)  To  be  firmly  embedded  in  mortar,  and  securely  bonded  or  anchored  to 
the  masonry. 

LINTELS.— To  be  of  non-combustible  material  and  designed  for  the  proper 
installation  of  the  fire  retardants  used  to  protect  the  openings. 

NOTE. — The  lintels  specified  for  openings  in  fire  walls  may  be  used  for 
openings  in  exterior  walls,  particularly  for  door  openings.  See  Ruie  6,  page" 
373- 

WALL  FRAMES. — Wall  frames  for  exterior  door  openings  to  conform  in  all 
essential  particulars  with  the  requirements  for  openings  in  fire  walls  or 
vertical  communications  through  buildings.  See  Rules  7,  page  373,  and  52, 
page  399. 

MEASUREMENT  FOR  SIZE  OF  FIRE  RETARDANTS. — Openings  in  exterior  walls 
to  be  carefully  measured  before  the  doors  or  shutters  are  built.  Where  wall 
frames  are  employed,  the  size  is  to  be  determined  by  the  opening  in  the 
frame. 

NOTE. — Openings  in  exterior  walls  are  very  apt  to  vary  from  the  sizes 
given  on  plans.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  opening  in  wall  frames  is  fre- 
quently altered  by  distortion  incidental  to  shipment  and  installation.  It  is 
important  therefore  that  the  openings  be  carefully  measured  before  the 
doors  or  shutters  are  built. 

TYPE  OF  DOORS — DIRECTION  OF  OPERATION. — Doors  at  openings  used  as 
exits  to  be  of  the  swinging  type  where  practicable.  To  open  in  the  direction 
of  exit  travel  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  obstruct  the  passage  or  the  opera- 
tion of  other  doors. 

CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE. —  (a)  Exterior  fire  doors  and  shutters  should  be 
ready  for  instant  use  at  all  times,  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  sur- 
roundings clear  of  everything  that  would  be  likely  to  obstruct  or  interfere 
with  their  free  operation.  They  should  be  kept  closed  and  fastened  nights, 
Sundays  and  holidays,  and  whenever  the  openings  are  not  in  use. 

(b)  Never  tack  any  tin  on  tin-clad  doors  or  shutters.  When  tin  becomes 
worn,  substitute  new  sheets  in  the  same  manner  as  when  applying  the  original 
covering. 

PAINTING. — Exterior  doors  and  shutters  to  be  given  one  good  coat  of  paint 
before  they  leave  the  shop,  and  at  least  one  coat  after  they  are  installed. 
Rolling  steel  doors  and  shutters  not  to  be  opened  (coiled  up)  until  the  paint 
has  dried  sufficiently  to  prevent  adhesion  between  the  parts.  Exterior  doors 
and  shutters  to  be  repainted  at  fairly  frequent  intervals  to  prevent  deteriora- 
tion. Paint  to  be  satisfactory  to  inspection  departments  having  jurisdiction. 

Tin-Clad  Fire  Shutters 

87.  SIZE  AND  SHAPE  OF  SHUTTERS. — Shutters  to  overlap  sides  and  top  of 
window  opening  4  inches,  or  close  into  the  opening.  Shutters  in  pairs  to 
fit  closely  where  they  come  together  at  the  middle. 


406 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE. — Shutters  in  pairs  do  not  furnish  as  reliable  protection  as  single 
shutters.  Joints  between  shutters  may  be  protected  by  %  x  2%  inch  steel 
astragal  bolted  to  one  shutter  by  carriage  bolts  spaced  10  inches.  The  window 
openings  should  be  carefully  measured  before  the  shutters  are  built. 

88.  MOUNTING  SHUTTERS. — (a)  Attachment  of  Pin  or  Eye  Blocks. — To  be 
securely  set  in  wall  or  bolted  through  wall. 

(b)  Attachment  of  Hinges. — Shutters  in  excess  of  7  feet  in  height  or  6 
feet  in  width  to  be  provided  with  three  hinges.  Hinges  to  be  secured  by 


r^Os  PS  vT**» V 


Fig.  31 .     Tin  Clad  Fire  Shutters. 


Reproduced  hy  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

bolts  passing  through  the  shutter,  placing  washers  under  bolt  heads.  The 
rules  for  attaching  hinges  to  tin-clad  fire  doors  should  be  followed  as  far 
as  possible.  See  Rule  24  b,  page  386. 

(c)   Attaching    Latches.— Shutters    to    be    secured   shut   by   at   least   two   steel 
bars    or    latches    working    together    and    spaced    about    one    third    the    distance 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


407 


from  top  and  bottom  of  the  window  opening.  Latches  to  pivot  on  %-inch 
holts  through  the  shutters.  See  Figure  31. 

(d)  Attaching  Catches, — To  be  securely  set  in  wall.  Catches  for  shutters 
in  pairs  to  be  provided  with  a  flare  and  attached  to  the  shutter  by  two  %-inch 
through  bolts.  Hooks  or  gravity  catches  securely  attached  to  wall  to  be 
provided  to  hold  the  shutter  in  position  when  open.  See  Figure  31. 

(c)    Operation. — At   least   one   shutter   in   three   on   each   story   above   the   first 


Fig.  32.  Iron  Shutters.Open. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

and  below  the  seventh,  and  shutters  next  to  fire  escapes  and  above  adjoining 
buildings  to  he  constructed  so  that  they  can  be  operated  from  both  inside 
and  outside. 

89.  SLIDING  SHUTTERS. — Sliding  shutters  not  to  be  used  if  avoidable.  If 
used  on  the  outside,  metal  shields  should  be  provided  to  prevent  accumula- 
tion of  snow  and  ice  on  track. 


408 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Solid  Steel  and   Sheet  Metal   Shutters 

90.  SIZE  AND  SHAPE  OF  SHUTTERS. — Shutters  to  overlap  sides  and  top  of 
window  opening  at  least  i%  inches  or  close  into  the  opening.  Bottom  of 
shutter  to  fit  the  sill  closely  where  it  is  not  practical  to  lap  it.  Shutters 
in  pairs  to  lap  each  other  at  least  i%  inches  when  they  come  together  at 
the  middle.  See  Figures  32  and  33. 


!%  Cl  osed. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Uncl's. 

NOTE.— The    window    openings    should     be    carefully    measured    before    the 
shutters   are   built. 

QT.  MOUNTING   SHUTTERS.— (a)   Attachments   of   Pin  or   Eye   Blocks.— To  be 
securely  set   in   wall   or   bolted   through   wall. 

(b)   Attachment    of  „  Hinges.— Hinges    not    to    exceed    24    inches    apart    when 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


409 


shutter  is  in  excess  of  6  feet  in  height.  Set  the  shutters  in  positions  with 
ends  of  hinges  in  position  on  pin  or  eye  blocks.  Shutters  should  turn  easily 
and  freely  on  the  hinges.  See  Figures  32  and  33. 

NOTE. — The    hinges    are    attached    to    solid    steel    and    sheet    metal    shutters 
at   the   top. 

(c)   Attaching   Latches. — Shutters   to   be   provided   with   at   least   two   latches, 
and  where  more  than  6  feet  in  height   latches  not  to  exceed   24   inches  apart. 


Fi£34  Dcx>rtocoverBelTHole  Opening. 
D  oTted  1  i  nes  show  open  i  n£  t  hrougji  wo  1 1 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

Latches  to  work  together  and  to  be  installed  before  the  shutter  is  mounted. 
Latches  to  extend  at  least  one  third  the  distance  across  the  opposite  shutter 
when  shutters  in  pairs  are  used.  See  Figures  32  and  33. 

(d)    Attaching   Catches. — To  be  securely  set  in   wall,   or  where  shutters   are 
in   pairs,   to   be  securely   riveted  to   the   standing  shutter   of   the  pair.      Hooks 


4IO  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

or    gravity    catches    securely    attached    to    wall    to    be    provided    to    hold    the 
shutter   in  position   when   open.      See   Figures   32   and   33. 

(e)  Operation. — At  least  one  shutter  in.  three  on  each  story  above  the . 
first  and  below  the  seventh,  and  shutters  next  to  fire  escapes  and  above 
adjoining  buildings,  to  be  constructed  so  that  they  can  be  operated  from 
both  inside  and  outside. 

Rolling   Steel   Fire   Shutters 

92.  POSITION    OF    SHUTTERS. — Shutters    to    be   mounted    on    the    face   of    wall 
or  coil  may  be  mounted  in  the  wall  when  the  shutter  is  so  designed  that  the 
curtain    is   located    outside   of   the   window    frame    when   the    shutter   is   closed. 

93.  SIZE   OF    SHUTTERS. — Shutters    not    to    exceed    sizes   suitable    for  .window 
openings    10    feet   wide   by    10   feet   in   height,   and   to   overlap   openings   at   the 
sides   and   top.      Hood   to   be   placed   above   the   top   of   the   opening,   or   in  the 
wall   over   the   opening   so   that   the   bottom   of   the    curtain   will    be    flijsh    with 
or    above   the    top    of    the    opening    when    the    shutter    is    fully    open. 

94.  MOUNTING    ROLLING    SHUTTERS. — Rolling    steel    shutters    are    complicated 
in   construction    and    not   easily    installed    by    workmen    unfamiliar    with    them. 
Where    possible,    their  'installation    should    be    under    the    supervision    of    the 
manufacturer.      Specifications    and    blue    prints    should    be    furnished    covering 
the    details    of    installation. 

The  rules  for  mounting  rolling  steel  fire  doors  to  be  followed  in  mounting 
rolling  shutters,  except  that  doors  are  installed  only  on  one  side  of  wall. 
See  Rules  413  to  43,  inclusive,  pages  396  and  397. 

95.  TESTING    ROLLING    SHUTTERS. — Shutters    to    be    tested    after    installation, 
and  adjustments  altered,  if  necessary,   to  make  them  operate   freely. 

NOTE. — Rolling  shutters  should  be  provided  with  approved  attachments  for 
conveniently  testing  their  operation  from  the  inside  of  the  building,  and 
with  approved  safety  attachments  to  prevent  their  operation,  while  windows 
are  being  washed.  These  attachments  to  be  so  designed  that  the  shutters 
cannot  be  left  in  an  inoperative  condition. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PROTECTION  (CLASS  E)  OF 

OPENINGS  IN  EXTERIOR  WALLS   SUBJECT  TO 

MODERATE  FIRE  EXPOSURE 

Openings  in  exterior  walls,  not  subject  to  severe  fire  exposure,  may  be 
efficiently  protected  by  devices  which  will  not  safely  withstand  t|he  high 
temperatures  of  severe  fire  exposures  on  the  exterior  of  buildings,  or  the 
temperatures  of  fires  on  the  interior  of  buildings.  Only  such  fire  retardants 
are  included  in  this  class  as  have  been  shown  by  experience  and  tests  to 
furnish  a  high  degree  of  fire  protection  when  installed  on  one  side  of 
exterior  walls  not  subject  to  severe  fire  exposure,  and,  if  used  at  exit  open- 
ings, to  offer  no  serious  accident  hazard  under  normal  or  emergency  condi- 
tions in  this  situation. 

Fire  retardants  fulfilling  Class  A,  B  or  D  requirements  can  be  employed 
for  the  protection  of  openings  in  exterior  walls  not  subject  to  seyere  fire 
exposure,  where  the  type  and  pattern  are  suitable. 

.•  (*-.  i  vtit  n</:j.;.*;«yf   ,,j  i-mil.nipJI 

General  Regulations- 

96.  NUMBER    AND    SIZE   OF    WALL    OPENINGS.— Opening^  , to    be    sufficient    in 
number    and    of    ample    size    to    provide    for    rapid    egress    from    the    building, 
and    to    furnish   sufficient    light    and    ventilation,    otherwise    to    be    as    few    and 
as   smajl   as  the   circumstances  will   permit. 


For  Proper  Window  'Protection 
Against  Fire  and  Breakage 
Specify 

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220  FIFTH  AVENUE 
CHICAGO  NEW  YORK  ST.  Louis 


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These  POINTS  ARE  SURELY  worthy  of 
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MISSISSIPPI  WIRE  GLASS  Co. 

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7  W.  Madison  St.  ATV  -\r       i  4070  N.  Main  St. 

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PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS  411 

07.  MASONRY  AT  WALL  OPENINGS. — Walls  to  be  plumb  and  true,  and  to 
present  smooth  masonry  surfaces  at  edges  without  combustible  trim  at 
openings. 

98.  SILLS  AND  LINTELS. — To  be  of  non-combustible  material  suitable   for  the 
service    intended,    designed    for   the    proper   installation    of   the    retardants    used 
to   protect   the   openings,   and   firmly  embedded   in   mortar   and   securely   bonded 
or   anchored    in    position. 

XOTE. — The  sills  and  lintels  specified  for  openings  in  fire  walls  may  be 
used  for  openings  in  exterior  walls  when  suitable.  See  Rules  5  and  6, 
page  373. 

99.  WALL  FRAMES  FOR  DOORS. — Door  frames  specified   for  openings  in   Class 
A   and    B   situations   may   be    used    for   door   openings    in   exterior   walls.      See 
Rules  .7    and    52,    pages    373    and    399. 

too.  MULLIONS. —  (a)  Bearing  mullions  to  be  of  masonry  or  of  structural 
members  protected  by  at  least  2  inches  of  fireproofing  material  on  all  sides. 

(b)  Non-bearing  mullions  and  horizontal  structural  dividing  members  to 
consist  of  steel  I-beams  not  smaller  than  5  inches,  securely  fastened  to  the 
wall  and  protected  by  at  least  2  inches  of  fireproofing  material  on  the  flanges 
and  at  least  2^  inches  next  on  the  web. 

101.  CARE   AND    MAINTENANCE. — Fire  ;retardants    at    exterior    openings    to   be 
kept  well  painted  to  prevent  deterioration,   to  be  kept  clean  of  everything  that 
would   be   likely   to  obstruct   or   interfere   with   their    free   operation,   and   to   be 
frequently    tested    and    maintained    in    perfect    working    order. 

Fire  Windows 

\Vire4  glass  windows  are  fairly  substantial  in  construction,  practical  under 
most  conditions,  easy  to  install  and  to  maintain,  furnish  a  fairly  high 
degree  of  resistance  to  fire,  but  their  use  is  restricted  by  inherent  limitations 
of  the  glass  which  transmits  heat  readily,  and  melts  at  comparatively  low 
temperatures.  For  situations  where  the  exposure  is  not  severe  they  will 
prevent  the  spread  of  fire  from  one  building  to  , another  or  from  one  story 
to  another  in  the  same  building. 

102.  SIZE  OF  FIRE  WINDOWS. — Metal  frame  containing  the  sash  or  glass  not 
to  exceed  5  feet  by  9  feet  between  supports.     Larger  openings  to  be  reinforced 
at  every   point  of   division   by   mullions   or   horizontal   structural   members   con- 
structed  as   specified   in    Rule    looa   and    b. 

103.  SIZE  OF  GLASS  FOR  FIRE   WINDOWS. — Area  of  wired  glass  between  sup- 
ports not  to  exceed  720  square  inches,  and  the  longer  dimension  of   the  glass 
not  to  exceed  48  inches. 

104.  INSTALLATION    OF    FIRE    WINDOWS. — (a)    Sills    of    hollow    metal    window 
frames    to    be    filled     with     non-combustible     material    capable     of     pi  eventing 
distortion. 

(b)  Frames    to    be    set    upon    a    bed    of   mortar    and    supported   by    shims    or 
wedges   to   be   removed   after  masonry    is   completed.      Vertical   members   to   be 
plumb  and  true,  and  horizontal  members  level.     Frames  to  be  securely  braced 
in    position    until    held    by   the    masonry    or   other    attachments. 

(c)  Frames  installed  before   the  sashes  are    in  position   to   be  securely  cross 
braced    to    prevent    distortion    while    the    wall    is    being    built. 

(d)  Masonry   to    be    set   close   to    walling   in    flanges,    weight   pockets    or    ex- 
tending portions   of   the   window    frame,   and   wall   anchors   to   be   properly   set 
into    the    masonry    as    the    work    progresses.      Joints    between    the    frame    and 
wall    to   be   carefully   pointed   up   on    both    sides   of   the    window. 

(e)  Arches    or    lintels    to    be    set    with    reference    to   extending    frame    mem- 
bers  and    at    least    ^4-inch    clearance    allowed,   so    as    not   to    subject   the    frame 


I 

412  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

to  loads  by  settlements.  Joints  between  frame  and  arch  or  lintel  to  be  filled 
with  mortar  and  made  tight  by  pointing. 

NOTE. — New  masonry  is  liable  to  settle  slightly  and  distort  the  frame  if 
proper  allowances  are  not  made  in  setting. 

(f)  Frames  set  in  old  openings  to  be   firmly  secured  to  the   wall   structure, 
first    wetting    old    masonry    to    prevent    the    rapid    absorption    of    moisture    in 
mortar.      All    joints    between    frame    and    wall    to    be    filled  -with    mortar    and 
made  tight  by  pointing. 

(g)  Window     frames    to    be    thoroughly    protected    by    boxing    if    window 
opening  is  used  for  the  introduction  of  building  materials. 

(h)  Directions  for  installation  to  be  furnished  for  windows,  covering 
which  published  installation  rules  do  not  apply. 

REGULATIONS   FOR   THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF   FIRE 
WINDOWS  * 

.  Hollow  metallic  windows  may  be  divided  into  six  general  types,  namely: 
Sliding  Windows,  Pivoted  Windows,  Casement  Windows,  Top  Hinged  Win- 
dows, Stationary  Windows,  and  Tilting  Windows. 

SLIDING  WINDOWS. — Sliding  windows  are  windows  having  two  sashes 
ordinarily  designed  to  slide  up  and  down.  The  motions  of  these  sashes 
may  be  independent  of  each  other  and  controlled  by  weights,  in  which  case 
the  window  is  called  a  double  hung  window,  or  one  sash  may  counterbalance 
the  other,  in  which  case  the  window  is  called  a  counterbalanced  v.mdow. 

While  it  is  possible  to  design  windows  which  will  slide  horizontally,  such 
windows  are  seldom  made  and  the  term  "  sliding  window "  is,  therefore, 
generally  considered  as  applying  exclusively  to  the  vertical  sliding  type. 

PIVOTED  WINDOWS. — A  pivoted  window  is  a  window  having  one  or  more 
of  the  sashes  mounted  on  pivots  allowing  each  movable  sash  to  be  turned 
on  an  axis. 

CASEMENT  WINDOWS. — A  casement  window  is  a  Vindow  having  the  sashes 
attached  to  the  frame  by  hinges  at  a  vertical  edge  and  operating  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  door. 

TOP  HINGED  WINDOWS. — A  top  hinged  window  is  a  window  having  the 
sash  attached  to  the  frame  by  hinges  at  the  upper  horizontal  edge. 

STATIONARY  WINDOWS. — A  stationary  window  is  a  window  having  the  sash 
fixed  in  one  position. 

TILTING  WINDOWS. — A  tilting  window  is  a  window  in  which  the  sashes  are 
attached  to  the  frame,  and  to  each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  a  sliding 
and  tilting  movement  of  the  sashes  is  secured. 

TWIN  WINDOWS. — A  twin  window  is  a  window  the  sashes  of  which  are 
mounted  side  by  side  instead  of  vertically. 

COMBINATION  TYPES. — Windows  which  are  combinations  of  the  above  types 
have  names  which  indicate  their  construction.  For  instance,  a  window  having 
a  pivoted  upper  sash  and  stationary  lower  sash  is  called  a  pivoted  upper, 
fixed  lower  sash  window.  A  window  having  two  sashes,  both  of  which  are 
pivoted,  is  called  a  double  pivoted  window.  A  window  having  a  single 
pivoted  sash  is  called  a  single  pivoted  window.  A  window  having  a  top 
hinged  upper  sash  and  double  hung  lower  sash  is  usually  called  a  double 
hung  window  with  top  hinged  transom,  etc. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  type  of  window  having  the  upper  sash  pivoted  and 
the  lower  sash  stationary,  is  more  generally  used  than  other  types  of  pivoted 
windows,  a  pivoted  window  is  now  generally  understood  as  being  a  two-sash 

*  Issued    by    the    Underwriters'    Laboratories,    Inc. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALLJ  OPENINGS  413 

window  having  the  upper  sash  pivoted  and  the  lower  sash  fixed.  Windows 
having  the  upper  sash  fixed  and  the  lower  sash  pivoted,  are  often  spoken  of 
as  reverse  pivoted  windows. 

FRAMES  AND  FRAME  MEMBERS. — Hollow  metallic  windows  of  any  type  con- 
sist of  a  frame  and  one  sash  or  more.  Frames  formed  with  offsets  or 
shoulders  to  receive  masonry  are  called  rabbeted  frames.  Frames  not  pro- 
vided with  rabbets  are  generally  formed  with  metal  wings  or  flanges.  Flanges 
designed  to  be  built  into  the  masonry  are  called  walling-in  flanges.  The 
frames  of  all  windows  having  *a  single  sash  and  the  frames  of  sliding  sash 
windows  having  two  sashes  are  composed  of  two  horizontal  members  called 
the  head  and  sill,  and  two  vertical  members  called  the  jambs. 

The  head  is  that  portion  of  the  frame  which  forms  the  top,  the  lower 
surface  of  the  head  being  called  the  soffit  and  the  upper  surface  the  top  of 
the  member. 

The  sill  is  that  portion  of  the  frame  which  forms  the  bottom,  and  the 
upper  surface  is  called  the  tread  and  the  lower  surface  the  base. 

The  jambs  form  the  sides  of  the  frame,  the  part  in  contact  with  masonry 
being  called  the  back  of  the  jamb  and  the  part  in  contact  with  the  sash  the 
front  of  the  jamb.  Projections  on  the  front  of  the  jambs,  designed  to  limit 
the  movement  of  a  movable  sash,  are  called  stops.  Sliding  sash  windows 
are  frequently  equipped  with  stops  which  may  be  separated  from  the  jamb 
and  these  separable  'strips  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  sash  guide  strips,  the 
strip  dividing  the  two  sashes  being  frequently  called  the  sash  parting  bead. 

The  frame  of  a  pivoted  window  having  two  sashes  is  composed  of  the 
saire  members  as  the  frame  of  a  sliding  sash  window  and  an  additional 
horizontal  member  which  is  called  the  transom  bar. 

The  frame  of  a  twin  window  is  composed  of  a  head  sill,  two  jambs  and  a 
vertical  division  member  which  separates  the  sashes. 

That  part  of  the  wall  structure  which  divides  windows  from  each  other  is 
called  the  mullion.  This  mullion  may  be  an  integral  part  of  the  wall  structure 
or  may  be  built  in  with  the  window. 

SASHES  AND  SASH  MEMBERS. — The  sash  is  that  part  of  the  window  con- 
struction which  holds  the  glass,  and  may  be  permanently  attached  to  the 
frame,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a  fixed  or  stationary  sash,  or  may  be  so 
constructed  that  its  position  can  be  changed,  in  which  case  it  is  called  a 
movable  sash. 

Each    sash    is    composed    of   horizontal    and    vertical    sash    members. 

The  horizontal  members  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  sash  are  called  the 
RAILS.  In  sliding  sash  windows  the  rails  which  join  each  other  at  the 
middle  of  the  window  when  the  sashes  are  closed,  are  called  the  meeting 
rails. 

The  vertical  members  at  the  sides  of  the  sash  are  called  the  STILES.  In 
casement  windows,  the  stiles  to  which  the  hinges  are  attached  are  called  the 
hinge  stiles,  and  the  stiles  to  which  the  locking  mechanism  is  attached  are 
called  the  lock  stiles.  When  casement  windows  are  made  in  two  parts, 
meeting  at  the  middle,  the  stiles  in  contact  with  each  other  are  called  the 
meeting  stiles. 

The  intermediate  members  separating  the  panes  of  glass  are  called  MUN- 
TIN'S.  If  the  muntin  is  installed  in  a  vertical  position,  it  is  called  a  vertical 
muntin.  If  it  is  installed  in  a  horizontal  position,  it  is  called  a  horizontal 
muntin.  Munting  which  are  so  designed  that  one  part  may  be  removed  for 
glazing  are  called  separable  type  muntins,  and  muntlns  which  cannot  be 
taken  apart  for  glazing  purposes  are  called  non-separable  type  muntms. 

NOTE. — In  architecture,  the  word  muntin  is  used  to  designate  the  vertical 
sash  members  dividing  the  lights  from  each  other,  while  the  horizontal  mem- 


414 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


hers  are  called  bars.  Window  manufacturers  usually  term  these  members 
vertical  and  horizontal  nluntins,  which  terms  have  been  adopted  in  this 
guide. 

The  illustrations  show  the  various  members  of  a  window  and  the  names 
of  the  various  parts,  Fig.  37  showing  a  double  hung  window;  Fig.  38,  a  pivoted 
window;  Fig.  39,  a  tilting  window  on  each  side  of  a  masonry  mullion.  Fig. 
40  shows  a  twin  top  hinged  window,  the  two  sashes  being  separated  by  a 
vertical  division  member. 


Rules  Relating  to  Glazing 

APPROVED  GLASS. — Glass  to  be  an  approved  make  and  comply  with  the 
Rules  and  Requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  as 
given  below: 


Double  Hung  Window  Mailed  in  Brick  Wall. 
Fig,  37 

^a)    "To    have   a   thickness   of   at  least    Vi   inch   at   t,he   thinnest   point. 

(b)  "Wire    mesh    to    be    not   larger    than .  %    inch    and    wire    used    for    such 
mesh  to  be  not  smaller  than   No.   24   B.   &   S.   gauge*     The  plane   of  the  wire 
mesh  to  be  practically  midway  between  the   two  surfaces  of  the  glass. 

(c)  "  Selvage  to  be  removed  from  the  glass  before   framing." 

BEARING  OF  GLASS  IN  GROOVES. —Actual  bearing  of  glass  in  grooves  to  be 
at  least  %  inch  at  all  points. 

As  the  maximum  depth  of  the  grooves  is  %  inch,  a  space  of  %  inch  is 
allowed  between  the  bottom  of  the  groove  and  the  edge  of  the  glass.  Careful 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


415 


glazing  is  necessary  to  prevent  one  edge  of  the  glass  from  resting  on  the 
bottom  of  the  groove,  thus  decreasing  the  bearing  surfaces  on  the  opposite 
side.  (See  Figs.  47,  48,  49.) 

FILLING  OF  GROOVES. — :Glass  to  be  set  in  putty  and  all  space  between  glass 
and  melal  forming  the  sides  and  bottom  of  grooves  to  be  well  filled  with  the 
same  material.  Surface  of  putty  to  be  Hush  with  the  top  of  the  groove 
and  finished  smooth. 

The  putty  joint  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  water  from 
remaining  in  contact  with  the  sheet  metal  and  thus  causing  corrosion. 

The  filling  of  the  space  between  the  edge  of  the  glass  and  the  bottom  of 
the  groove  with  putty  insures  the  proper  spacing  of  the  glass  in  the  grooves. 

Wai  ling  in  Flange 
-Head 
Jamb 
-Upper  Hail 
Stile 
-Stop 


- — -Transom  Bar 

-Vertical  MunTin 

—Horizontal  Muntin 


Silf 


Fig.  38 

Pivoted  Window  before  Installation. 


FASTENING  OF  SASH  MEMBERS  AFTER  GLAZING. — All  sash  members  removed 
tor  glazing  purposes  to  be  securely  fastened  in  place  after  glazing. 

Hollow  metal  window  frames  for  wired  glass  are  designed  to  permit  reglazing 
by  either  one  or  the  other  of  two  methods.  In  the  first  of  these  methods, 
the  glass  is  inserted  through  the  top  rail  of  each  sash,  necessitating  the  removal 
of  the  closure  piece  at  the  top  of  the  rail  and  the  cap  piece  of  the  groove. 

The  second  method  is  used  when  the  window  is  of  such  a  design  as  to 
permit  the  removal  and  replacement  of  the  metal  forming  one  side  of  some 
of  the  grooves.  The  removable  pieces  are  generally  the  inside  parts  of  the 
muntins,  although  in  some  makes  of  windows  the  metal  forming  the  sides 
of  the  grooves  in  stiles  or.  rails  may  be  removed  from  the  inside  of  the 
window.  The  removable  pieces  can  generally  be  distinguished  by  the  exposed 
heads  of  the  screws  with  which  they  are  fastened.  See  Fig.  50  and  51. 

UKOKEN  GLASS. — All  broken  glass  to  be  replaced  by  unbroken  lights  of 
approved  quality  and  dimensions. 


416 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


While  cracks  do  not  materially  injure  the  glass  from  a  fire  retardant  view- 
point, provided  the  wire  is  not  broken,  such  cracks  may  permit  moisture  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  reinforcement  and  affect  the  fire  retardant  properties 
of  the  glass  by  corroding  the  wire.  It  is  also  probable  that  cracked  glass  would 
soon  be  replaced  by  the  owners  of  the  building  where  the  windows  are  in- 
stalled, and  such  replacement  might  be  made  by  inexperienced  glaziers  using 
improper  methods  of  installation  or  non-standard  glass. 

Rules   Relating   to    Operation 

PROPER  INSTALLATION  OF  SASHES  IN  FRAMES. — Sashes  to  be  securely  mounted 
in  frames.  Movable  sash  to  operate  easily  and  engage  the  stops  properly. 


Fig.  39 

Tilting  Windows  Separated  by  Brick  hullion. 

Any  distortion  of  frame  or  sash  due  to  rough  handling  or  improper  installa- 
tion, is  liable  to  cause  binding  of  the  sashes  in  the  frames  and  prevent  easy 
operation  and  proper  registration  between  interlocking  parts.  (See  Figs,  s- 
and  53.) 

OPERATION  OF  HARDWARE. — Hinges  and  pivots  to  be  so  adjusted  as  to  permit 
easy  movement  of  sashes  in .  frames. 

Pulleys  to  operate  freely  and  be  so  placed  as  to  prevent  chafing  of  chains 
or  rubbing  of  weights  against  the  metal  forming  the  weight  pockets. 

Locking  mechanism  to  be  so  placed  and  adjusted  that  the  latches  will 
engage  the  catches  securely  and  easily. 

While  it  is  desirable  that  the  latches  should  engage  the  catches  easily,  the 
fastenings  should  not  permit  excessive  movement  of  the  sash  after  being 
secured  in  position. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


417 


OPERATION  OF  AUTOMATIC  DEVICES. — Action  of  automatic  mechanism  to  be 
positive  and  reliable. 

Locking  mechanisms  designed  to  latch  automatically  should  be  so  constructed 
that  the  engagement  between  the  latches  and  catches  is  positive  when  the 
sash  closes  gently  and  when  it  closes  with  considerable  force. 

Sash  should  close  immediately  upon  being  released  by  the  fusing  of  the 
link,  and  the  position  of  the  link  should  be  such  as  to  insure  its  fusing  in 
the  event  of  windows^  being  subjected  to  severe  exposure  from  a  fire  outside 
the  building. 

1 1  should  not  be  possible  to  turn  the  sashes  of  pivoted  windows  to  such  a 
position  that  they  will  not  close  automatically. 


Division 
Member 


Fig.  40 
Twin  Hinged  Windows 


Suggestions    Covering   Methods   of   Inspection   to   be   Used   in 

Determining  the   Character  of  the   Installation  and 

Compliance  with  the  Rules 

It  is  desirable  that  window  installations  should  be  inspected  as  often  as 
possible  while  the  walls  of  the  building  are  in  course  of  construction,  as 
compliance  with  the  rules  relating  to  the  formation  of  masonry  around  the 
backs  of  the  jambs  cannot  be  determined  except  by  observation  at  the  time 
of  erection. 

In  inspecting  a  window  already  installed,  careful  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  character  of  the  joint  between  the  window  and  the  wall  structure. 
This  joint  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  entrance  of 
moisture  or  passage  of  air  between  the  frame  and  masonry. 

A  straight-edge  may  be  applied  to  all  surfaces  of  the  window  in  order  to 
determine  whether  or  not  settlement  of  surrounding  masonry  has  caused 
deflection  of  the  frame  members. 


4i8 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Bowing  of  frame  members  causes  binding  of  the  sash  in  the  frame  and 
often  prevents  proper  action  of  the  locking  mechanism. 

Masons  should  be  cautioned  not  to  force  bricks  against  the  window  frames, 
as  the  use  of  excessive  force  in  pressing  the  bricks  into  place  is  liable  to 
cause  distortion  of  the  window. 

The  corners  of  the  frame  may  be  tried  with  a  square  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  settlement  of  masonry  or  rough  handling  during  in- 
stallation has  caused  any  distortion. 

The  sides  of  the  frame  may  be  tested  with  a  plumb  level  or  line  to 
determine  whether  or  not  they  are  set  vertically  in  the  wall.  This  is  espe- 


Fig.  41 

Jamb  with  Rabbets  or 
Offsets  to  receive  Masonr^ 


cially    important    in    the    case    of    double    hung    windows,    as    rubbing    of    the 
weights    would    result    from    material    misalignment    of   the    jambs. 

A  slight  variation  from  the  perpendicular  in  the  setting  of  a  window  does 
not  render  it  open  to  criticism  unless  such  variation  is  pronounced  enough 
to  interfere  with  the  movement  of  the  sash.  This  may  often  be  determined 
by  operating  the  sash. 

All  frames  of  whatever  construction  should  be  firmly  secured  to  the  wall 
structure.  In  cases  where  the  wall  structure  is  of  unusual  character,  the 
frames  are  generally  made  with  long  flanges  which  are  designed  to  provide 
overlapping  pieces  which  may  be  fastened  to  the  wall  by  spikes  or  screws 
threaded  into  structural  iron.  Owing  to  the  many  different  types  of  wall 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


419 


construction,  a  specific  rule  applying  to  each  type  cannot  be  formulated,  but 
no  installation  should  be  approved  unless  the  frames  are  securely  held  in 
place. 

When  windows  are  glazed  at  the  factory,  the  factory  inspection  covers  the 
glazing,  and  in  such  cases  the  label  may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  the  glazing 
is  properly  done.  The  notice  of  shipment  states  whether  or  not  windows 
are  glazed  at  the  factory. 

Whenever  possible,  windows  should  be  inspected  while  glazing  is  in  progress, 
as  the  size  of  the  glass  used,  the  bearing  in  the  grooves  and  the  filling  of 
the  grooves  with  putty  may  be  checked  up  most  easily  at  that  time. 


Fig.  42 

Mortar  Joint 
at  Junction  of 
Jamb  and  Wall 

In  case  it  is  impracticable  to  visit  the  building  while  glazing  is  in  progress, 
the  details  regarding  the  fastening  of  sash  members,  the  make  of  glass  used 
and  damaged  glass  may  be  determined  by  an  inspection  of  the  completed 
window.  Other  details,  such  as  the  bearing  of  the  glass  in  the  grooves  and 
the  completeness  with  which  the  grooves  are  filled  with  putty,  may  be 
checked  by  taking  off  the  removable  parts  of  the  sash. 

It  is  well  to  require  the  submission  of  sales  sheets  showing  the  size  of 
glass  provided  for  glazing  the  windows,  as  the  dimensions  of  the  glass  furnished 
may  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  dimensions  furnished  by  the  window 
manufacturer  and  checked  up  at  factory  inspection  on  the  windows. 

The  inspector  must  use  his  own  discretion  as  to  the  percentage  of  windows 
in  a  building  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  inspect  in  this  manner,  the  number 


420 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


depending  somewhat  upon  the  character  of  the  workmanship  shown  by  the 
first  samples  inspected.  The  window  contractor  should  have  straight-edge, 
square  and  plumb  level  or  line  available  for  use  by  the  inspector. 

When  the  windows  comprising  an  installation  are  glazed  through  the  top 
rail,  the  inspector  should  not  attempt  to  remove  the  top  closure  piece  and 
cap  for  the  grooves,  but  should  make  an  appointment  with  the  parties  respon- 
sible for  the  glazing  in  order  that  these  removable  pieces  may  be  taken  off 
and  replaced  by  them. 


V/alling-in 
flange. 


Fig.  43 
Frame  with  Walling-in  Flange? 


All  movable  sashes  should  be  tested  to  determine  their  freedom  of  opera- 
tion and  the  sashes  should  be  so  set  in  the  frames  that  they  will  move 
easily  without  material  rubbing  of  parts. 

The  sash  chains  of  a  double  hung  window  should  be  securely  attached  to 
the  sashes  and  to  the  weights  in  the  jamb. 

The  screws  fastening  the  latches,  catches,  pivots,  pulleys,  etc.,  in  place 
shonld  be  set  tightly. 

The  meeting  rails  of  double  hung  windows  should  register  with  each  other 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  the  locks  to  be  operated  without  the  use 
of  excessive  force. 

The  latches  of  pivoted  windows  should  engage  the  catches  v/hen  the 
windows  are  opened  and  allowed  to  fall  through  a  distance  of  6  inches,  and 
should  also  engage  positively  when  the  sashes  are  opened  fully  and  allowed 
to  drop  through  their  entire  travel. 


PROTECTION  OF  WALL  OPENINGS 


421 


The  locking  mechanism  of  a  pivoted  window  should  not  allow  the  sash 
to  rebound  after  closing. 

Pivoted  windows  should  not  be  equipped  with  chains  of  sufficient  length 
to  retard  the  proper  action  of  the  locks. 

The  locking  mechanism  of  hinged  windows  should  be  subjected  to  the  same 
tests  as  those  of  pivoted  windows. 

Automatic  devices  used  in  connection  with  wired  glass  windows  should  be 
of  such  a  character  that  their  failure  to  operate  cannot  possibly  interfere 
with  the  working  of  the  sashes  as  manually  operated  devices.  Inspectors 
should,  therefore,  make  such  tests  as  appear  advisable  in  order  to  determine 


r-Flange  spiked  To  brickwork 


Fig.  44 
Frame  Installed  in  Old  Wall  Owning. 


that    chains    released   by    the    action    of   a    fusible    link   cannot   possibly    fall   to 
such  a  position   as  to  prevent  the  window   from  closing. 

Fusible  links  should  be  so  placed  that  they  will  be  on  the  weather  side 
of  the  window  when  the  sash  is  opened.  In  inspecting  windows  equipped 
with  automatic  closing  devices,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  windows  should 
be  tested  as  nearly  as  possible  under  actual  service  conditions.  This  is 
especially  desirable  in  the  case  of  pivoted  windows.  In  the  case  of  automatic 
mechanisms  attached  to  double  hung  windows,  the  inspector  before  test 
should  assure  himself  that  the  automatic  devices  may  be  put  in  good  order 
easily,  or  should  delay  the  test  until  a  representative  of  the  window  manu- 
facturer is  present  in  order  that  the  mechanisms  may  be  put  into  working 
condition  immediately  after  the  test. 

Inspectors  should  carefully  guard  against  leaving  automatic  mechanisms 
in  an  inoperative  condition  as  a  result  of  inspection,  and  it  should  not  be 
possible  to  place  a  pivoted  sash  in  an  open  position  from  which  it  will  not 
close  by  gravity. 


422 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


PRISM  GLASS  FRAMES  USED  AS  A  FIRE  RETARDANT* 

Prisms,  as  installed  for  the  purpose  of  increased  light,  are 
usually  not  contained  in  frames  which  are  designed  to  withstand 
severe  heat,  as  the  requirements  for  strength  under  the  different 
conditions  of  actual  installation  do  not  necessitate  a  frame  which 
can  be  relied  on  as  a  fire  retardant. 

The  metallic  ribbons  between  the  prisms  used  for  the  purpose 
of  light  only  are  not  heavy  enough,  are  not  continuous  and  un- 
broken in  both  directions  and  are  not  attached  to  the  metal  border 
securely  enough  to  withstand  severe  conditions  of  heat.  The  rib- 
bons in  one  direction  are  usually  formed  of  short  pieces  slipped 


in  between  the  unbroken  ribbons  running  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  are  held  in  position  by  solder. 

In  frames'  for  this  service  the  ribbons  are  usually  of  compara- 
tively light  metal  and  are  fastened  to  the  metallic  border  by 
soldering. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  fire  tests  that  prism  frames  con- 
structed as  described  do  not  possess  sufficient  fire  resisting  prop- 
erties to  warrant  consideration.  But  whe're  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  withstanding  severe  conditions  of  heat  they  may  be 
made  of  service. 

In  all  cases  where  electro-glazed  frames  are  to  be  installed  as  a 
protection  against  fire  they  should  be  specially  constructed  for  this 
purpose  and  framed  in  as  careful  and  secure  a  manner  as  wired 
glass. 

*  Regulations   of   the   National    Board   of    Fire   Underwriters. 


SKYLIGHTS  423 

The  window  frame  and  sash  containing  the  prism  glass  frame 
to  fulfill  the  requirements  for  hollow  metallic  or  wrought  iron 
frames  for  wired  glass. 

Size. — The  dimensions  of  the  unsupported  electroglazed  panel 
not  to  exceed  50  inches  in  either  direction. 

This  will  permit  the   use   of  standard  metal   frames   for  wired   glass. 

Borders. — The  metal  border  at  the  edges  of  the  electro-glazed 
panel  to  be  of  rolled  copper  or  brass  tubing  at  least  */•>  inch  wide 
by  ^  inch  in  thickness.  The  corners  to  be  securely  fastened  to- 
gether by  substantial  knees  of  the  same  metal  inserted  in  the  tubing. 

Glass. — Polished  plate  or  prism  glass  units  not  to  exceed  four 
inches  in  either  direction  and  to  have  a  thickness  of  at  least  3/16 
inch. 

Ribbons. — The  ribbons  or  metal  strips  between  the  glass  units 
to  be  of  unbroken  strips  of  rolled  copper,  4/32  inch  in  thickness  and 
9/32  inch  in  width,  interlocked  at  each  intersection.  All  ends  to 
pass  entirely  through  the  borders  and  be  clinched  on  the  outer  edge. 

Electrolytic  Deposit. — All  joints  at  the  corners  of  the  border, 
at  the  fastenings  of  the  ribbons  to  the  border  and  at  the  intersec- 
tions of  ribbons  to  be  securely  fixed  by  a  sufficient  electrolytic 
deposit  of  copper  to  form  a  rigid  framing,  and  to  retain  the  glass 
units  securely  in  place. 

The  border  to  be  retained  in  a  rabbet  or  groove  in  the  sash  at 
least  l/2  an  inch  in  depth.  In  windows  having  a  width  of  over  24 
inches  the  border  to  be  bolted  to  the  upper  rail  of  the  sash. 


SKYLIGHTS  AND   OTHER  ROOF  STRUCTURES 
Class-  A — Skylights* 

TYPES. — By  the  term  skylights  as  considered  in  these  rules  is  meant  any 
opening  through  roof  of  building  for  the  admission  of  light. 

The  following  types  with  their  modifications  and  combinations,  which  are 
included,  are  noted:  Flat  Skylights,  plane  or  inclined;  Peaked  Skylights; 
Cupola  Skylights;  Monitor  and,  Lanterns;  Sawtoothed  roofs;  Raised  Sections 
of  roofs  with  vertical  sash;  Ventilating  Skylights;  Dormers,  etc.;  also  Special 
Skylights  as  over  stair,  elevator  or  dumbwaiter  shafts,  and  over  stage  por- 
tions of  theaters. 

Construction 

i.  GLASS. — (a)  For  all  skylights,  plane  or  inclined  not  over  45  degrees, 
to  be  either  of  standard  wired  glass  not  less  than  ^  inch  thick  or  y%  inch 
thick  glass  protected  with  approved  wire  screens.  Panes  to  be  not  over  18 
or  20  inches,  wide,  and  not  to  exceed  720  square  inches  in  area. 

(b)  For    vertical    skylights    or    sash,    or    such    as    are    inclined    at    an    angle 
of    over   45    degrees,    may    be    wired    glass    as    noted    under    (a),    i^-inch    thick 
glass  without  screens,  or  glass  not  less  than   %   inch  thick,  provided  the  sash 
or   skylights   are   protected   by   suitable    screens. 

(c)  For    vertical    skylights    or    sash,    or    such    as    are    inclined    at    an    angle 
of   over   45    degrees,    when   exposed   in    such   a   manner    that   the   wall   openings 
in    buildings    would    require    standard    fire    shutters    or    standard    wired    glass 
(or   doors)    against   such  exposures,   standard    wired   glass   only   must   be   used. 

(d)  For     skylights     over     fireproofecl     stair,     elevator,     dumbwaiter,     air     or 


Regulations   of  the   National   Board  of   Fire   Underwriters. 


424 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


similar   shafts    not    over    %    inch    glass,   either    on    top    or    at    sides   of    cupola 
skylight,    if    surmounted    by    that    type,    protected    by    suitable    screens. 

(e)   For    skylights    over    stage    sections    of   theaters    not    over    l/s    inch    glass, 
protected   by   suitable   screens. 

NOTE. — Substitutes    for    glass    such    as    wire   cloth    with    a    coating    of   trans- 
lucent,   combustible    substance    or    similar   material    are    not    approved. 

2.   SASH. —  (a)    Materials. — Sash    to   be   constructed    entirely    of   met.nl,   either 
galvanized   iron,    wrought   iron    or   angle   iron. 

(b)  Construction. — To    be    constructed    with   interlocking   seams   or   rivets   in 
accordance    with,  the   rules   and    requirements   of    the    National    Board    of    Fire 
Underwriters  for  wired  glass  windows. 

(c)  Glazing. — Glass    to    be    secured    to    the    sash    by    means    of    metal    strips 


held  in  position  by  bolts  or  screws  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  joints  suf- 
ficiently elastic  to  allow  for  proper  expansion  and  contraction,  and  to  be 
weather  proof. 

3.  FRAMES. — Frames    for  :low    flat    or    small    cupola   skylights    to    be    entirely 
of   galvanized   iron    secured   to   angle    irons,    all    properly    riveted   together   and 
securely   fastened   to   roof.      All  joints  to   be  tight   and   weather  proof. 

4.  CURBS    FOR    SKYLIGHTS. — (a)     If    on    buildings    of    fireproof    construction, 
to  be  constructed  of  approved   fire-proof  materials   reinforced   with   angle   iron 
properly   protected   by   approved   fire-proof   material. 

(b)  If  on  buildings  of  slow-burning  construction,  may  be  either   (i)   of  not 
less    than    4  x  4-inch    framework,    filled    in    with    brick,    terra    cotta,    cement    or 
other     approved     fire-proof    materials,     tin-clad    on     the     outside;     (2)     double 
boarded,   tongued   and  grooved,   boards   at   right   angles   to   each  other,   tin-clad 
on  the  outside;    (3)   of  not  less  than  2%-inch  tongued  and  grooved,  or  splined 
plank,    tin-clad    on   the    outside. 

(c)  On   all   other  buildings,   if   not   in  accordance   with,  the   foregoing,   to  be 
thoroughly    tin-clad    on    the   outside. 


SKYLIGHTS 


425 


(d)  Curbs  must  be  securely  fastened  to  framework  of  roof,  and  when  on 
roofs  of  joisted  construction  must  be  supported  on  doubled  joists. 

5.  MONITOR  OR  LANTERN  SKYLIGHTS. —  (a)  Construction. — To  conform  in 
general  with  roof  construction  of  buildings  of  which  they  form  a  part,  and 
as  specifically  noted  under  Curbs,  section  4,  class  A. 

(b)  Sash. — To  conform  in  all  particulars  to  sections   i    and  2,  class  A. 

(c)  Frames. —  (i)    If   for  skylights  on   tops   of  monitors   or   lanterns  to   con- 
form   with    section    3,   class    A.      (2)    If    in    sides   of    monitors    or    lanterns   of 
fire-proof  construction  to  be  constructed   in   accordance   with  the  requirements 
for  Wired  Glass  Windows,  page  244.     (3)    For  all  monitors  or  lanterns   where 


cood 


Bad 


• 


Joint  not  well  filled 
with  Pulty— x. 


Glass  nor 
centered  inGroove 


Glass  resting  on 
bottom  of 
jNGroove 


Fig.  47 
Section  of  Rails  showing  Proper  ^ImproperGlazing 

woodwork  is  permissible,  see  under  (a),  this  section,  the  frames,  if  of  wood, 
must  be  thoroughly  protected  by  galvanized  iron,  including  the  rabbets,  if 
any,  or  recessed  portions,  receiving  the  sash. 

6.  SAWTOOTHED  SKYLIGHTS. —  (a)  Construction. — To  conform  in  general 
with  roof  construction  of  buildings  of  which  they  form  a  part,  and  as 
specifically  noted  under  Curbs,  section  4,  class  A. 

(b)   Sash. — To  conform  in   all  particulars  with  sections   i    and  2,   class  A. 

NOTE. — Usually  this  type  of  skylight  is  one  continuous  frame.  The 
muntins  or  rails  must  conform  in  manner  of  construction  and  securing  to  the 
requirements  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for  the  construction 
of  frames  for  wired  glass.  Any  deviations  of  this  arrangement  will  be 
governed  by  the  rules  or  requirements  of  the  types  or  kinds  under  which 
they  may  come. 


426 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


7.  VERTICAL    SASH    UNDER    RAISED    SECTIONS   OF    ROOFS. — This   includes   also 
a   row   of   sash    or   sections    of   wall" entirely   of    glass,    above   the   wall    proper 
and   underneath   the   roof. 

Must    conform    in    general    with    the    rules    and    requirements    noted    under 
sections  5  and  6,  class  A,  in  so  far  as  these   apply. 

8.  VENTILATING    SKYLIGHTS    OR    SKYLIGHT     SASH. — Frequently    portions    of 
skylights    (sometimes  the   entire  sash)    are   arranged   that  they   may   be   opened 
for   purposes    of   ventilation;    if    top    sash    are    so    arranged   they    are . generally 
hinged    at    the    highest    point,    while    side    sash    are    hinged   either    at    the    top, 
or  near  the  center  line,  turning  either  on  a  horizontal  or  vertical  axis.      Sash 
hung  at  the   top   are   usually   secured  by   hinges,   those    hung  near  the   central 
line    by    trunnions    or    pivots. 

(a)   Hinged    and    Pivoted    Sash. — To   be   provided    with   hardware,   and    hung 


Sections  of  Stiles  and  MunUns  Showing  Improper  and 
Proper  Glazing. 

and   arranged   in   such   a  manner    as   to   conform   to   the    requirements   for   the 
construction    of    frames    for    wired    glass. 

(b)  Protection. — All  ventilating  skylights  or  skylight  sash  must  be  pro- 
tected by  wire  cloth  screens  as  specified,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  screen 
will  allow  full  freedom  of  operation.  In  no  case  must  the  operation  of  the 
sash  require  the  removal  of  the  screen  or  any  portion  of  same.  The  screens 
should  be  entirely  independent  of  this  type  of  skylights  or  sash  and  shall  be 
of  ample  size  to  completely  protect  the  opening. 

9.  WINDOWS    IN    ROOF    STRUCTURES. — All    window    openings    in    roof    struc- 
tures,   such    as    shafts    extending    above    roofs,    pent    houses,    high    curbs,    ends 
of  sawtoothed  or  monitor  or  lantern   sklights,   etc.,   must  conform   to   sections 
i,  2  and  5,  class  A,  in  so  far  as  these  apply. 

10.  DORMER    WINDOWS. — (a)     Construction. — To    conform     in,    general    with 
roof  construction  of  buildings  of  which  they   form  a  part,   and  as  specifically 
noted  under  Curbs,  section  4,   class  A. 

(b)  Sash  and  Frames. — To  conform  in  all  particulars  to  sections  ;i  and  2 
and  section  5,  class  A,  respectively,  in  so  far  as  these  apply. 


SKYLIGHTS 


427 


ii.  SKYLIGHTS  ON    STAIR,   ELEVATOR,   DUMBWAITER,   LIGHT,   AIR   and  similar 
shafts,  if  of  fire-proof  construction  and  cut  off  at  floors. 

(a)  Construction. — To    be    constructed    with    metal    frames    and    sash    in    ac- 
cordance with  sections  3  and  2,  class  A. 

(b)  Glazing. — Top  sash  of  cupola  skylights,  if  any,  to  be  glazed  with  wired 
glass,  or  %  inch  thick  glass  protected,  see  section   i,  class  A,  sides  should  be 
glazed   with   glass   not    over    ^    inch   thick;    plane    skylights   to   be    glazed   with 
glass  not  over   %  inch  thick;   protected  by   suitable   wire  screens.      Glazing  to 
be  done  in  accordance   with   section   2,  class  A. 


Good 


Fig.  49 
Proper  and  Improper  Qlazing. 


(c)  Ventilation. — Where  ridge  ventilators,  or  louvers  in  ends  or  sides  ot 
such  skylights  are  provided,  these  must  be  protected  by  suitable  wire  cloth 
screens,  properly  secured. 

12.  THEATER  STAGE  SKYLIGHTS. —  (a)  Construction. — Curb  or  frame,  and 
sash  to  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  requirements  of  sec- 
tions 2,  3  and  4,  class  A. 

(b)  Glazing. — To  be  glazed  with  glass  not  over  %  inch  thick,  in  accordance 
with  section  2,  class  A,  each  pane  measuring  not  less  than  300  square  inches. 

(c)  Operating. — Sash   to   be   in   two   movable   sections,   so   arranged   as   to   be 
opened   readily   by   the   action   of   heat    from   below   on   a    fusible   link   or   series 
of    links;    or   similar   device,   which   upon    parting   will    allow    the   sash    to    open 
automatically,  and  also  by  means  of  the  cutting  of  a  hempen  cord,  extending 
to   the   stage    floor   and   within    reach   of   fly   gallery. 


428 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(d)  Types. — Two   types   of   skylfghts    for   this    purpose   are   suggested. 

(i)  Two  counterbalanced  sash,  hinged  to  the  outer  edges  of  the  curbing 
or  frame,  which  should  be  slightly  hip  shaped,  the  upper  edges  coming  together 
when  the  sash  are  closed,  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner-  that  one  is  provided 
with  an  overhanging  lip  or  batten  to  keep  out  the  weather.  Each  sash  to 
have  extension  rods  or  bars  at  the  lower  (hinged)  edge,  projecting  beyond 
the  curb  for  a  distance  not  less  than  the  width  of  the  sash,  to  which  bars 
should  be  securely  attached  a  weight  not  less  than  50  per  cent  heavier  than 
the  weight  of  the  sash.  Hinges  to  be  of  heavy  brass,  bolted  to  the  sash 
and  curb  or  frame,  and  set  well  back  from  the  edges  of  the  frame. 


Fig.  50 

Method  ofTnser  ring  G  lass  thro  ugh  TOJD  Rai  1 . 

(2)  Two  rolling  sash,  fitted  with  brass  wheels  not  less  than  2%  inches  in 
diameter,  set  inside  of  outer  edge  of  sash  for  a  distance  of  not  less  than 
2  inches,  well  secured  to  sash.  The  wheels  to  roll  on  brass  tracks  properly 
secured  to  the  curb  or  frame  and  rails  extending  beyond  same  on  either  side 
to  roof.  Curb  or  frame  to  be  hip  shaped,  the  slopes  to  be  such  that  the 
sash  shall  be  inclined  at  not  less  than  an  angle  of  30  degrees. 

The  height  of  the  curb  or  frame  shall  be  such  that  the  lowest  portion  of 
the  tracks  on  which  the  sash  slide,  shall  not  be  less  than  12  inches  above 
the  roof. 

(e)  Protection. — Either  type  of  skylight  for  this  purpose  shall  be  protected 
by  suitable  steel  wire  cloth,  properly  secured  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  operation  of  the  sash  and  of  sufficient  size  to  cover  the 
entire  opening  properly,  as  well  as  to  protect  the  sash  when  open. 


SKYLIGHTS 


429 


Protection 

All  skylights,  except  those  glazed  with  wired  glass,  or  glass  %  inch  thick 
or  over,  when  inclined  at  an  angle  of  over  45  degrees  or  vertical  (unless 
exposed  as  noted  under  section  i,  rule  c,  class  A)  should  be  protected  by 
wire  screens  of  galvanized  steel  wire  cloth. 

13.  WIRE  CLOTH. —  (a)  Kind. — All  wire  cloth  shall  be  woven  (not  twisted) 
of  steel  wire,  galvanized  after  weaving. 

(b)  Sizes. —  (i)  For  plane  skylights,  or  skylights)  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees  or  less  (unless  glazed  with  wired  glass),  cloth  of  not  lighter 
than  No.  12  wire  and  not  over  i-inch  mesh  shall  be  used. 

(2)    For  vertical   skylights  or  sash,   or  such   as  are   inclined  at   an   angle   of 


Fig.  51 

Method  of  Inserting  Glass 
JinMndows  having  Separable  Munnns" 


over  45  degrees,  with  wired  glass  or  glass  not  less  than  */£  inch  thick,  unless 
exposed  (see  class  A,  rule  i,  section  c),  cloth  of  not  lighter  than  No.  12 
wire  and  not  over  i-inch  mesh  shall  be  used. 

(3)  For  all  ventilating  skylights,  or  hinged  or  pivoted  or  sliding  sash,  care 
must  be  taken  that  opening  is  thoroughly  protected  against  the  ingress  of 
sparks. 

14.  SECURING    WIRE    CLOTH. — All    wire    cloth    shall    be    securely    fastened   to 
frames  by  means  of   galvanized  iron  wire  or  by  means  of  special   metal  strips 
and   rivets,   bolts   or   screws. 

15.  FRAMES. —  (a)    Materials. — Frames    for    wire    cloth    screens    shall    be   con- 
structed of   iron   rods,   pipes  or  angles  as   follows:     (i)    For  screens   not  over 


430 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


3  feet  in  any  direction,  %-inch  rods,  i/i-inch  pipe  or  %-inch  angles.  (2)  For 
screens  over  3  feet  and  under  4  feet  in  any  direction,  %-inch  rods,  %-inch 
pipe  or  %-inch  angles.  (3)  For  screens  over  4  feet  and  under  6  feet  in 
any  direction,  %-inch  rods,  %-inch  pipe  or  i-inch  angles.  (4)  For  screens 
over  6  feet  and  under  10  feet  in  any  direction,  i-inch  rods,  i^-inch  pipes 
or  i %-inch  angles.  (5)  For  screens  of  larger  sizes,  proportionately  larger 
sized  materials  shall  be  used,  in  which  case  angles  are  to  be  preferred. 

(b)    Reinforcing. — Where    dimensions   exceed    3    feet   in    any   direction,    cross 
bars,  placed  not  over  3  feet  apart,  or  over  3  feet  distant  from  outer  bars,  shall 


i 


U 


Fig.  52 


Binding  of  Sash  in  Frame  Caused  by  Distortion  of  Jambs. 

be  provided  for  reinforcing  the  frames.  These  reinforcing  bars  shall  con- 
form in  size  to  the  rods,  pipes  or  angles  under  (a),  this  section,  increasing 
in  size  as  noted  according  to  span. 

(c)  Supports. — Upright     supports,     to     correspond     with     materials     specified 
under    (a),   this   section,    and   at   end   of   each   reinforcing   member,   and   to   be 
not   less   in   size    than   the   bars   supported. 

(d)  Braces. — All   enclosing   frames   over   3    feet   high   and   more   than   6    feet 
in    length    shall    have    braces    extending    from    the    upper    angles    to    the    base 
line,   one  in  each  corner  of  each  side. 

(e)  Construction.— The    frames    should    be   strongly    assembled. 

(i)  If  constructed  of  rods  these  should  be  welded  together,  or  threaded 
and  securely  joined  by  threaded  malleable  iron  fittings,  and  upright  members 
shall  be  properly  shaped  at  lower  ends  to  permit  fastening  by  means  of 


SKYLIGHTS 


431 


screws;  or  if  size  permits,  to  be  threaded  and  provided  with  threaded  malleable 
iron  base  or  foot  plates  drilled  for  three  bolts  or  screws  each. 

(2)  Jf    constructed    of    pipes,    these    should    be    threaded    and    secured    by 
means    of    threaded    malleable    iron    fittings,    and    upright    members    shall    be 
threaded  and  provided  with  threaded  malleable  iron  base  or  foot  plates,  drilled 
for   three   bolts  or   screws  each. 

(3)  If  constructed  of  angle  irons  these  should  be  welded  together  or  fastened 
at    the    corners    by    fillet    angles   securely    riveted   in    place.      Upright   members 
shall   be   shaped  at   base   to   permit   fastening  by  at  least   four  screws   or  bolts 
each. 


Improber  Engagement  of  Meeting  Rai  Is 
Caused  by  Deflection  of  Head 


(f)  Securing  Frames. — All  frames  for  screens  to  be  secured  to  roofs  or 
frames  of  permanent  skylights,  monitors,  lanterns,  etc.,  by  means  of  lag 
screws  or  bolts. 

1 6.  DISTANCE  OF  SCREENS  FROM   SKYLIGHTS,  ETC.,  TO  BE  PROTECTED. —  (a)   All 
screens  slr:ll  be  placed  6   inches  or  over  above  skylights  to  be  protected,   and 
shall  project  the  same  distance  beyond  edges  of  skylights  as  raised  above  them. 

(b)  All  screens  used  for  protecting  side  lights  shall  be  placed  not  less 
than  6  inches  from  lights  or  openings  so  protected. 

17.  RAISED    SKYLIGHTS. — Screens    for    raised    skylights    having    top    and    side 
sash   contiguous   shall   have   the    frames   on   top   secured   to   those   on   the   sides 
as    noted   under    (e),   section    15,   and   wire   cloth   shall   cover   the   entire   frame- 
work   and    come    within    6    inches   of    roof. 


432  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

\ 

1 8.  VERTICAL   OR   SAWTOOTHED   SKYLIGHTS  OR   SASH,   OR   THOSE   INCLINED  AT 
AN  ANGLE  OF  OVER  45   DEGREES. — Screens  for  vertical  or  sawtoothed  skylights 
or   sash,    or    those   inclined   at   an    angle   of   over   45    degrees,    shall   be    turned 
in    at   the   top    and   sides    in    such   a    manner   as   to   exclude    embers    or    sparks 
from   space    between   the   screens   and   glass. 

19.  REMOVABLE  SCREENS. — Where  for  any  purpose  it  becomes  necessary  that 
screens   or  portions  of  screens   used   in  protecting  side   lights  must  be    remov- 
able,  these  screens  or  portions  of  screens   shall  be    framed  as  specified   under 
section    15,    and    similarly    constructed    frames    placed    around    such    openings. 
Such  screens  or  sections  of  screens  shall  be  secured  to   the  permanent   frame 
by  means  of  riveted  wrought  iron  hinges  and  be  provided  with  strong  wrought 
iron  latches,  bolts  or  hooks. 

Class  B— Ventilators 

TYPES. — By  ventilators,  as  considered  in  these  rules,  are  meant  all  struc- 
tures designed  for  the  emission  of  air,  gases  or  vapors  from  the  building, 
separate  rooms  or  compartments,  and  include  louver  openings  as  well  as 
ridge  ventilators  on  tops  of  skylights. 

20.  MATERIALS. — To   be  constructed  entirely  of  galvanized  iron  at  least   No. 
24   gauge,   copper   at   least    No.    20   gauge,   or   of  other   approved   fire-iesistive 
materials. 

21.  CONSTRUCTION    AND    PROTECTION    OF    VENTILATORS. —  (a)    If    flues,    either 
extending    through    roofs    or    sides    of    buildings,    these    should    be    provided 
either    (i)    with    cowls    or    hoods    projecting    the    same    distance    beyond    outer 
edge   of    flue    that   they   are    raised   above   same,    but   in   no   instance   less   than 
3    inches,    and    opening   must   be    protected    with    a   screen    of    galvanized   steel 
wire  cloth,  of  not  less  than  No.  16  wire  or  more  than  No.  3   (1^3  inch)  mesh, 
properly  secured  and  completely  covering  the  opening;   or    (2)   edges  of  cowls 
may    be    carried    beyond    and    underneath    projecting    or    flanged   edges    of    the 
flues   in   such   a   manner   as   to   provide   two    turns   in   passage   of   opening;    or 
(3)    flue  may  be  bent  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  an   inverted  U. 

(b)  Louver    ventilators,    or    ridge    ventilators,    or    louvers    in    raised    or    hip 
skylights,   shall  be   constructed   entirely  of  galvanized   iron  of  at   least   No.   24 
gauge    or    copper    at    least    20    gauge,    as    specified    under    section    3,    class    A. 
Slats    of    louvers    to    be    of    galvanized    iron    or    copper    as    specified,    properly 
reinforced,    and    riveted    to    the    frames.      All    such    ventilating    openings    shall 
be   protected    with   a  .screen   of    galvanized   steel   wire   cloth,    of   not   less    than 
No.    1 6   wire   or   more   than   No.    3    (1/3   inch  mesh),   properly   secured   to   the 
frames  and  completely  covering  the  openings. 

(c)  Ventilating  Monitors   or  similar  structures,   to  conform  in   general   with 
roof  construction  of  buildings  of  which  they  form  a  part,  and   as  specifically 
noted  under  section  4,  class  A.     Louver  or  ventilating  slats  to  be   of  galvan- 
ized  iron   or  copper,   as   specified,   properly    reinforced  and   riveted    to    frames. 
All   such  ventilating   openings   to   be   protected   by   galvanized   steel   wire  cloth, 
of  not  less  than  No.    16  wire  or  more  than  No..  3    (1/3   inch)    mesh,  properly 
secured   and   completely   covering   the   openings. 

(d)  Frame    Ventilating    Structures,    similar    to    those    referred    to    under    a, 
b    and    c,    section    21,    class    B,    but    constructed    of    other    materials,    shall    be 
protected    by    galvanized    steel    wire    cloth    of    not    less    than    No.     16    wire    or 
more  than   No.   3    (1/3  inch)    mesh,  properly  secured  and  completely  covering 
the   opening. 

Class  C — Door  Landings,  Pent  Houses  or  Bulkheads 

22.  (a)    On  all  buildings  of  fireproof  construction  to   be  constructed  of   ap- 
proved  fireproof  materials,    reinforced   with   angle   iron,   properly   protected   by 


PROTECTION  OF  BELT  DRIVES  433 

approved    fireproof    materials.      DOORS    to    be    standard.      WINDOWS    to    be 
of  standard   wired  glass,   in  standard  metal   frames. 

(b)  On    buildings    of    slow-burning    construction    may    be    either    (i)    of    not 
less    than    4  x  4-inch    framework,    filled    in    with    brick,    terra   cotta,    cement    or 
other    approved    fireperoof    materials,    tin-clad    on    the     outside;     (2)     double 
boarded,   tongued   and  grooved,   boards  at   right  angles   to   each  other,   tin-clad 
on  the  outside;    (3)   of  not  less  than  2%-inch  tongued  and  grooved,  or  splined 
plank,    tin-clad   on    the    outside.      DOORS    to   be    double    battened,    tin-clad   on 
the   outside,    with   tinning   re-turned   over   the   edges.      WINDOWS   to   be    of 
standard   wired   glass   in   standard   metal    frames   or   as   noted   under   b   and   c, 
section    i;    b,   section    13,    and   section    18,   class   A. 

(c)  On   all   other   buildings,   if   not   in   accordance   with   the   foregoing,   and 
of    frame,    to   be   thoroughly    tin-clad   on   the   outside.     DOORS    to   be   tin-clad 
on  the  outside  and  WINDOWS  protected  as  noted  under  b  and  c,  section    i ; 
b,  section    13;   and  section    18,   class  A. 

Class  D— Scuttles 

23.  CONSTRUCTION. — (a)    If  on  buildings   of  fireproof  construction   to  be   of 
(i)    No.    12    gauge    sheet    iron    or    steel,    reinforced    by    2  x  2  x  *4-inch    angle 
iron,   or    (2)    double   battened  wood,   standard  tin-clad  on  all  sides,   edges   and 
in   all  angles,   and   be  provided   with   proper   chafing  plates   where   fitting   over 
combing. 

(b)  If    on    buildings    of    slow-burning    construction    to    be    as    noted    under 
(a),    this    section,    or    of    double    battened    wood,    tin-clad    on    the    outside,    the 
tinning   to    return    over   the   lower   edges. 

(c)  On    other    buildings,    if    not    in    accordance    with    the    foregoing,    to    be 
thoroughly  tin-clad  on  the  outside,  the  tinning  to  return  over  the  lower  edges. 

24.  FASTENING. — All   scuttles   are   to   be    fastened   by   means   of   strong   steel 
or    wrought   iron,    galvanized    hinges,    bolted   to    scuttle    and   combing   or   roof. 

25.  STOPS. — All  scuttles  to  be  provided  with  suitable  stops,  consisting  prefer- 
ably  of  a   strong  chain,   bolted   to   scuttle   and   combing,   allowing   the  scuttle 
to    open    slightly   beyond    a    vertical    position. 

26.  LADDERS. — Permanent    ladders    should    be    provided,     giving    access    to 
scuttles. 

Class  E— Open  Air  or  Light  Shafts 

27.  LIGHTS. — All  lights  at  bottoms  of  open  shafts  or  wells,   if  not  of  thick 
glass   prisms   set   in   substantial   cast-iron    frames,   shall   be   in   accordance   with 
sections  i,  2,  3   (or  4),   13   (provided  wired  glass  not  less  than  1/3  inch  thick 
and   no   wire  cloth   of   less  than   No.    12  wire  or  over   i-inch  mesh   be  used), 
14,   15  and  1 6,  class  A,  and  furthermore  conform  to  the  rules  governing  other 
types  of  skylights  as  noted  under  class  A  if  such  types  of  lights  are  used. 

28.  PROTECTION   OF   SHAFTS. — The   tops   of  all   open   shafts   shall   be  covered 
by    galvanized    steel    wire    cloth    screens    of    not    less    than    No.    12    wire    nor 
over    i -inch    mesh,    constructed    and    secured    in    accordance    with    section    15, 
class  A. 

THE  PROTECTION   OF  MAIN  BELT  DRIVES  WITH 
FIRE  RETARDANT  PARTITIONS* 

The  importance   of   safeguarding  stairways   by  placing  them   in 

towers  well  cut  off  from  the  remainder  of  the  building  and  of  pro- 

'     tecting  the  openings  made  by  elevators  through  the  floors  has  long 

*  Journal  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  by  C.  H.  Smith. 


434 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


been  recognized.  Today  more,  than  formerly,  these  features  are 
taken  care  of  in  the  design  of  manufacturing  buildings,  including 
also  well  arranged  towers  for  the  main  belts  or  ropes  where  this 
method  of  driving  is  employed.  Fig.  54  shows  how  these  features 
may  be  taken  care  of  in  a  textile  mill. 

The  following  remarks  apply  more  particularly  to  the  older  manu- 
facturing buildings  and  to  those  of  more  recent  construction  where 
the  best  principles  of  design  of  stair  and  elevator  towers  and  belt 
and  ropeways  have  not  been  followed.  Neglect  to  safeguard  ver- 
tical openings  through  floors  has  resulted  in  serious  loss  of  life 


L    I 

Boiler 

n^ 

\  House 

1 

x  , 

II                '            1 

PLAN 

f  BKLT,  STAIRWAY  AND  ELEVATOR  TOWERS 

FIG.    54. 

among  occupants  of  the  building,  who  found  themselves  cut  off  from 
their  accustomed  exists  by  the  rapid  spread  of  fire  up  through' such 
unprotected  openings. 

In  mills  insured  with  the  Mutual  companies  stairs  and  elevators 
have  generally  been  well  arranged,  and  the  fire  protective  devices 
such  as  automatic  sprinkler  systems,  etc.,  have  shown  their  value 
not  only  in  reducing  the  loss  of  property  by  fire  to  a  minimum,  but 
also  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  approved  construction,  high 
standards  of  general  order  and  neatness  and  efficient  fire  protection 
works  as  well  to  safeguard  the  lives  of  operatives  employed. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  approximately  1,500,000  people  em- 


PROTECTION  OF  BELT  DRIVES 


435 


ployed  in  the  2800  industrial  works  insured  with  the  Mutual  com- 
panies, located  in  29  states  of  the  Union  and  Canada.  Since  the 
inception  of  the  system  in  1835,  there  have  been  but  32  deaths  caused 
directly  by  fires  in  these  properties  and  21  were  in  a  fire  in  an  un- 
sprinklered  mill  in  1876  before  sprinklers  were  in  general  use.  This 
would  indicate  that  under  present  conditions,  the  loss  of  life  would 
average  less  than  I  per  year  per  1,000,000. 

Of  the  total  of  32  lives  lost,  poorly  constructed  beltways  which 
allowed  the  rapid  spread  of  smoke  and  flame  were  to  a  large  extent 
responsible  for  the  deaths  of  25  persons.  The  need  of  safeguarding 


Ring,    Spinning 
{driven    from    below) 


SECTION  SHOWING  BELTS  AND  WOODEN  BOXING  BEFORE  FIRE  OF 
SEPTEMBER  1-*.  1907 

FIG.    53 

the  vertical  openings  through  floors  around  the  main  driving  belts 
had  been  less  fully  appreciated.  Conditions  at  these  drives  were 
aggravated  moreover,  because  it  was  the  general  custom  to  enclose 
the  belts  with  boxes  of  wood,  which  in  some  cases  were  about  head 
high  and  in  others  extended  to  the  ceiling.  The  boxes  tended  to 
become  oil  soaked  and  to  accumulate  lint.  A  fire  once  starting  at  or 
near  them  would  rapidly  make  headway,  being  carried  by  the  natural 
draft  up  through  the  mill.  Such  a  fire  would  also  be  more  or  less 
sheltered  from  the  action  of  the  sprinklers  in  the  room. 

The  recurrence  of  several  large  property  losses  from  this  source 
led  to  consideration  of  this  matter  and  measures  were  taken  which 
have  to  a  great  extent  eliminated  the  open  beltway  hazard  from 
Mutual  risks.  In  the  experience  of  these  companies  there  have  been 


436 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


about  20  fires  occurring  in  the  vicinity  of  main  drives  in  which  the 
open  beltway  was  an  important  factor  in  the  spread  of  the  fire. 
These  20  fires  resulted  in  a  total  loss  of  $2,721,635,  an  average  of 


Knee-. 


tofborgpci/ina.  If  length  of  partition  is  more 
than  20.  space  stiffencrs  about  10  apart, 
"zi'r  -3' 


Wired  Glass- 
Section  B-B 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PLASTER 
Scratch  Coat  (To  be  put  onfirst): 
Sports  Portland Cement.tf parts  Sand,  /part 
thdnrMUme.  tuffidentamovntHair  fomate 
mortar  Kprk/Dropcr/y.thou/d  be  mixed  in  small 
batches.  No  material  thathas  been  mixed  nith 
water  longer  than  30  min.  should  be  used. 

Finish  Coat 

(One  coat  inside  &  one  outside.trowelled smooth) 
I  part  Portland  Cement,  tyopartSand,  '/To 
part  Hydrated  Lime  rtisfy. 


WiredGlctss 
fo\ 


rnr 


&ove  Bolts  nith  Washers' 
Window(About3>'5'; 
Framing 


'Ironfrcfme 
Spr+'m» 

A-Recess  tor  Bearing 

Details  of  Construction   for   Fire   Retardant   Belt   Enclosures 
FIG.   56 

$136,082  per  fire.    Some  of  the  larger  of  these  losses  occurred  in  the 
days  before  sprinkler  protection  was  as  complete  as  now,  but  the 
statistics  showed  that  even  with  complete  protection  the  open  belt- 
way  was  a  serious  hazard. 
The  last  bad  fire  from  this  source  occurred  September  15,  1907, 


PROTECTION  OF  BELT  DRIVES 


437 


at  a  cotton  manufacturing  establishment  in  Fall  River.  This  is  a 
stone  mill,  339  ft.  long,  74  ft.  wide  and  five  stories  and  basement  in 
height  with  a  4-story  wing,  94  ft.  long  and  65  ft.  wide,  projecting 
from  the  rear  at  the  center  of  the  mill.  The  engine  room  was 
located  in  the  first  story  of  this  wing.  The  belts  were  boxed  with 
wood  and  most  of  these  were  cut  off  head  high  in  the  several  stories. 
Fig-  55  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  the  drive. 

Sunday  forenoon  a  bearing  in  the  beltway  just  above  the  fly-wheel 
was  being  repaired.  While  the  man  doing  the  work  stated  that  he 
had  no  knowledge  of  anything  that  could  cause  the  fire,  it  is  prob- 


Rm£    Spinning 
(dr.ven   from    below) 


Ring  Spinning 


Carding 


|  Wood 

|  Plank  Tops 

Plaster  on  Expanded  Metal 
r:;:'i?J  Galvanized  Iron 


Pickers 


Weaving 


Weavmg, 


Weaving, 


SECTION  SHOWING  MAIN  DKIVE  AS  xo\v  I'KOTECTED  BY  FIRE  HETARDANV 


FIG.  57. 

able  that  its  origin  was  connected  with  his  work.  After  completing 
the  job  he  left  the  localit\-.  On  returning  10  minutes  later,  he  saw 
fire  just  below  where  he  had  been  at  work,  and  gave  the  alarm. 

The  fire  j>assed  up  through  the  wooden  belt  boxing  into  all  stories 
as  far  as  the  fourth  floor  where  the  drive  terminated.  The  mill 
filled  with  heat  and  smoke  so  rapidly  that  in  5  minutes  no  one 
could  enter  the  rooms.  This  was  hi  spite  of  650  sprinklers  which 
opened,  but  in  justice  to  the  sprinkler  equipment,  it  should  be 
stated  that  the  water  pressure  at  this  mill  was  weak.  A  section 
about  50  ft.  wide  was  badly  burned  on  each  side  of  the  main  drive 
up  through  the  mill. 

After  this  fire  plans  were  worked  out  to  enclose  the  main  drives 
with  partitions  of  a  fire  retardant  character,  so  as  to  approximate 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


FIG.    58. — Harness    Room,    Second    Story,  Directly     Over    Flywheel,    Showing 
Protection   of    Belts  "Leaving   Wheel 


FIG.     59. — Weave    Room,    Second    Story.       Note    Fire    Door    with    Removable 
Panels  Above  to  Allow  Access  to  Pulley  on   Lineshaft 


PROTECTION  OF  BELT  DRIVES  439 

the  standard  belt  tower  with  brick  walls,  such  as  are  found  in  many 
mills  of  modern  design. 

The  limitations  of  cost,  available  space,  etc.,  which  prevail  in 
many  places  where  the  belt  tower  is  not  a  part  of  the  original  design, 
make  necessary  special  construction  such  as  was  adopted  in  this  case, 
and  has  been  successfully  used  in  many  others  of  the  older  mills. 

The  plan  provided  for  inclosing  the  main  drives  with  partitions 
of  expanded  metal  and  cement  construction  from  2  in.  to  2^2  in. 
thick  depending  on  the  story  heights.  A  framework  is  constructed 
of  expanded  metal  wired  to  I  in.  or  i}4  in.  channel  iron  studs 
spaced  12  in.  apart,  and  secured  to  the  floor  and  ceiling.  Longi- 
tudinal stiffeners  of  the  same  material  as  the  studs  are  used.  Where 
necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  a  continuous  partition  of  more  than  10 
ft.,  additional  stiffness  is  secured  by  providing  2.y2  in.  tee-bar  up- 
riprhts.  On  the  frame  so  constructed  Portland  cement  mortar  is 
applied  by  plastering  to  make  a  solid  partition,  all  of  the  iron  frame 
being  embedded  in  the  cement  with  the  exception  of  the  door  jamb<. 
These  partitions,  being  comparatively  light  in  weight,  could  be  set 
up  anywhere  on  the  heavy  mill  floors  without  the  necessity  of 
strengthening  them,  although  where  possible  it  was  arranged  to 
have  the  partitions  come  over  the  beams.  Although  this  form  of 
construction  for  partitions  has  been  largely  used  and  with  satis- 
faction, it  would  be  possible  of  course  to  employ  some  of  the 
special  forms  of  studding  now  on  the  market  which  combine  the 
studs  and  lathing  in  one  sheet  of  metal.  Details  of  the  construc- 
tion used  are  shown  in  Fig.  56. 

While  in  general  the  enclosures  occupy  only  the  floor  space  neces- 
sary  for  the, main  belts,  it  was  endeavored  to  have  them  as  roomy 
as  conditions  of  machinery  installation  would  permit,  in  order  to 
facilitate  inspection  and  repairs  to  the  main  belts.  Provision  was 
made  for  taking  down  the  lineshafting  without  disturbing  the  body 
of  the  partitions,  usually  by  placing  the  fire  doors  which  gave  access 
to  the  enclosure  under  the  lineshaft,  and  providing  removable  wood 
tin-clad  panels  constructed  like  fire  doors  above  the  latter.  The 
main  bearings  were  generally  left  outside  the  enclosures  and  to 
accomplish  this  the  panels  in  front  of  the  pulleys  were  sometimes 
recessed. 

It  was  also  the  endeavor  to  arrange  these  enclosures  so  that  they 
would  be  as  well  lighted  as  possible  by  including  in  them  windows 
in  the  side  wall  of  the  building  or  providing  wired  glass  windows  in 
metal  frames  to  admit  light  to  the  belt  way  from  the  room.  Fig.  57 
shows  diagrammaticjilly  the  completed  work  at  the  Fall  River  mill, 
and  Figs.  58,  59,  60  and  61  are  photographs  of  belt  enclosures  in 
different  stories.  The  adaptability  of  the  construction  is  evidenced 


440 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


FIG.  60. — Card  Room,  Third   Story.      Ends   Sloped  to   Economize  Space.      Note 
Wire  Glass  Window  and   Fire   Door  with  Removable   Panels  Above 


FIG.   61. — Card   Room,  Third  Story.      End  View  of  Belt  Enclosure.      Bearings 

All   Outside 


PROTECTION  OF  BELT  DRIVES  441 

in  the  sloping  sides  and  offsets  which  it  was  necessary  to  make  in 
many  cases  on  account  of  crowded  conditions  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
main  belts. 

While  there  is  no  claim  that  these  partitions  are  as  efficient  in 
withstanding  the  action  of  a  severe  fire  as  a  brick  wall  would  be, 
they  are  undoubtedly  effective  in  preventing  the  dangerous  draft  up 
through  an  open  beltway.  In  an  actual  fire  in  one  of  the  mills 
where  this  construction  was  installed  these  enclosures  were  success- 
ful in  confining  the  fire  to  narrow  limits,  and  undoubtedly  prevented 
a  very  serious  loss. 


WOODEN  BEAMS  AND  COLUMNS 

The  following  text  and  tables  relating  to  wooden  beams  and 
columns  are  reprinted  by  permission,  from  "  Cambria  Steel,"  a 
handbook  of  information  relating  to  structural  steel,  prepared  and 
compiled  by  George  E.  Thackray,  C.  E.,  structural  engineer,  Cam- 
bria Steel  Company. 

The  results  of  a  series  of  studies  of  wooden  beams  and  columns 
of  various  kinds  of  American  timber  are  contained  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Fifth  Annual  Convention  of  the  Association  of  Railway 
Superintendents  of  Bridges  and  Buildings,  October,  1895,  at  which 
the  Committee  on  Strength  of  Bridge  and  Trestle  Timbers  pre- 
sented a  report,  portions  of  which  have  been  used  in  preparing  cer- 
tain of  the  tables  on  the  following  pages,  but  as  noted  thereon  the 
arrangement  and  values  in  many  cases  have  been  modified  by  later 
information  from  various  sources. 

The  publications  of  the  Forestry  Division  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletins  Nos.  8  and  12,  and  Circular 
No.  15,  contain  reports  of  tests. of  American  woods,  and  deductions 
drawn  therefrom.  Extracts  and  tables  from  these  reports  are  given 
on  the  following  pages. 

The  tables  of  safe  loads  for  wooden  beams  and  table  of  strength 
of  wooden  columns,  given  on  the  following  pages,  have  been  spe- 
cially calculated  for  this  book,  using  the  information  regarding  the 
properties  of  the  various  species  contained  in  the  reports  above 
referred  to,  as  modified  in  some  cases  by  later  data. 

Explanation  of  the  Tables  of  Safe  Loads  in  Pounds,  Uni- 
formly Distributed  for  Rectangular  Wooden  Beams  One  Inch 
Thick,  Pages  450  to  455  Inclusive. — General. — For  convenience 
in  use,  three  of  these  tables  have  been  prepared,  from  which  the 
safe  loads  of  the  various  species  can  be  obtained,  either  directly 
or  by  proportion  as  stated  in  the  footnotes. 

The  values  given  in  the  tables  are  the  safe  loads  in  pounds  uni- 
formly distributed,  including  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself,  for 
•rectangular  beams  one  inch  thick  for  spans  from  four  to  forty  feet 
and  for  depths  from  four  to  twenty-four  inches.  The  safe  load  for 
a  beam  of  any  thickness  may  be  found  by  multiplying  the  values 
given  in  the  tables  by  the  thickness  of  the  beam  in  inches. 

The  last  column  of  each  of  the  three  Tables  of  Safe  Loads  for 
Rectangular  Wooden  Beams  gives  a  coefficient  of  deflection,  by 

442 


\\UODEN  BEAMS  AND  COLUMNS  443 

means  of  which  the  deflection  for  any  beam  may  be  obtained,  cor- 
responding to  the  given  span  and  safe  load,  by  dividing  the  coeffi- 
cient by  the  depth  of  the  beam  in  inches,  which  will  give  approxi- 
mately the  deflection  in  inches  under  the  given  conditions. 

In  each  table  the  deflection  coefficient  is  given  for  only  one 
species  of  wood,  as  shown,  but  the  deflections  for  other  species  may 
be  obtained  from  these  by  proportion  as  explained  hereafter. 

For  the  reason  that  wood  has  no  well-defined  limit  or  modulus 
of  elasticity  the  deflections  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  coefficients 
are  only  approximate  and  will  vary,  according  to  the  moisture  con- 
tent of  the  wood  and  the  character  of  the  loading.  The  deflections 
thus  obtained  are,  therefore,  useful  only  as  a  general  indication  of 
the  amount  of  bending  to  be  expected  under  the  given  conditions 
and  are  not  exact  as  in  the  case  of  materials  like  steel  which  has 
a  well-defined  limit  and  modulus  of  elasticity. 

The  safe  loads  for  other  species  of  woods  than  those  stated  in 
the  headings  of  the  tables  may  be  obtained  from  those  given,  by 
direct  proportion,  dependent  upon  the  ratio  of  their  allowable  unit 
stress  as  compared  with  that  for  which  the  table  is  figured,  as  stated 
in  the  footnotes  at  the  bottom  of  the  tables. 

Explanation  of  the  Table  of  Safe  Loads  for  Rectangular 
Beams  of  White  Pine,  Cedar,  Spruce  or  Eastern  Fir. — The  values 
for  the  various  species  of  woods,  which  are  included  in  this  table, 
are  calculated  for  an  allowable  fibre  stress,  for  flexure,  of  700 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  deflection  coefficients  are  given  for  white  pine,  and  are  based 
upon  a  modulus  of  elasticity  of  1,000,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  lower  dotted  line  crossing  the  table  indicates  the  limits  of 
spans  for  which  the  deflection  will  exceed  1-360  of  the  span  for  the 
kind  of  wood  for  which  the  deflection  coefficient  is  given.  For 
spans  below  the  line  the  safe  loads  given  in  the  tables  will  produce 
a  deflection  greater  than  1-360  of  the  span,  while  those  above  the 
line  will  produce  less  than  this,  which  is  the  usual  limit  of  deflec- 
tion, in  order  to  prevent  cracking  of  plastered  ceilings.  Similarly, 
the  upper  dotted  line  indicates  the  limit  of  deflection  for  the  kind 
of  wood  for  which  the  deflection  coefficients  is  given,  corresponding 
to  a  modulus  of  elasticity  of  500,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 
should  be  considered  in  cases  where  the  "deflection  should  be  more 
closely  limited. 

The  coefficients  of  deflection  for  Cedar  corresponding  to  moduli 
of  7004300  and  350,000  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  those  of  the 
table  by  10-7  and  20-7  respectively,  and  Spruce  and  Eastern  Fir 
corresponding  to  moduli  of  1.200,000  and  600,000  by  multiplying 
those  of  the  table  by  5-6  and  5-3  respectively. 


444  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  full  zig-zag  line  in  the  table  gives  the  limits  of  the  safe  loads 
corresponding  to  the  allowable  shearing  stress  along  the  neutral 
axis  of  the  beam.  The  safe  loads  above  the  line,  which  are  based 
upon  the  extreme  fibre  strains,  will  produce  shearing  stresses  along 
the  axis  or  with  the  grain  in  excess  of  that  allowable,  which,  in  the 
case  of  White  Pine  and  the  other  woods  of  this  table,  is  100  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  position  of  this  line,  which  indicates  the  limit  of  safe  loads 
for  shearing  along  the  neutral  axis,  was  determined  by  the  aid  of 
the  following  formula:  ,^ 

W=— 
in  which  3 

W  ==  safe  load  in  pounds  uniformly  distributed, 
d  =  depth  of  beam  in  inches, 
b  =i  breadth  of  beam  in  inches. 

s  =  allowable  shear  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Explanation  of  the  Table  of  Safe  Loads  for  Rectangular 
Beams  of  Short-leaf  Yellow  Pine. — The  table  is  calculated  for  an 
allowable  fibre  stress,  for  flexure,  of  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  deflection  coefficients  are  figured  for  a  modulus  of  elasticity 
of  1,200,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  but  may  be  used  for  other 
moduli,  after  obtaining  the  corresponding  coefficients  by  proportion 
as  heretofore  explained.  , 

The  lower  dotted  line  across  the  table  indicates  the  limits  of  spans 
for  which  the  safe  load  will  produce  deflections  greater  than  1-360 
of  the  length  of  the  beam.  Values  above  the  line  will  give  less 
deflection  than  this,  and  those  below  will  give  greater,  based  on  a 
modulus  of  1,200,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Similarly,  the  upper 
dotted  line  indicates  the  limit  of  deflection  corresponding  to  a 
modulus  of  elasticity  of  600,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  full  zig-zag  line  across  the  table  indicates  the  limiting  spans 
and  loads  based  on  the  allowable  intensity  of  shearing  stress  along 
the  neutral  axis  of  the  beam.  The  values  above  the  full  zig-zag  line 
correspond  to  shearing  stresses  greater  than  the  allowable  stress  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain  for  Short-leaf*  Yellow  Pine,  while  those 
below  the  line  correspond  to  shearing  stresses  less  than  that  allow- 
able, which,  in  this  case,  is  assumed  to  be  100  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

Explanation  of  Tables  of  Safe  Loads  for  Rectangular  Beams 
of  White  Oak  and  Long-leaf  Yellow  Pine.— This  table  is  com- 
puted for  an  allowable  fibre  stress  of  1,200  pounds  per  square  inch, 


WOODEN  BEAMS  AND  COLUMNS  445 

for  flexure,  and  the  deflection  coefficients  are  calculated  for  a 
modulus  of  elasticity  of  1,500,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  limit  for  a  deflection  of  1-360  of  the  span  is  indicated  by 
the  lower  dotted  zig-zag  line  on  the  tables,  the  values  below  which 
correspond  to  deflections  greater  than,  and  those  above  to  deflec- 
tions less  than,  the  limiting  deflections.  The  upper  dotted  zig-zag 
line  similarly  indicates  the  limits  of  deflection  for  a  modulus  of 
elasticity  of  750,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  lower  full  zig-zag  line  indicates  the  limit  of  allowable  shear- 
ing stress  along  the  axis  corresponding  to  the  allowable  intensity, 
for  Yellow  Pine,  of  150  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Similarly,  the  upper  full  zig-zag  line  indicates  the  limits  for 
shearing  along  the  axis  for  White  Oak,  based  on  an  allowable 
intensity  of  200  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Moisture  Classification. — The  following  statements  are  made  in 
Bulletin  No.  12,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Forestry : 

"  Since  the  strength  of  timber  varies  very  greatly  with  the  moist- 
ure contents  (see  Bulletin  8  of  the  Forestry  Division),  the  econom- 
ical designing  of  such  structures  will  necessitate  their  being  separ- 
ated into  groups  according  to  the  maximum  moisture  contents  in  use. 

"Class  A  (moisture  contents,  18  per  cent.). — Structures  freely 
exposed  to  the  weather,  such  as  railway  trestles,  uncovered  bridges, 
etc. 

"Class  B  (moisture  contents,  15  per  cent.). — Structures  under 
roof  but  without  side  shelter,  freely  exposed  to  outside  air,  but  pro- 
tected from  rain,  such  as  roof  trusses  of  open  shops  and  sheds, 
covered  bridges  over  streams,  etc. 

"  Class  C  (moisture  contents,  12  per  cent.). — Structures  in  build- 
ings unheated,  but  more  or  less  protected  from  outside  air,  such  as 
roof 'trusses  of  barns,  enclosed  shops  and  sheds,  etc. 

"Class  D  (moisture  contents,  10  per  cent.). — Structures  in  build- 
ings at  all  times  protected  from  the  outside  air,  heated  in  the  winter, 
such  as  roof  trusses  in  houses,  halls,  churches,  etc. 

"  For  long-leaf  pine  add  to  all  the  values  given  in  the  tables,  ex- 
cept those  for  moduli  of  elasticity,  tension  and  shearing,  for  Class 
B,  15  per  cent. ;  for  Class  C.  40  per  cent. ;  and  for  Class  D,  55  per 
cent.  For  the  other  species  add  to  these  values,  for  Class  B,  8  per 
cent.;  for  Class  C,  18  per  cent.,  and  for  Class  D,  25  per  cent." 

Based  upon  the  above  classification  of  structures,  the  two  follow- 
ing tables  have  been  figured  to  facilitate  calculations  of  allowable 
loads  for  wooden  beams  and  columns. 


446 


FIRE  PREVENTION*  AND  PROTECTION 


PROPORTION   OF   THE    VALUES    GIVEN    IN   THE    "TABLES    OF    SAFE 
LOADS  FOR  WOODEN  BEAMS,"   PAGES  450  TO  455,   IN- 
CLUSIVE, TO  BE  USED  IN  ORDER  TO  OBTAIN 
THE  SAFE  LOADS   FOR  THE  VARIOUS 
CLASSES  OF  STRUCTURES  RE- 
FERRED TO  ABOVE 


Classes 

Yellow  Pine 

All  Others 

C'ass  A 

1  00 

1  00 

Class  B  
Class  C 

1.15 
1   40 

1.08 
1   18 

Class  D  

1.55 

1.25 

SAFETY  FACTORS  TO  BE  APPLIED  TO  THE  VALUES  GIVEN  IN  THE 

TABLE  OF  "  STRENGTH  OF  SOLID  WOODEN  COLUMNS," 

PAGES  456  AND  457,   IN  ORDER  TO  OBTAIN  THE 

SAFE  LOA.DS  FOR  THE  VARIOUS  CLASSES 

OF  STRUCTURES  REFERRED  TO  ABOVE 


Classes 

Yellow  Pine 

All  Others 

Class  A  
Class  B  

( 
0.20 
0.23 

0.20 
0.22 

Class  C...-.  
Class  D 

0.28 
0  31 

0.24 
0  25 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  PER  FOOT  FOR  VARIOUS 
KINDS  OF  TIMBER 


' 

Weight 

Name  of  Wood 

Specific 
Gravity 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot 

per  Foot, 
Board 

Measure 

White  Oak  

0.80 

49.94 

4.16 

White  Pine 

0  38 

23  72 

1  98 

Southern  Long-leaf  or  Georgia  Yellow  Pine. 

0.61 

38.08 

'3.17 

Douglas  Fir 

0  51 

31  84 

2  65 

Short-leaf  Yellow  Pine  

0.51 

31.84 

2  .  65 

Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine) 

0  50 

31  21 

2  60 

Spruce  and  Eastern  Fir  

0.40 

24.97 

2.08 

Hemlock  

0  40 

24  97 

2  08 

Cypress 

0  46 

28  72 

2  39 

Cedar  

0.37 

23.10 

1.93 

Chestnut        i 

0  66 

41   20 

3  43 

California  Redwood.  .. 

0.39 

24.16 

2.01 

California  Spruce 

0  40 

24  97 

2  08 

The  specific  gravities  and  weights  given  above  are  the  averages 
of  a  large  number  of  determinations  by  various  authorities,  for 
woods  containing  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  moisture  or  such  as  are 
commercially  known  as  dry  timber.  The  weights  of  green  or  un- 


\\«H)DKN     r,L-:.\MS    AND    COLUMNS 


447 


seasoned  woods  will  be  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  greater  than  those 
given  in  the  above  table;  as  given  on  page  305,  the  Building  Code 
of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  assumes  somewhat 
heavier  weights.  i 

SAFE  UNIT  STRESSES  FOR  TIMBER 

Recommended  in  Bulletin  No.  12,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Division  of  Forestry 

Safe  Unit  Stresses  at  18%  Moisture 


M      js 

£  ' 

D 

fl 

5cn 

-C.C 

•s* 

C        o 

G"S 

M'S  u 

JJ  VG 
C/2  3  « 

P 

'55  0 

l.g« 

c  g^c 

S~ 

g-5 

Species 

*%$ 
g£5- 

ll 

*l 

.yu 

||| 

bo-*-*  3 

|| 

.C  CT 

•g        & 

3  a3 

•sa 

&*• 

3       4J 

u    a 

<ps. 

£l 

|& 

^ 

§ 

, 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Long-leaf  Pine  (Pinus  palus- 
tris)  D 

1550 

720000 

1.30 

1000 

215 

12000 

125 

Short-leaf   Pine    (Pinus  echi- 

nata)  D 

1300 

600000 

1.30 

840 

215 

9000 

100 

White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus)  .  . 

880 

435000 

1.00 

700 

147 

7000 

75 

Norway  Pine  (Pinus  resinosa) 

1090 

566000 

760 

143 

Colorado    Pine    (Pinus    pon- 

rlprt)S3^ 

980 

444000 

630 

180 

Douglas     Fir      (Pseudotsuga 
douglasii)           

1320 

690000 

880 

167 

Redwood     (Sequoia    semper- 
virens)                

1440 

226000 

650 

115 

Red  Cedar  (Juniperus  virgin- 
iana)  

1000 

335000 

700 

250 

Bald  Cypress  (Taxodium  dis- 
tichum)  D  
White  Oak  (Quercus  alba)  D. 

1000 
1200 

450000 
550000 

1.10 
1.25 

675 
800 

120 
400 

6000 
10000 

60 

200 

Factor  of  Safety 

5 

1 

5 

3 

1 

1 

The  figures  for  the  species  marked  "  D "  were  obtained  from 
experiments  made  by  the  Forestry  Division,  the  others  from  various 
sources,  chiefly  the  loth  Census  Report,  but  so  modified  as  to  give 
results  comparable  with  Forestry  Division  values.  To  arrive  at 
true  average  values  of  strength  multiply  safe  loads  by  factor  of 
safety  given  in  each  column.  The  values  for  resilience  and  tensile 
strength  are  the  ultimate  values.  The  former  is  practically  never 
used  in  designing.  The  latter  is  a  factor  impossible  to  develop  in 
practice,  since  the  piece  will  always  fail  in  some  other  way,  usually 
by  shearing. 

The  crushing  strength  across  the  grain  in  above  is  based  upon  a 
crushing  of  3  per  cent,  of  the  cross  sectional  height  of  the  piece. 


448 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


AVERAGE  ULTIMATE  BREAKING  UNIT 


Kind  of  Timber 

TENSION 

With 
Grain 

Across 
Grain 

White  Oak                                .                .... 

12000 
7000 
12000 
8000 
9000 
8000 
8000 
6000 
6000 
7000 
8500 
7000 

2000 
500 
600 

'566 
500 
500 

White  Pine 

Southern  Long-leaf  or  Georgia  Yellow  Pine  .... 

Short-leaf  Yellow  Pine  

Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine) 

Spruce  and  Eastern  Fir  

Cypress  .          

Cedar 

Chestnut  

California  Redwood 

California  Spruce  

AVERAGE  SAFE  ALLOWABLE  WORKING  UNIT 


Kind  of  Timber 

With 
Grain 

Across 
Grain 

Factor  of  Safety 

Ten 

Ten 

White  Oak 

1200 

200 

White  Pine  

700 

50 

Southern  Long-leaf  or  Georgia  Yellow  Pine  
Douglas  Fir  

1200 
800 

60 

Short-leaf  Yellow  Pine                  

900 

50 

Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine) 

800 

50 

Spruce  and  Eastern  Fir  

800 

50 

Hemlock  .  .                                                   . 

600 

Cypress  . 

600 

Cedar 

700 

Chestnut... 

850 

California  Redwood  

700 

California  Spruce 

TENSION 


The  above  tables  are  based  on  those  recommended  by  the  committee  on 
intendents  of  Bridges  and  Buildings  at  their  Fifth  Annual  Convention,  in  October, 
data  from  various  sources. 


WOODEN  BEAMS  AND  COLUMNS 

STRESSES,  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


449 


COMPRESSION 

TRANSVERSE 

SHEARING 

With  Grain 

Extreme 
Fihrp 

fylodulus  of 

With 

Across 

Columns 

Grain 

.r  lore 
Stress 

Elasticity 

w  iin 
Grain 

Grain 

End 

Under 

Bearing 

15  Diams. 

7000 

5000 

2000 

7000 

1500000 

800 

4000 

5500 

3500 

700 

4000 

1000000 

400 

2000 

7000 

5000 

1400 

7000 

1500000 

600 

5000 

5700 

4500 

800 

5000 

1400000 

500 

6000 

4500 

1000 

6000 

1200000 

400 

4666 

5000 

4000 

800 

5000 

1130000 

6000 

4000 

700 

4000 

1200000 

'466 

3000 

4000 

600 

3500 

900000 

350 

2500 

5666 

4000 

700 

5000 

900000 

5500 

3500 

700 

4000 

700000 

'400 

i5o6 

4000 

900 

5000 

1000000 

600 

2000 

4000 

600 

4500 

700000 

400 

4000 

5000 

1200000 

STRESSES,  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


COMPRESSION 

TRANSVERSE 

SHEARING 

With  Grain 

Extreme 

p:u__ 

With 

Columns 

Across 
Grain 

r  lore 
Stress 

IVlOQuIUS  OI 

Elasticity 

w  iin 
Grain 

/vcross 
Grain 

End 

Under 

Bearing 

15  Diams. 

Five 

Five 

Four 

Six 

Two 

Four 

Four 

1400 

1000 

500 

1200 

750000 

200 

1000 

1100 

700 

200 

700 

500000 

100 

500 

1400 

1000 

350 

1200 

750000 

150 

1250 

1100 

900 

200 

800 

750000 

130 

1200 

900 

250 

1000 

600000 

100 

1666 

1000 

800 

200 

800 

565000 

1200 

800 

200 

700 

600000 

166 

'750 

800 

150 

600 

450000 

100 

600 

1666 

800 

200 

800 

450000 

1100 

700 

200 

700 

350000 

'166 

'466 

800 

250 

800 

500000 

150 

500 

800 

150 

750 

350000 

100 

800 

800 

600000 

"Strength  of  Bridge  and  Trestle  Timbers"  of  the  Association  of  Railway  Super- 
1895,  but  the  arrangement  and  values  in  many  cases  are  now  modified  by  later 


450 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SAFE  LOADS  IN  POUNDS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR 

CEDAR  AND  SPRUCE 

Allowable  fibre  stress  700  pounds  per  square  inch.     Safety 
Safe  loads  for  other  safety  factors  may  be  obtained  as  follows: 


,;,, 

Deflec- 

!                   '' 

tion 

Coeffi- 

DEPTH OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

cient 

Span 

for 

in 

White 

Feet 

Pino 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

irinc 

V 

4 

311 

486 

700 

953 

1244 

1575 

1944 

2352 

2800 

3286 

3811 

.34 

5 

240 

389 

560 

762 

996 

1260 

1556 

1882 

2240 

2629 

3049 

.53 

6 

207 

324 

467 

635 

830 

1050 

1296 

1569 

1867 

2191 

2521 

.76 

7 

178 

278 

400 

544 

711 

900 

1111 

1344 

1600 

1878 

2178 

1.03 

8 

156 

243 

350 

476 

622 

788 

972 

1176 

1400 

1643 

1906 

1.34 

9 

138 

216 

311 

423 

553 

700 

864 

1046 

-1244 

1460 

1694 

1.70 

10 

124 

194 

280 

381 

498 

630 

778 

941 

1120 

1314 

1524 

2.10 

11 

113 

177 

155 

346 

453 

573 

707 

856 

1018 

1195 

1386 

2.54 

12 

103 

162 

233 

318 

415 

525 

648 

784 

933 

1095 

1270 

3.02 

13 

96 

150 

215 

293 

383 

485 

598 

724 

862 

1011 

1173 

3.55 

14 

89 

139 

200 

272 

356 

450 

556 

672 

800 

930 

1089 

4.12 

15 

83 

130 

187 

254 

332 

420 

519 

627 

747 

876 

1016 

4.73 

16 

78 

122 

175 

238 

311 

394 

486 

588 

700 

821 

953 

5.38 

17 

73 

114 

165 

224 

'  293 

371 

458 

554 

659 

773 

897 

6.07 

18 

69 

108 

156 

212 

277 

350 

432 

523 

622 

730 

847 

6.80 

19 

65 

102 

147 

201 

262 

332 

409 

495 

589 

692 

802 

7.58 

20 

97 

140 

191 

249 

315 

389 

471 

560 

657 

762 

8.40 

21 

93 

133 

182 

237 

300 

370 

448 

533 

626 

726 

9.26 

22 

88 

127 

173 

226 

286 

354 

428 

509 

597 

693 

10.16 

23 

85 

122 

166 

216 

274 

338 

409 

487 

572 

663 

11.11 

24 

117 

159 

207 

263 

324 

392 

467 

548 

635 

12.10 

25 

112 

152 

199 

252 

311 

376 

448 

526 

610 

13.13 

26 

108 

147 

191 

242 

299 

362 

431 

506 

586 

14.20 

27 

104 

141 

184 

233 

288 

349 

415 

487 

565 

15.31 

28 

100 

136 

178 

225 

278 

336 

400 

469 

544 

16.46 

29 

97 

131 

172 

217 

268 

325 

386 

453 

526 

17.66 

30 

93 

127 

166 

210 

259 

314 

373 

438 

508 

18.90 

31 

90 

123 

161 

203 

251 

304 

361 

424 

492 

20.18 

32 

88 

119 

156 

197 

243 

294 

350 

411 

476 

21.50 

33 

85 

115 

151 

191 

236 

285 

339 

398 

462 

22.87 

34 

112 

146 

185 

229 

277 

329 

387 

448 

24.28 

35 

109 

142 

180 

222 

269 

320 

376 

436 

25.73 

WOODEN  BEAMS 


451 


RECTANGULAR  BEAMS  ONE  INCH  THICK  OF  WHITE  PINE, 
OR  EASTERN  FIR 

factor  6.     Modulus  of  rupture  4200  pounds  per  square  inch. 

6 

New  safe  load  =  Safe  load  from  table  X . 

New  factor 


Deflec- 

Span 

tion 

in 

Coeffi- 

Feet 

DEPTH  OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

cient 

for 

White 

me 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

9 

1944 

2212 

2498 

2800 

3120 

3457 

3811 

4183 

4571 

4978 

1.70 

10 

1750 

1991 

2248 

2520 

2808 

3111 

3430 

3764 

4114 

4480 

2.10 

11 

1601 

1810 

2044 

2291 

2552 

2828 

3118 

3422 

3740 

4073 

2.54 

12 

1458 

1659 

1873 

2100 

2340 

2593 

2858 

3137 

3428 

3733 

3.02 

13 

1346 

1531 

1729 

1938 

2160 

2393 

2638 

2896 

3165 

3446 

3.55 

14 

1250 

1422 

1606 

1800 

2056 

2222 

2450 

2689 

2939 

3200 

4.12 

15 

1167 

1328 

1499 

1680 

1872 

2074 

2287 

2510 

2743 

2987 

4.73 

16 

1094 

1244 

1405 

1575 

1755 

1944 

2144 

2353 

2571 

2800 

5.38 

17 

1029 

1171 

1322 

1482 

1652 

1830 

2018 

2214 

2420 

2635 

6.07 

18 

972 

1106 

1249 

1400 

1560 

1728 

1906 

2091 

2286 

2489 

6.80 

19 

921 

1048 

1183 

1326 

1478 

1637 

1805 

1981 

2165 

2358 

7.58 

20 

875 

996 

1124 

1260 

1404 

1556 

1715 

1882 

2057 

2240 

8.40 

21 

833 

948 

1070 

1200 

1337 

1481 

1633 

1793 

1959 

2133 

9.26 

22 

795 

905 

1022 

1145 

1276 

1414 

1559 

1711 

1870 

2036 

10.16 

23 

761 

866 

977 

1096 

1221 

1353 

1491 

1637 

1789 

1948 

11.11 

24 

729 

830 

937 

1050 

1170 

1296 

1429 

1569 

1714 

1867 

12.10 

25 

700 

796 

899 

1008 

1123 

1244 

1372 

1506 

1645 

1792 

13.13 

26 

673 

766 

865 

969 

1080 

1197 

1319 

1448 

1582 

1723 

14.20 

27 

648 

737 

833 

933 

1040 

1152 

1270 

1394 

1524 

1659 

15.31 

28 

625 

711 

803 

900 

1003 

1111 

1225 

1344 

1469 

1600 

16.46 

29 

603 

687 

775 

869 

968 

1073 

1183 

1298 

1419 

1545 

17.66 

30 

583 

664 

749 

840 

936 

1037 

1143 

1255 

1371 

1493 

18.90 

31 

565 

642 

725 

813 

906 

1004 

1106 

1214 

1327 

1445 

20.18 

32 

547 

622 

703 

787 

877 

972 

1072 

1176 

1286 

1400 

21.50 

33 

534 

603 

681 

764 

850 

943 

1039 

1141 

1247 

1358 

22.87 

34 

515 

586 

661 

741 

826 

915 

1009 

1107 

1210 

1318 

24.28 

35 

500 

569 

642 

720 

802 

880 

980 

1076 

1176 

1280 

25.73 

36 

486 

553 

624 

700 

780 

864 

953 

1046 

1143 

1244 

27.22 

37 

473 

538 

608 

681 

759 

841 

927 

1017 

1112 

1211 

28.75 

38 

460 

524 

592 

663 

739 

819 

9(53 

991 

1083 

1179 

30.32 

39 

449 

511 

576 

646 

720 

798 

880 

965 

1055 

1149 

31.94 

40 

438 

498 

562 

630 

702 

778 

858 

941 

1029 

1120 

33.60 

452 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SAFE  LOADS  IN  POUNDS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED, 

SHORT-LEAF 

Allowable  fibre  stress  1000  pounds  per  square  inch.     Safety 
Safe  loads  for  other  safety  factors  may  be  obtained  as  follows: 


Span 
in 
Feet 

DEPTH  OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

Deflec- 
tion 
Coeffi- 
cient 

V 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

4 

444 

694 

1000 

1361 

1778 

2250 

2778 

3361 

4000 

4694 

5444 

.40 

5 

356 

556 

800 

1089 

1422 

1800 

2222 

2689 

3200 

3756 

4356 

.63 

6 

296 

463 

667 

907 

1185 

1500 

1852 

2241 

2667 

3130 

3630 

.90 

7 

254 

397 

571 

778 

1016 

1286 

1587 

1921 

2286 

2683 

3111 

1.23 

8 

222 

347 

500 

681 

889 

1125 

1389 

1681 

2000 

2347 

2722 

1.60 

9 

198 

309 

444 

605 

790 

1000 

1235 

1494 

1778 

2086 

2420 

2.03 

10 

178 

278 

400 

544 

711 

900 

1111 

1344 

1600 

1878 

2178 

2.50 

11 

162 

253 

364 

495 

646 

818 

1010 

1222 

1455 

1707 

1980 

3.03 

12 

148 

231 

333 

454 

593 

750 

926 

1120 

1333 

1565 

1815 

3.60 

13 

137 

214 

308 

419 

547 

692 

855 

1034 

1231 

1444 

1675 

4.23 

14 

127 

198 

286 

389 

508 

643 

794 

960 

1143 

1341 

1556 

4.90 

15 

119 

185 

267 

363 

474 

600 

741 

896 

1067 

1252 

1452 

5.63 

16 

111 

174 

250 

340 

444 

563 

604 

840 

1000 

1174 

1361 

6.40 

17 

105 

163 

235 

320 

418 

529 

654 

791 

941 

1105 

1281 

7.23 

18 

99 

154 

222 

302 

395 

500 

617 

747 

889 

1043 

1210 

8.10 

19 

94 

146 

211 

287 

374 

474 

585 

708 

842 

988 

1146 

9.03 

20 

89 

139 

200 

272 

356 

450 

556 

672 

800 

939 

1089 

10.00 

21 

85 

132 

190 

259 

339 

429 

529 

640 

762 

894 

1037 

11.03 

22 

81 

126 

182 

247 

323 

409 

505 

611 

727 

854 

990 

12.10 

23 

77 

121 

174 

237 

309 

391 

483 

585 

696 

816 

947 

13.23 

24 

116 

162 

227 

296 

375 

463 

560 

667 

782 

907 

14.40 

25 

111 

160 

218 

284 

360 

444 

538 

640 

751 

871 

15.63 

26 

107 

154 

209 

274 

346 

427 

517 

615 

722 

838 

16.90 

27 

103 

148 

202 

263 

333 

412 

498 

593 

695 

807 

18.23 

28 

99 

143 

194 

254 

321 

-397 

480 

571 

671 

778 

19.60 

29 

138 

,188 

245 

310 

383 

464 

552 

648 

751 

21.03 

30 

133 

181 

237 

300 

370 

448 

533 

626 

726 

22.30 

31 

129 

176 

229 

290 

358 

434 

516 

606 

703 

24.03 

32 

125 

170 

222 

281 

347 

420 

500 

587 

681 

25.60 

33 

121 

165 

215 

273 

337 

407 

485 

569 

660 

27.23 

34 

118 

160 

.  209 

265 

327 

395 

471 

552 

641 

29.90 

35 

114 

156 

203 

257 

317 

384 

457 

537 

602 

30.63 

Safe  loads  for  any  fibre  stress  may  be  readily  obtained  from  this  table  by  pro- 
portion. 


WOODEN  BEAMS 


453 


FOR  RECTANGULAR  BEAMS  ONE  INCH  THICK,  OF 
YELLOW  PINE 

factor  6.     Modulus  of  rupture  6000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

6 
New  safe  load  =  Safe  load  from  table  X 


New  factor 


Span 
in 
Feet 

DEPTH  OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

Deflec- 
tion 
Coeffi- 
cient 

V 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

9 

2778 

3160 

3568 

4000 

4457 

4038 

5444 

5975 

6531 

7111 

2.03 

10 

2500 

2844 

3211 

3600 

4011 

4444 

4900 

5378 

5878 

6400 

2.50 

11 

2273 

2586 

2919 

3273 

3646 

4040 

4455 

4889 

5343 

5818 

3.03 

12 

2083 

2370 

2676 

3000 

3343 

3704 

4083 

4481 

4898 

5333 

3.60 

13 

1923 

2188 

2470 

2760 

3085 

3419 

3769 

4137 

4521 

4923 

4.23 

14 

1786 

2032 

2294 

2571 

2865 

3175 

3500 

3841 

4198 

4571 

4.00 

15 

1667 

1896 

2141 

2400 

2674 

2963 

3267 

3585 

3919 

4267 

5.63 

16 

1563 

1778 

2007 

2250 

2507 

2778 

3062 

3361 

3674 

4000 

6.40 

17 

1471 

1673 

1889 

2118 

2359 

2614 

2882 

3463 

3458 

3765 

7.23 

18 

1389 

1580 

1789 

2000 

2228 

2469 

2722 

2988 

3265 

3556 

8.10 

19 

1316 

1497 

1690 

1895 

2111 

2339 

2570 

2830 

3004 

3368 

9.03 

20 

1250 

1422 

1606 

1800 

2006 

2222 

2450 

2689 

2939 

3200 

10.00 

21 

1190 

1354 

1529 

1714 

1910 

2116 

2333 

2561 

2799 

3048 

11.03 

22 

1136 

1293 

1460 

1636 

1823 

2020 

2227 

2444 

2672 

2909 

12.10 

23 

1087 

1237 

1396 

1565 

1744 

1932 

2130 

2338 

2556 

2783 

13.23 

24 

1042 

1185 

1338 

1500 

1671 

1852 

2042 

2241 

2449 

2667 

14.40 

25 

1000 

1138 

1284 

1440 

1604 

1778 

1960 

2131 

2351 

2560 

15.63 

26 

962 

1094 

1235 

1385 

1543 

1700 

1885 

2068 

2261 

2462 

16.00 

27 

926 

1053 

1189 

1333 

1486 

1646 

1815 

1992 

2177 

2370 

18.23 

28 

893 

1016 

1147 

1286 

1433 

1587 

1750 

1921 

2099 

2286 

19.60 

29 

862 

981 

1107 

1241 

1383 

1533 

1690 

1854 

2027 

2207 

21.03 

30 

833 

948 

1070 

1200 

1337 

1481 

1633 

1793 

1959 

2133 

22.50 

31 

806 

918 

1036 

1161 

1294 

1434 

1581 

1735 

1896 

2065 

24.03 

32 

781 

889 

1003 

1125 

1253 

1389 

1531 

1681 

1837 

2000 

25.60 

33 

758 

862 

973 

1091 

1215 

1347 

1485 

1630 

1781 

1939 

27.23 

34 

735 

837 

944 

1059 

1180 

1307 

1441 

1582 

1728 

1882 

28.90 

35 

714 

813 

917 

1029 

1146 

1270 

1400 

1537 

1677 

1829 

30.63 

36 

694 

780 

894 

1000 

1114 

1235 

1361 

1494 

1633 

1778 

32.40 

37 

676 

769 

868 

973 

1084 

1201 

1324 

1453 

1589 

1730 

34.23 

38 

658 

749 

845 

947 

1056 

1169 

1289 

1415 

1547 

1684 

36.10 

39 

641 

729 

823 

923 

1028 

1140 

1256 

1379 

1507 

1641 

38.03 

40 

625 

711 

803 

900 

1003 

1111 

1225 

1344 

1469 

1600 

40.00 

Safe  loads  for  beams  of  California  Redwood,  three-quarters  of  above. 


454 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


SAFE  LOADS  IN  POUNDS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED, 

WHITE  OAK  AND 

Allowable  fibre  stress  700  pounds  per  square  inch.     Safety 
Safe  loads  for  other  safety  factors  may  be  obtained  as  follows: 


Span 
in 
Feet 

DEPTH  OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

Deflec- 
tion 
Coeffi- 
cient 

V 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

4 

533 

833 

1200 

1633 

2133 

2700 

3333 

4033 

4800 

5633 

6533 

.38 

5 

427 

667 

960 

1307 

1707 

2160 

2667 

3227 

3840 

4507 

5227 

.60 

6 

356 

556 

800 

1089 

1422 

1800 

2222 

2689 

3200 

3756 

4356 

.86 

7 

305 

476 

686 

933 

1219 

1543 

1905 

2305 

2743 

3219 

3733 

1.18 

8 

267 

417 

600 

817 

1067 

1350 

1667 

2017 

2400 

2817 

3267 

1.54 

9 

237 

370 

533 

726 

948 

1200 

1481 

1793 

2133 

2504 

2904 

1.94 

10 

213 

333 

480 

653 

853 

1080 

1333 

1613 

1920 

2253 

2613 

2.40 

11 

194 

303 

436 

594 

776 

982 

1212 

1467 

1745 

2048 

2376 

2.90 

12 

178 

278 

400 

544 

711 

900 

1111 

1344 

1600 

1878 

2178 

3.46 

13 

164 

256 

369 

503 

656 

831 

1026 

1241 

1477 

1733 

2010 

4.06 

14 

152 

238 

343 

467 

610 

771 

952 

1152 

1371 

1610 

1867 

4.70 

15 

142 

222 

320 

436 

569 

720 

889 

1076 

1280 

1502 

1742 

5.40 

16 

133 

298 

300 

408 

533 

675 

833 

1008 

1200 

1408 

1633 

6.14 

17 

125 

196 

282 

384 

502 

635 

784 

949 

1129 

1325 

1537 

6.94 

18 

119 

185 

267 

363 

474 

600 

741 

896 

1067 

1252 

1452 

7.78 

19 

112 

175 

253 

344 

449 

568 

702 

849 

1011 

1186 

1375 

8.66 

20 

107 

167 

240 

327 

427 

540 

667 

807 

960 

1127 

1307 

9.60 

21 

102 

159 

229 

311 

406 

514 

635 

768 

914 

1073 

1244 

10.58 

22 

97 

152 

218 

297 

388 

401 

606 

733 

873 

1024 

1188 

11.62 

23 

93 

145 

209 

284 

371 

470 

580 

701 

835 

980 

1136 

12.70 

24 

89 

139 

200 

'•  272 

356 

450 

556 

672 

800 

939 

1089 

13.82 

25 

85 

133 

192 

261 

341 

432 

533 

645 

768 

901 

1045 

15.00 

26 

128 

185 

251 

328 

415 

513 

621 

738 

867 

1005 

16.22 

27 

123 

178 

242 

316 

400 

404 

598 

711 

835 

968 

17.50 

28 

119 

171 

233 

305 

386 

476 

576 

685 

805 

933 

18.82 

29 

115 

166 

225 

294 

372 

460 

556 

662 

777 

901 

20.18 

30 

HI 

160 

218 

284 

360 

444 

538 

640 

751 

871 

21.60 

31 

108 

155 

211 

275 

348 

430 

520 

619 

727 

843 

23.06 

32 

150 

204 

267 

338 

417 

504 

600 

704 

817 

24.58 

33 

145 

198 

259 

327 

404 

489 

582 

683 

792 

26.14 

34 

141 

192 

251 

318 

392 

'  475 

565 

663 

769 

27.74 

35 

137 

187 

244 

309 

381 

461 

549 

644 

747 

29.40 

Safe  loads  for  beams  of  Douglas  Fir,  Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine),  Cypress,  Chest 
nut  and  California  Spruce,  two-thirds  of  above. 


WOODEN  BEAMS 


455 


FOR  RECTANGULAR  BEAMS  ONE  INCH  THICK,  OF 
LONG-LEAF  YELLOW  PINE 

factor  6.     Modulus  of  rupture  7200  pounds  per  square  inch. 

6 

New  safe  load  =  Safe  load  from  table  X . 

New  factor 


Span 
in 
Feet 

DEPTH  OF  BEAM  IN  INCHES 

Deflec- 
tion 
Coeffi- 
cient 

V 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

9 

3333 

3793 

4281 

4800 

5348 

5926 

6533 

7170 

7837 

8533 

Z.94 

10 

3000 

3413 

3853 

4320 

4813 

5333 

5880 

6453 

7053 

7680 

2.  10 

11 

2727 

3103 

3503 

3927 

4376 

4848 

5355 

5867 

6412 

6892 

2.90 

12 

2500 

2844 

3211 

3600 

4011 

4444 

4900 

5378 

5878 

6400 

3.46 

13 

2308 

2626 

2964 

3323 

3703 

4103 

4523 

4964 

5426 

5908 

4.06 

14 

2143 

2438 

2752 

3086 

3438 

3810 

4200 

4610 

5038 

5486 

4.70 

15 

2000 

2276 

2569 

2880 

3209 

3556 

3920 

4302 

4702 

5120 

5.40 

16 

1875 

2133 

2408 

2700 

3008 

3333 

3675 

4033 

4433 

4800 

6.14 

17 

1765 

2008 

2267 

2541 

2831 

3137 

3459 

3796 

4149 

4518 

6.94 

18 

1667 

1896 

2141 

2400 

2674 

2963 

3267 

3585 

3819 

4267 

7.78 

19 

1579 

1796 

2027 

2274 

2533 

2807 

3095 

S3396 

3712 

4042 

8.66 

20 

1500 

1707 

1927 

2160 

2407 

2667 

2940 

3227 

3527 

3840 

9.60 

21 

1429 

1625 

1835 

2057 

2292 

2540 

2800 

3073 

3359 

3657 

10.58 

22 

1364 

1552 

1752 

1964 

2188 

2424 

2678 

2933 

3206 

3491 

11.62 

23 

1304 

1484 

1675 

1878 

2093 

2319 

2557 

2806 

3067 

3339 

12.70 

24 

1250 

1422 

1606 

1800 

2006 

2222 

2450 

2689 

2939 

3200 

13.82 

25 

1200 

1365 

1541 

1728 

1925 

2133 

2352 

2581 

2821 

3072 

15.00 

26 

1154 

1313 

1482 

1662 

1851 

2051 

2262 

2482 

2713 

2954 

16.22 

27 

1111 

1264 

1427 

1600 

1783 

1975 

2178 

2390 

2612 

2844 

17.50 

28 

1071 

1219 

1376 

1543 

1719 

1905 

2100 

'2305 

2519 

2743 

18.82 

29 

1034 

1177 

1329 

1490 

1660 

1839 

2028 

2225 

2432 

2648 

20.18 

30 

1000 

1138 

1284 

1440 

1604 

1778 

1960 

2151 

2351 

2560 

21.60 

31 

968 

1101 

1243 

1394 

1553 

1720 

1897 

2082 

2275 

2477 

23.06 

32 

938 

1067 

1204 

1350 

1504 

1667 

1838 

2017 

2217 

2400 

24.58 

33 

909 

1034 

1168 

1309 

1459 

1616 

1785 

1956 

2137 

2327 

26.14 

34 

822 

1004 

1133 

1271 

1416 

1569 

1729 

1898 

2075 

2259 

27.74 

I 

35 

857 

975 

1101 

1234 

1375 

1524 

1680 

1844 

2013 

2194 

29.40 

36 

833 

948 

1070 

1200 

1337 

1481 

1633 

1793 

1909 

2133 

31.  l6 

37 

811 

923 

1041 

1168 

1301 

1441 

1589 

1744 

1906 

2076 

32.85 

38 

789 

893 

1014 

1137 

1267 

1404 

1547 

1698 

1856 

2021 

34.66 

39 

769 

875 

988 

1108 

1234 

1368 

1508 

1655 

1809 

1969 

36.50 

40 

750 

853 

963 

1080 

1203 

1333 

1470 

1613 

1763 

1920 

38.40 

Safe  loads  for  beams  of  Hemlock,  one-half  of  above. 


456 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


STRENGTH   OF    SOLID    WOODEN   COLUMNS    OF    DIFFERENT    KINDS 

OF   TIMBER 

I 
For  various  values  of  — . 

d 

1  =  length  of  column  in  inches,     d  =  least  diameter  in  inches. 
Based  on  the  Formula  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Forestry. 

700  +  15c 

P  =  F   X  . 

700  +  15c  +  c^ 
P  =iultjmate  strength  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

F  ==  ultimate  crushing  strength  of  timber,     c  =  — . 

Values  of  F  are  those  given  in  table  on  pages  448  and  449  herein. 


ULTIMATE  STRENGTH  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


White  Oak 
and  Southern 

Douglas  Fir 
and 

Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine), 
Spruce  or  Eastern  Fir, 

White 
Pine 

Long-leaf 
or  Georgia 

Short-leaf 
Yellow  Pine 

Hemlock,  Cypress,  Chest- 
nut, California  Redwood 

and 
Cedar 

Yellow  Pine 

and  California  Spruce 

F 

5000 

4500 

4000 

3500 

1 

d 

2 

4937 

4475 

3978 

3481 

3 

4940 

4446 

3952 

3458 

4 

4897 

4407 

3918 

3428 

•' 

5 

4844 

4359 

3875 

3391 

6 

4782 

4304 

3826 

3347 

7 
8 

4713 
4638  ' 

4242 
4174 

3770 
3710 

3299 
3247 

9 

4558 

4102 

3646 

3190 

10 

4474 

4026 

3579 

3132 

11 

4386 

3948 

3509 

3070 

12 

4297 

3867 

3438 

3008 

13 

4206 

3785 

3365 

2944 

14 

4114 

3703 

3291 

2880 

15 

4022 

3620 

,  3217 

2815 

1 

3930 
3838 
3748 

3537 
3455 
3373 

3144 
3071 
2998 

2751 
2687 
2624 

19 

3659 

3293 

2927 

2561 

For  safety  factors  for  various  classes  of  structures  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  above  table,  see  p.  446. 


WOODEN  BEAMS 


457 


STRENGTH    OF    SOLID    WOODEN    COLUMNS    OF    DIFFERENT    KINDS 

OF   TIMBER 


For  various  values  of  — . 

d 

1  =  length  of  column  in  inches,     d  =  least  diameter  in  inches. 
Based  on  the  Formula  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Forestry. 

700  +  15c 

P  =  F   X . 

700  +  15c  +  c* 
P  =  ultimate  strength  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

F  =  ultimate  crushing  strength  of  timber,     c  =  — . 

d 
Values  of  F  are  those  given  in  table  on  pages  448  and  449  herein. 


ULTIMATE  STRENGTH  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


White  Oak 

Douglas  Fir 

Red  Pine  (Norway  Pine), 

White 

and  Southern 

and 

Spruce  or  Eastern  Fir, 

Pine 

Long-leaf 
or  Georgia 

Short-leaf 
Yellow  Pine 

Hemlock,  Cypress,  Chest- 
nut, California  Redwood 

and 
Cedar 

Yellow  Pine 

and  California  Spruce 

F 

5000 

4500 

4000 

3500 

1 

d 

20 

3571 

3214 

2857 

2500 

21 

3486 

3137 

2788 

2440 

22 

3402 

3061 

2721 

2381 

23 

3320 

2988 

2656 

2324 

24 

3240 

2916 

2592 

2268 

25 

3162 

2846 

2529 

2213 

26 

3086 

2777 

2469 

2160 

27 

•3013 

2711 

2410 

2109 

28 

2941 

2647 

2353 

2059 

29 

2872 

2585 

2298 

2010 

30 

2805 

2524 

2244 

1963 

32 

2677 

2409 

2142 

1874 

34 

2557 

2301 

2046 

1790 

36 

2445 

2200 

1956 

1711 

38 

2340 

2106 

1872 

1638 

40 

2241 

2017 

1793 

1569 

42 

2149 

1934 

1719 

1505 

44 

2063 

1857 

1650 

1444 

46 

1982 

1784 

1586 

1388 

48 

1907 

1716 

1525 

1335 

50 

1835 

1652 

1468 

1285 

For  safety  factors  for  various  classes  of  structures  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  above  table,  see  p.  446. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  VAULTS* 
CLASS  A  VAULTS 

Vaults  designed  to  afford  the  maximum  degree  of  protection  and  intended 
for  the  use  of  banks,  trust  companies,  and  others  having  large  values  to 
protect.  This  type  of  vault  involves  massive  Construction,  designed  to 
resist  long  continued  fire,  impact  of  falling  objects,  and  attack  by  burglars 
(in  so  far  as  this  feature  can  properly  be  incorporated  in  these  specifications). 

MATERIAL. — i.  Reinforced  Concrete.  Walls,  roofs,  and  floors  shall  be  of 
reinforced  concrete,  and  mixture  not  poorer  than  one  part  of  Portland 
cement  to  six  parts  of  aggregate,  so  proportioned  as  to  give  maximum  density. 

Coarse  aggregate  shall  consist  of  trap  rock,  broken,  hard  burned  or  vitreous 
bricks,  or  th«ir  equivalent,  and  pass  over  a  %-inch  screen  and  through  a 
i -inch  ring.  Stones  which  calcine  or  spall  readily  shall  be  avoided. 

While  not  recommended,  it  is  possible  that  under  certain  conditions  the 
use  of  a  first  class  quality  of  hard  burned  brick  laid  in  cement  mortar  may 
be  advisable  for  walls,  or  a  combination  of  an  exterior  brick  shell  and  an 
interior  concrete  wall  may  be  used. 

2.  Reinforcing     Material.       Reinforcement     for     concrete     shall     consist     of 
steel    rods    at    least    %    inch    in    diameter,    spaced    4    inches    on    centres,    and 
running   in   both    directions   at   right   angles    to    each   other.      These   rods   shall 
be    securely    wired    together    at    intersections    not    over     12    inches    apart    in 
both    directions,    and    shall    be    installed    with    one    set    placed    3    inches    from 
each   face  of  each  wall. 

Any  other  form  of  reinforcing,  of  equal  or  greater  cross  section,  may 
be  used. 

Rolled  beams  or  rails  are  frequently  used  for  roof  and  floor  reinforcement 
and  are  occasionally  .used  in  walls  as  well,  both  to  secure  fire  and  burglar 
resisting  powers.  They  are  advised  in  the  case  of  roofs,  because  of  their 
impact  resisting  powers. 

3.  Continuous   construction.      Concrete    work    should   be   carried    on   continu- 
ously as   nearly  as  practicable   and  be   thoroughly  tamped   and   spaded.      Walls 
should  be  carried  up  uniformly. 

WALLS.— -4.  Support.  Shall  be  built  on  ground  (on  rock  if  possible)  in 
non-fireproof  buildings,  and  preferably  also  in  fireproof  ones. 

Where  supported  on  steel  framework  of  a  building,  supporting  steel  shall 
have  especially  large  factor  of  safety,  shall  be  protected  with  at  least  6 
inches  of  reinforced  concrete,  and  reinforcing  material  around  columns  and 
beams  shall  be  securely  anchored. 

NOTE. — Concrete  is  specified  for  protection  to  steel,  because  both  materials 
have  approximately  the  same  co-efficient  of  expansion. 

5.  Independent.      Walls    of    vaults    shall    be    entirely    independent    of    those 
of  building,   and   at  a  sufficient   distance  to  permit  of  inspection. 

6.  Carrying   Floors.      Floors  of   building  shall   preferably  be   independent   of 
vault  walls,  but,  if  connected,  shall  be  so  arranged  that  in  event  of  building 
collapsing  they  will   pull   away  without   reducing  the  strength   or  fire-resisting 
qualities  of   the  vaults. 

*As  given   in   the  regulations  of  the   National   Board   of   Fire   Underwriters. 

458 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  VAULTS  459 

7.  Thickness.  Reinforced  concrete  wall  shall  he  at  least  16  inches  thick. 
Brick  walls  shall  be  at  least  20  inches  thick.  If  concrete  wall  is  protected 
with  a  brick  shell,  concrete  shall  be  at  least  12  inches,  and  brick  at  least 
8  inches  thick. 

ROOF. — 8.  Thickness.  Shall  be  at  least  4  inches  greater  than  for  walls, 
and.  in  buildings  where  great  impact  possibilities  exist,  frequently  much 
thicker. 

9.  Strength.       Shall    have    strength    of    spans    consistent    with    surrounding 
conditions,    especially   possible   impact    of    falling   bodies,    such    as   walls,   safes, 
and    machinery. 

10.  Interior    Columns.      Where    span    is    sufficiently    large,    the    introductions 
of    interior    columns    or    girders    or    division    walls    may    be    necessary.      Steel 
columns    or    girders    shall    be    protected    with    at    least    2    inches    of    reinforced 
concrete. 

FLOORS. — ii.  Thickness.  Shall  be  at  least  12  inches  thick  where  laid  upon 
ground,  or  on  beams  to  permit  inspection,  and  thicker  if  deemed  necessary. 

NOTE. — To  permit  of  inspection  to  protect  against  tunneling  into  vaults, 
floors  are  sometimes  placed  on  parallel  beams. 

Where  vault  is  over  one  story  high,  and  where  each  story  is  entered 
separately,  the  floors  between  stories  shall  be  at  least  6  inches  thick  and 
not  pierced. 

12.  Flooring.  No  combu  tible  surface  flooring  shall  be  used.  This  is  not 
intended  to  prohibit  the  limited  use  of  non-flammable  runners. 

ENTRANCE  ENCLOSURES. — 13.  Entrance  enclosures  are  recommended  to  pro- 
tect doors  of  very  important  vaults  against  fire  and  against  attack  by  mobs. 

DOORS.— 14.  Single  d^ors  (without  inner  doors,  creating  dead  air  spaces) 
shall  be  at  least  16  inches  thick,  and  shall  contain  at  least  6  inches  of  con- 
crete filling  of  as  large  an  area  as  the  design  will  permit. 

15.  When    double    doors    are    used,    outer    doors    shall    be    at    least    8    inches 
thick,  and  shall   contain  at  least   3   inches  of  concrete  filling,   and  of  as  large 
an    area   as   the    design   will    permit. 

1 6.  Emergency    doors,    if    provided,    shall    be    equal    in    strength    and    thick- 
ness  to   main   door,    and   an   interference   device    shall   be   provided   to   prevent 
the    main    door    being   closed    until    the    emergency    one    is    closed    and    locked. 

17.  Fit.      Outer    door    shall    be    stepped    or    tongued    and    grooved,    or    both, 
in  order   to  protect  against  fire,  smoke,   and   water. 

Important  doors  should  have  doors  and  jambs  ground  to  a  fit,  should  be 
provided  with  packing,,  and  such  doors  and  jambs  should  be  tested  for 
waterproofness  after  erection. 

It  is  suggested  that  packing  may  advantageously  be  provided  on  inner 
doors  as  additional  protection. 

18.  When    double    doors    are    used,    inner    doors    shall    be    of    steel   plate,    at 
least    %    inch    thick,    reinforced   to    give    stability,    and   provided    with    suitable 
locking  mechanism. 

19.  The  air  space  between  inner  and  outer  doors  shall  be  at  least  12  inches. 
INTERFERENCE  MECHANISM. — 20.   Shall  preferably  be  provided  so  as  to  make 

it  necessary  to  close  inner  doors  before  outer  ones,  when  double  doors 
are  used. 

WATER-TIGHTNESS.- -2 1.  Walls,  roof,  and  floors  to  be  effectively  water- 
proofed, but  no  combustible  material  shall  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Where  vaults  are  located  in  basements"  or  at  other  low  points,  special 
provision  to  prevent  entrance  of  water,  such  as  raised  sills,  large  area  floor 
drains  for  basement,  and  packing  in  grooves  may  be  warranted. 

Storage  vaults  often  can  have  raised  sills  without  inconvenience.  Operat- 
ing vaults,  where  travel  through  openings,  including  that  by  trucks,  is 


460  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

frequent,  can  usually  not ,  have  a  sill  more  than  a  few  inches  high,  even 
where  provided  with  a  sloping  approach. 

Where  there  is  a  possibility  of  water  entering  vaults,  contents  that  can 
be  damaged  by  water  should  not  be  placed  close  to  the  floor. 

VENTILATION. — 22.  Ventilation  of  interior  shall  be  only  through  doors. 
Walls,  floors,  and  roofs  shall  not  be  pierced.  For  large  vaults,  inside  perma- 
nent duct  systems,  fed  by  temporary  section  of  ducts  when  doors  are  open, 
are  used. 

INTERIOR  EQUIPMENT.- — 23.  Shelving,  stairs,  book  lifts,  and  all  other  in- 
terior equipment  shall  be  entirely  of  metal.  Designs  embodying  compart- 
ments with  doors  shall  be  used  for  the  storage  of  papers  or  other  com- 
bustible materials. 

LIGHTING. — 24.  a.  Shall  be  by  electricity  only,  and  wiring  shall  be  in- 
stalled in  accordance  with  the  National  Electrical  Code. 

b.  Where    possible    it    is    recommended    that    current    be    secured    through    a 
cord    carried    from    an    inside    connection    to    an    outside    one    and    after    the 
opening  of  the  door. 

c.  If    wiring    enters    the    vault    except    through    the    door    opening,    it    shall 
enter   the   vault   wall   near    the   floor,    be   encased    near   the   outer   surface   of 
the  wall  to   a  point  near  the  ceiling  of  the  vault,  and  then  enter  the  vault. 

d.  The  closing  of   the   door  shall   automatically   cut   off   current  except   that 
some    emergency    lighting    may    remain    in    service,    and    that    provision    may 
be  made    for  telephone,   annunciator,   and   alarm  connections. 

e.  Pendant    cords    shall    be    avoided.      If    used,    they   shall    be    of    reinforced 
type,   and   lamps   shall   have   guards. 

CLASS  B   VAULTS 

NOTE. — Vaults  usually  erected  in  tiers  and  designed  to  afford  a  large 
measure  of  protection  to  their  contents,  assuming  even  the  total  burn-out  of 
the  building  in  which  the  vault  is  located. 

AREA. — i.  Inside  floor  area  shall  not  exceed  150  square  feet.  Height 
will  naturally  be  similar  to  that  of  stories  where  a  tier  of  vaults  is  built. 

MATERIAL. — 2.  Concrete  or  Brick.  Reinforced  concrete  of  same  quality 
specified  for  Class  "A"  Vaults,  or  hard  burned  brick  laid  in  Portland  cement 
mortar  shall  be  used. 

3.  Reinforcement.      If  reinforced  concrete  is  used,   the  reinforcing  material 
shall    consist    of    steel    rods    at    least    %    inch    in    diameter,    spaced    4    inches 
on    centres    and    running    in    both    directions    at    right    angles    to    each    other. 
These    rods    shall    be    securely    wired    together    at    intersections    not    over    12 
inches  apart  in   both   directions,   and  be   installed  in   centre  of  wall. 

Any  other  form  of  reinforcing,  of  equal  or  greater  cross  section,  may 
be  used. 

Rolled  beams  or  rails  are  frequently  used  for  floor  and  roof  reinforcement 
and  are  occasionally  used  in  walls  as  well,  both  to  secure  fire  and  burglar 
resisting  powers.  They  are  advised  in  the  case  of  roofs  because  of  their 
impact  resisting  powers. 

4.  Continuous     Construction.       The     principles     laid    down     for     Class    "A" 
Vaults   shall   be    followed    where    reinforced   concrete    is   used. 

WALLS. — 5.  Support.  Shall  preferably  lie  built  on  the  ground,  on  rock  if 
possible,  and  shall  have  footings  capable  of  carrying  the  load  without  danger 
of  settling. 

Where  walls  do  not  rest  upon  the  ground,  they  shall  rest  upon  steel 
framework,  which  is  insulated  against  heat  with  concrete  in  the  same  manner 
specified  for  Class  "A"  Vaults. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  VAULTS  461 

6.  Independent.       Shall    preferably    be    independent    of    the    walls    of    the 
building,  but,  if  not,  shall  be  effectively  bonded  to  the  building  walls. 

7.  Thickness.      Concrete    walls    shall    be    not    less    than    12    inches    thick    for 
3    upper   stories,   and  not  less  than    16  inches   thick   for   next   3   stories  below. 
Brick   walls   shall   be   not   less   than    16    inches   thick    for   3    upper   stories,   and 
not   less   than    20   inches   thick   for   next   3    stories   below. 

8.  Carrying    of    Floors.       Building    floors    shall    preferably    not    be    carried 
by   vault   walls,   but   if  so   carried   the   wall   thickness   at   no    point   to    be    less 
than    12   inches   in   the   case   of  concrete   and  not   less   than    16   inches   in   that 
of  brick,   and  floor  beams  shall  be  self-releasing. 

ROOF. — 9.  Thickness.  When  of  reinforced  concrete  shall  be  not  less  than 
12  inches  thick,  and,  where  top  of  vault  is  below  roof  of  building,  thickness 
may  need  to  be  increased  to  provide  strength  to  resist  impact. 

Brick  arch  roofs,  while  not  objectionable,  are  not  recommended.  If  used, 
minimum  thickness  of  arch  shall  be  16  inches.  Tie  rods  may  be  needed. 

10.  Strength.  Shall  have  strength  of  spans  consistent  with  surrounding 
conditions,  especially  possible  impact  of  falling  bodies,  such  as  walls,  safes 
and  machinery. 

FLOORS. — n.  Thickness.  Shall  be  not  less  than  8  inches  thick  if  of  rein- 
forced concrete  and  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  if  brick  arched. 

12.  Flooring.      No    combustible    flooring   shall   be    used. 

DOORS. — These  specifications  closely  follow  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters'  Regulations  for  the  Construction  and  Installation  of  Fire 
Doors  and  Shutters;  see  page  367. 

INKER  DOORS. — 19.  a.  Plates  to  be  not  less  than  %  inch  iron  or  steel. 
Plates  to  be  reinforced  around  all  edges  with  i^£  x  ^4  inch  bar  iron,  or 
equivalent,  secured  with  rivets  at  least  %  inch  in  diameter  and  spaced  not 
over  9  inches  on  centres. 

b.  Doors    to    be    provided    with    at    least    two    hinges    each,    material    to    be 
not   less   than    i%  x  *4    inch,    secured   with   at   least    two    rivets   to   both    frame 
and  door. 

c.  Latches    to    engage    at    top    and    bottom,    and    at    least    at    one    point    on 
meeting   edges   of   doors.      Doors   to   fit    frames    tightly. 

AIR  SPACE. — 20.  Between  inner  and  outer  doors  there  shall  be  at  least  12 
inches  of  air  space. 

INTERFERING  MECHANISM,  WATER-TIGHTNESS,  VENTILATION,  INTERIOR  EQUIP- 
MENT and  LIGHTING. — Same  as  for  Class  "A"  Vaults. 

CLASS   C  VAULTS 

Vaults  erected  upon  the  framework  of  fireproof  buildings;  the  safety  of 
such  vaults  is  directly  dependent  upon  the  fireproof  qualities  of  the  build- 
ings. Vaults  built  in  vertical  lines  make  it  possible  to  provide  particularly 
good  fireproofing  for  bays  in  which  such  vaults  are  located. 

SIZE. — i.    Inside    floor   area /shall    not   exceed    100    square    feet. 

Clearance  between  top  of  vault  and  lowest  structural  member  of  floor 
above  shall  not  be  less  than  12  inches,  and  space  between  top  of  vault  and 
floor  above  shall  be  closed  up  with  non-combustible  material  which  will 
readily  crush  in  event  of  deflections  of  floors. 

MATERIAL. — 2.  Shall  be  of  reinforced  concrete  of  the  same  quality  as 
specified  for  Class  "A"  Vaults. 

Reinforcement  for  concrete  shall  consist  of  steel  rods  at  least  %  inch  in 
diameter,  spaced  4  inches  on  centres  and  running  in  both  directions  at  right 
angles  to  each  other.  These  rods  shall  be  securely  wired  together  at 
intersections  not  over  12  inches  apart  in  both  directions,  and  be  installed 
centrally  in  each  wall. 


462  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Any  other  form  of  reinforcement,  of  equal  or  greater  cross  section,  may 
be  used. 

WALLS.— 3.    Thickness.      Shall    be    at   least    8    inches   thick. 

Supports.  Shall  be,  in  so  far  as  possible,  built  upon  the  girders  and 
beams  of  the  building.  Special  framework,  to  take  care  of  the  vault  loads, 
is  often  advisable.  Special  care  shall  be  exercised  in  fireproofing  these 
supporting  members.  Columns  shall  not  pass  through  vaults  or  their  walls. 

4.  Independent.  Shall  be  independent  of  walls  of  buildings,  of  partitions, 
and  of  fireproofing  of  columns.  Each  vault  preferably  shall  be  independent 
of  other  vaults. 

FLOORS. — 5.  Floors  of  vaults  may  serve  as  floors  of  buildings  provided  the 
reinforcing  material  is  protected  with  at  least  2  inches  of  concrete. 

6.  Thickness.      Shall    be    at   least   8    inches   thick. 

7.  Flooring.      No    combustible    flooring    shall    be    permitted. 
ROOFS. — 8.    Reinforcement.      Same    as    for   floors. 

9.  Thickness.      Shall   be  at   least   8   inches   thick,   and   the   top    of   any   vault 
one    or   more    stories   below    the  roof   of    the    building   in    which    it    is    located 
shall    be    at    least    12    inches   thick,    providing    there    is    no    other    vault    imme- 
diately above  it. 

10.  Independent.      Roofs    of    vaults    shall    be    independent    of    floors,    roofs, 
or   ceilings   of   buildings. 

DOORS. — ii.  Single  doors,  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  and  containing  not 
less  than  3  inches  of  concrete,  are  considered  desirable  for  this  class  of 
vault.  By  means  of  packing  and  a  pressure  mechanism  considerable  water- 
tightness  can  be  secured.  Otherwise  the  double  type  of  door  shall  be  used, 
as  per  the  Class  "  B  "  Vault  specification. 

INTERFERING  MECHANISM,  WATER-TIGHTNESS,  VENTILATION,  INTERIOR  EQUIP- 
MENT and  LIGHTING. — Same  as  for  Class  "A"  Vaults. 


PROTECTION 

FIRE    PROTECTION    FOR    PEOPLE    IN 
BUILDINGS 

In  his  testimony  before  the  State  Factory  Investigating  Commis- 
sion in  1912,  Mr.  Rudolph  P.  Miller,  Superintendent  of  the  Bureau 
of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  recommended  the 
adoption  of  radical  measures,  substantially  as  follows,  for  the  pro- 
tection against  fire  of  factory  workers  and  others : 

Systematic  inspection  to  see  that  safe  conditions  are  maintained 
should  be  provided.  Ample  authority  should  be  given  to  the  ad- 
ministrative officer  to  secure  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  law. 
The  necessary  exit  facilities  and  physical  safeguards  should  be  pre- 
scribed in  sufficient  detail  to  fix  a  safe  standard.  The  number  of 
occupants  should  be  limited  by  law  in  accordance  with  the  exit 
facilities  provided. 

The  occupancy  of  a  new  building  or  the  change  of  occupancy  of 
an  existing  building  should  be  prohibited  until  a  certificate  has  been 
issued  by  the  proper  authority.  Fire  drills,  or  at  least  adequate 
instructions  to  employees  as  to  safeguarding  life,  should  be  de- 
manded in  all  workshops  and  factories.  The  jurisdiction  over  exit 
facilities  and  inspection  in  connection  therewith  should  be  vested 
with  the  same  officials  that  administer  the  building  law. 

Stairs. — No  door,  stair  or  passageway 'shall  be  less  than  3  ft.  4  in. 
in  the  clear.  At  least  two  separate  staircases,  with  the  necessary 
doors  and  passageways,  shall  be  provided  for  any  building  over 
three  stories  in  height  or  over  3,000  sq.  ft.  in  area.  When  more 
than  one  is  required  the  stairs  shall  be  so  placed  that  at  least  one 
is  always  accessible  to  the  occupants  in  case  any  one  of  the  others 
is  rendered  impassable  for  some  reason,  and  that  it  shall  not  be 
necessary  to  travel  more  than  80  ft.  in  a  direct  horizontal  line  to 
reach  either  one  of  any  two.  All  stairs  shall  be  enclosed  in  an 
approved  fireproof  construction  and  shall  have  a  direct  exterior 
outlet  to  the  street  or  to  a  court  leading  to  a  street,  at  the  ground 
floor.  The  risers  and  treads  of  stairs  shall  be  so  proportioned  that 
the  stairs  furnish  a  safe  and  comfortable  line  of  travel.  .  .  .  No 
flight  of  stairs  shall  have  a  vertical  rise  of  more  than  12  ft.  between 
floors  or  intermediate  platforms;  and  in  straight  runs  platforms 
shall  be  spaced  equidistant  between  upper  and  lower  limits. 

463 


464  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Doors  and  Passageways. — The  aggregate  clear  width  of  doors 
and  passageways  intended  to  serve  as  exits  from  any  building  or 
part  of  a  building  shall  be  at  least  12  in.  for  every  twenty  persons 
to  be  accommodated,  provided  none  is  less  than  40  in.  wide. 

The  aggregate  clear  width  of  stairs  and  stair  halls  shall  be  such 
that  the  stairs  in  any  story  of  a  building  may  accommodate  at  one 
time  the  total  number  of  persons  ordinarily  occupying  or  permitted 
to  occupy  any  one  floor  above  the  flight  of  stairs  under  considera- 
tion, on  the  basis  that  at  least  20  in.  of  width  and  one  and  one-half 
treads  are  required  per  person. 

When  the  building  is  of  thoroughly  fire-proof  construction,  with 
no  communication  from  floor  to  floor  except  by  elevators  in  solid 
fireproof  enclosures  and  stairs  in  fire  towers  constructed  as  ^herein 
elsewhere  described  and  all  openings  to  the  outer  air  are  protected 
by  metal  and  wire  glass  windows  or  doors  of  approved  construction, 
a  reduction  of  20  per  cent,  in  the  aggregate  width  may  be  made. 

When  an  approved  equipment  of  automatic  sprinklers  is  installed 
in  any  building,  a  reduction  of  25  per  cent,  in  the  aggregate  width 
specified  may  be  made. 

When  fire  walls,  of  such  strength  and  construction  as  to  resist 
fire  for  at  least  30  minutes,  equipped  with  adequate  openings  pro- 
tected by  approved  automatic  fire  doors,  are  provided,  a  reduction 
°f  33l/3  per  cent,  in  the  aggregate  width  specified  may  be  made. — 
From  the  Engineering  Record,  Sept.  14,  1912. 

Improvement  to  Existing  Fire  Escapes. — Considerable  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  improvement  of  fire  escape  facilities  in 
the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  New  York,  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 
Although  exterior  fire  escapes  are  considered  as  more  or  less  un- 
satisfactory makeshifts  on  account  of  their,  exposure  to  flame  and 
smoke  and  for  other  reasons,  some  valuable  improvements  have 
recently  been  made  in  them. 

In  New  York  ordinary  outside  fire  escapes  generally  consist  of 
a  series  of  iron  balconies  at  the  several  stories,  connected  by  stairs 
and  provided  with  a  movable  ladder  to  be  let  down  from  the  lowest 
balcony  if  necessary.  It  was  found  that  these  ladders,  although 
limited  in  length  and  strength,  were  often  too  heavy  to  be  safely 
handled  by  the  people  forced  to  use  the  fire  escape,  and  that  fire- 
men were  frequently  required  to  assist  people  down  the  fire  escapes. 
It  is,  therefore,  recommended  that  the  lowest  ladder  shall  be  bal- 
anced with  a  counterweight  and  furnished  with  guides  to  insure  its 
control. 

In  cases  where  a  large  number  of  people  are  to  be  cared  for 
balanced  iron  stairs  are  recommended  to  give  a  higher  capacity 
than  is  possible  with  ladders.  As  the  use  of  balancing  ladders  or 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      465 

stairs  permits  them  to  be  longer  the  height  of  the  lowest  balcony 
above  the  street  may  be  increased  and  recourse  may  be  had  to  inter- 
mediate platforms,  as  shown  in  the  view  of  balanced  first-escape  stairs. 
For  factories,  schools  and  other  buildings  where  there  are  apt  to 
be  large  numbers  of  people,  exterior  stairways  with  steel  supports 
have  been  required.  The  capacities  of  some  ordinary  outside  fire 
escapes  have  been  greatly  increased  by  arranging  two  intersecting 
stairs  in  the  form  of  an  X  in  the  spaces  between  successive  balconieb 
usually  occupied  by  a  single  stair. — From  The  Engineering  Record. 
Sept.  21,  1912. 

Means  of  Egress-  from  Buildings. — In  a  report  made  by  the 
National  Fire  Protection  Association  Committee  on  Safety  to  Lift 
is  the  following  statement: 

"  It  has  long  been  recognized  that  the  common  outside  form  of  iron 
ladder-like  stairway  anchoied  to  the  side  of  the  building  is  a  pitiful  delusion. 
This  device  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  has  contributed  the  principal  clement 
of  tragedy  to  all  fires  where  panic  resulted.  Passing  successively  the  window 
openings  of  each  floor,  tongues  of  flame  issuing  from  the  window  of  any 
one  floor  cut  off  the  descent  of  all  on  floors  above  it.  Iron  is  quickly 
heated  and  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  and  expansion  of  the  bolts,  stays 
and  fastenings  soon  pulls  the  framework  loose,  so  that  the  weight  of  a 
single  body  may  precipitate  it  into  the  street  or  alley.  Many  a  human 
being  has  grasped  the  hot  rail  of  such  a  '  fire  escape,'  only  to  release  it 
with  a  scream  and  leap  from  it  in  agony.  Its  platforms  are  usually  pitifully 
small,  and  a  rush  to  them  from  several  floors  at  once  jams  and  chokes  them 
hopelessly.  It  is  a  makeshift  creation  of  the  cupidity  of  landlords,  frequently 
rendered  still  more  useless  by  the  ignorance  of  tenants,  covered  up  with 
milk  bottles,  ice  boxes  and  other  obstructions." 

This  powerful  arraignment  unquestionably  is  deserved  by  a  very  large 
percentage  of  the  outside  fire  escapes  in  use  to-day.  The  following  common 
defects  exist  on  many: 

(a)  Inaccessible    to    many    portions   of    buildings,    except    by    going    into    the 
halls,    which   may    be   impassable    owing   to   flames   and   smoke. 

(b)  Unshielded    against   fire    in    lower   stories. 

(c)  Poor   design,   especially   as   regards  steepness   and   lack   of   width. 

(d)  Poor    supports.       Expansion    bolts    and    even     lag    screws     in     wooden 
plugs    have    been    used    to    support    fire    escapes. 

(e)  Absence   of   any   form   of   ladder   or   stair   from    the   second   floor  to   the 
ground,    or    complicated    and    inefficient    arrangement    of    vertical    drop    ladders. 

(f)  Poor  condition.     Fire  escapes  are  generally  regarded  as  a  necessary,  evil, 
and   receive  very  little  attention. 

(g)  Ice  and  snow  covering, 
(h)    Used  for  storage. 

Covered  by  Model  Building  Code.— Part  IX  of  the  Building 
Code  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  covers  this  sub- 
ject in  great  detail;  as  it  is  daily  becoming  more  generally  recog- 
nized that  the  question  of  safety  to  life  in  the  modern  factory  and 
office  building  is  one  worthy  of  considerable  expenditure  of  money, 
and  as  the  treatment  of  the  question  in  the  Building  Code  covers 


466  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

the  subject  better  than  any  other  description  now  before  the  public, 
this  entire  chapter  is  reprinted  below.  The  reference  to  sections 
is  to  other  parts  of  the  code.  Any  section  under  44  and  over  49 
will  be  found  on  pages  293  to  349,  inclusive. 

SECTION  44.  NUMBER  AND  WIDTH  OF  EXITS  AND  DOORS. — i.  Every  build- 
ing, except  dwellings,  and  every  story  in  each  building  above  the  first, 
shall  have  at  least  two  means  of  exit  remote  from  each  other;  one  of  these 
shall  open  to  a  street  or  fireproof  passage  leading  to  a  street,  and  one  may 
open  to  a  yard  or  other  space  deemed  safe  by  the  superintendent  and  of 
sufficient  area  to  accommodate  all  persons  in  the  building.  Two  means  of 
exit  remote  from  each  other  shall  be  provided  from  each  story  of  dwellings 
when  over  three  stories  in  height. 

2.  In    every    building   except   buildings    of    Class    D,    all    required    exit    doors 
in    the    first    story,    including    the    doors    of    vestibules,    shall    open    outwards. 
This    requirement    shall    not    prohibit    the    use    of    doors    which    swing    both    in- 
wards   and    outwards,    nor    of    sliding    or    rolling    doors    in    stables,    garages, 
storerooms,    and    the    shipping    and    receiving    rooms    of    manufacturing,    mer- 
cantile   and    industrial    buildings,    where    approved    by    the    superintendent. 

3.  When    exit    doorways    have    a    clear    width    of    at    least    40    inches    each, 
the   aggregate   widths   of   such   doorways  shall   be   equal   to   the    required    width 
of    corridor    or    stairway    served    by    same.      When    individual    doors    are    less 
than    40    inches    wide,    there    shall    be    one    doorway    for    each    22    inches    of 
required    width    of    corridor    or    stairway    leading    to    same.       Every     doorway 
shall    be    at    least    28    inches    wide    in    the    clear.      All    passageway    exit    doors 
shall   swing  in   the   direction   of   exit   travel,   except   in   case   of   horizontal   exits 
where    direction    of    travel    may    be    indeterminate. 

All  exit  doors  leading  from  rooms  having  an  occupancy  of  15  or  over, 
shall  open  in  the  direction  of  exit  travel,  except  in  schools  where  fire  drills 
are  organized  under  control  of  the  teachers. 

NOTE. — In  schools  where  pupils  ^are  trained  in  fire  drill,  it  is  considered 
essential  that  classroom  doors  should  open  inwards,  as  they  are  better  adapted 
to  positive  control  by  the  teachers  in  time  of  panic.  If  necessary,  a  teacher 
can  back  against  a  door  and  hold  it  until  the  pupils  are  in  marching  order, 
and  the  proper  time  arrives  for  them  to  file  out. 

4.  The    opening    of    one    door    shall    not    be    permitted    to    obstruct    another, 
and    the    arc    of    opening    of    doors    which    open    upon    stairway    landings    or 
platforms    shall    not    reduce    the    width    of    the    passageway    to    less    than    the 
required  width   of  the   stairs. 

5.  Every    room    having   an    occupancy    of    more    than    75    persons    shall    have 
at   least  two   doorways   remote    from   each   other   leading   to   exits. 

6.  Hallways    or   corridors   at   the   street   or   court   level    furnishing   exit    from 
stairways,  shall  be  not  less  in  width  than  the  aggregate  width  of  the  required 
stairways    which    they    serve.      Every    hallway    or    corridor    which    may    serve 
as   an   exit   for    50   or   more    persons,    shall   have    at   least   44    inches   of    width 
for  the  first  50  persons  and  6  inches  additional  for  each  additional  50  persons 
to  be  accommodated  thereby.     This  computation  shall  be  based  on  the  number 
of  persons  in  the  story  having  the  largest  occupancy  served  by  said  corridor. 

7.  At   all   times   when   any   loft   or   space    is   occupied    for   manufacturing   or 
mercantile   purposes,    the    fastenings   or    locks    on   exit    doors   shall    be   such   as 
may  be  easily  opened  from  the  inside   without   the  use  of  keys. 

8.  A    clearly    painted    sign    marked    "  EXIT "    in    letters    not    less    than    6 
inches  in  height,  shall  be  placed  over  all  exits  in  the  above  specified  buildings. 
The    elevators    shall   be   provided    with    similar   signs    marked    "  ELEVATOR." 
Such  signs  shall  be  illuminated  when  necessary  by  means  of  artificial  lighting. 
The   color   of   such   light   shall   be   green. 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      467 

NOTE. — It  has  been  customary  to  designate  an  exit  by  a  red  light,  but  State 
and  National  Safety  Organizations  have  adopted  green  as  the  standard  color 
to  indicate  safety,  and  red  to  signify  danger.  It  is  therefore  consistent  that 
exit  signs  which  betoken  safety,  should  be  marked  by  green  lights. 

9.  Elevators,    escalators    and    revolving    doors    shall    not    be    considered    in 
calculating    exit    requirements. 

10.  Entrances    and     doors     in     tenement     houses,     theatres,     motion     picture 
theatres,    and    places    of    public    or    private    entertainment,    shall    be    as    else- 
where   provided. 

SECTION  45.  STAIRS  AND  STAIRWAYS,  CONSTRUCTION  OF. — i.  All  buildings 
which  are  used  above  the  first  floor  for  manufacturing  or  business  purposes, 
or  for  public  assemblage,  or  for  any  purpose  whatever  if  over  three  stories 
ur  40  feet  high,  except  armories,  court  houses,  dwellings,  fire  houses,  jails, 
libraries,  museums,  police  stations,  prisons,  railway  stations,  and  similar 
buildings,  shall  have  the  required  stair  shafts  separately  and  continuously 
enclosed,  as  specified  in  Sections  90  and  93.  In  fireproof  buildings  all  stairs, 
platforms,  landings,  and  stair  hallways,  including  the  flooring,  shall  be  of 
fireproof  construction. 

Enclosure    for    stair    hallway,    same    as    stair    shaft,    Sec.    115,    par.    7. 

_•.  All  stairs,  platforms,  landings,  balconies  and  stair  hallways,  shall  be 
of  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  safely  a  live  load  of  not  less  than  100 
pounds  per  square  foot  for  interior  construction,  and  150  pounds  per  square 
foot  for  exterior  construction,  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  4  in  each  case; 
and  except  in  dwellings  shall  conform  to  nil  the  requirements  of  th's  section 
as  to  hand  rails,  newels,  landings,  widths,  exits,  and  prohibition  against 
winding  treads.  The  space  beneath  any  stairway  built  in  whole  or  in  part 
of  combustible  material  shall  be  left  entirely  open  or  be  completely  enclosed 
without  door  or  other  opening. 

3.  No    stories    in    any    building    shall    be    connected    by    an    open    shaft    or 
stairway    except    dwellings    and    buildings    provided    in    paragraph    i. 

4.  Stairways    used    as    required    means    of    exit    shall    be    at    least    44    inches 
wide    between    faces    of    walls,    or    40    inches    wide    between    face    of    wall    and 
an    open    balustrade,    or    between    two    open    balustrades.       All    such    widths 
shall    be    clear    of    all    obstructions    except    that    hand    rails    attached    to    walls 
may  project  not  more  than  3%  inches  within  them.      If  newels  project  above 
tops   of   rails,  a   clear   width   of   at   least   44   inches   shall   be   provided   between 
the    faces    of    the    newel    and    the    face    of    the    wall    or    newel    opposite.      All 
stairs   shall    have    walls    or    well-secured   balustrades    or   guards  on    both    sides, 
and    except    in    dwellings,    shall    have    hand    rails    on    both    sides.      A    stairway 
of  7   feet  or  more  in  width  shall  be  provided  with  a  continuous  intermediate 
hand   rail   substantially   supported.     All  stairs   shall   have    treads   and    risers   of 
uniform  width  and   height  throughout  each  flight;   the  rise   shall   be  not  more 
than    7%    inches,    and    the    tread    exclusive    of    the    nosing    not    less    than    gl/2 
inches.      Stairways   exceeding    12    feet    in    height    shall    have    an    intermediate 
landing,    at    least    3    feet    in   length. 

NOTE. — For  stairways  in  primary  schools  it  may  be  advisable  to  reduce 
the  height  of  risers  here  given. 

Buildings  in  which  there  may  be  a  congregation  of  people  for  civic,  political, 
educational,  religious  or  amusement  purposes,  except  as  provided  for  theatres 
and  in  those  used  for  the  care  or  treatment  of  persons,  all  stairs  exceeding 
8  feet  in  height  shall  have  an  intermediate  landing  at  least  3  feet  in  length. 

5.  No    arrangement    of    treads    known    as    winders    shall    be    permitted    in 
required  stairways  between  the  level  of  the  top  floor  and  the  street,  excepting 
in    public    and    other    special    buildings    where    the    use    and    arrangement    is 
approved    by    the    superintendent. 


468  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Smokeproof  Tower  with  Outside  jBdlcony  Infra  nee 


Plan 


Inferior  or 
Building 


Fire  Z)oor 


Outside  bale  on 
Solid  -floo 


Outside 
Wall 


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1 

1 

I 
i 

i 

ffevafion 

,  - 

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1    , 

• 

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I 

~\ 

1 

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Uil  V 

Balcony 

| 

Smokeproof  Tower  with   Vestibule  Entr 


Plan 


Tnterior  of 
Building 


Elevation 

Vestibule 
opening 
extends 
from  floor" 
to 
ceilinjj. 

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^Railind 

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r/oorLme 

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!•;  . 

Railing       ^Vestibule  Opening 

Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.    62. — Diagrams    showing    different    arrangements    for    smoke-proof    towers. 
No    direct    communication    with    the    building. 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      469 

6.  Whenever    the    treads    or    landings    are    of    slate,    marble,    stone    or    com- 
position,   they    shall    be    supported    for    their    entire    length    and    width    by    a 
solid    metal    plate    at    least    %    inch    thick,    securely    fastened.      If    stairs    are 
of    incombustible    material,    other    than    metal,    and    treads    and    landings    are 
each    solidly    supported    for   their   entire   length   and   width   by   masonry,   metal 
supports    for   treads    may   be    omitted. 

7.  All    stairways    that    serve    as    required    means    of    exit    for    one    or    more 
of    the    upper    four    stories    of   every    building    shall    be    continued    their    full 
width    to    the    roof,    and    shall    lead    by    a    direct    line    of    travel    to    the    first 
story,  and  open  directly  on  the   street,  or  to  an  open-air  or  fireproof  passage 
leading  to  the  street,  or  to  a  yard  or  court  connected  with  the   street.      Such 
fireproof   passage   shall   be   not   less   than   7    feet   in   height. 

8.  The  continuity  of  all  stairs   which  may  be  used   for  exit  purposes,   shall 
be    interrupted   at    street    level    by   partitions   or    doors    or    other   means   which 
will  make  clear  the  direction   of  egress  to  the  street. 

NOTE.— The    purpose    of    this    is    to    prevent    trapping    in    the    basement    of 
people  who  are  trying  to  escape  to  the  street. 

9.  Every   enclosed   stairway    shall   be   provided   with    an    adequate    system,   of 
lighting,    arranged    to    insure     reliable    operation    when    through    accident    or 
other    causes    the    regular    lighting    is    extinguished. 

10.  All    required-stairways    shall    be    constructed    in    one    of    the    following 
three   ways,    and   shall    be    known    as   stair   exits: 

(a)  Enclosed     Interior     Stairways.       The     stairs,     landings,     platforms,     and 
passageways    connected    therewith,    shall    be    completely    enclosed    by    fireproof 
partitions    of    the    standard    required    in    Sections    90    and    93,    except    that    no 
glass    panels    shall    be    permitted    in    the    doors    in    buildings    of    Class    A    not 
exempted    in    paragraph    i. 

(b)  Smokeproof   Tower.      The   stairs,    landings,    and   balconies   or   platforms, 
shall    be   solid    and   completely   enclosed   as    required    for   interior   stairways    in 
Section   90,  and  shall  extend   from  the   sidewalk,  court,  or   yard  level,   to  and 
above  the  roof  to  form  a  bulkhead.     There  shall  be  no  openings  in  any  wall 
separating  the  stairway  from  the  building,  but  fixed  or  automatic  fire-windows 
sufficient    for    lighting    purposes    are    not    objectionable    in    the    exterior    walls, 
provided    they    are    not    subject    to    fire    exposure    hazard    from    the    same    or 
nearby  buildings.     Access  shall  be  provided  to  the  stairway   from  every  story 
of    the    building    by    outside    baloncies    of    steel    or    masonry,    or    by    vestibules 
within   the   walls  of  the  building  but  open   on  at  least   one   side.      Every  such 
balcony   or   vestibule  shall   have  an   unobstructed   width   of   at  least   44   inches, 
and   shall    open    upon    an   open    space   not   less   than    100    square    feet    in    area. 
The    balcony   or   vestibule   shall   be   provided   with   a   solid   incombustible    floor. 
Railings  of  steel,  or  other  approved   incombustible  material,  shall   be   provided 
not    less    than    4    feet    high.      Access    to    the    balcony    or    vestibule    from    the 
building    and    to    the    stairways    from    the    balcony    or    vestibule    shall    be    by 
approved  self-closing  fire  doors  not  less  than  40  inches  wide  and   7   feet  high, 
which    shall   swing    in   the    direction   of   exit   travel.      The   doors   shall   be   pro- 
vided with   locks  or  latches  with  visible   fastenings  requiring  no  keys  to  open 
them.     A  wired  glass  panel  not  exceeding  720  square  inches  shall  be  provided 
in    the    door    opening    into    the    stair    shaft.      The    level    of    the    balcony    or 
vestibule   floor  shall  be   not  more   than   7%    inches  below  the   door   sill   of   the 
building.      Landings    in    such    stairways    shall    be    of    a    width    that    the    doors 
in    opening    into    the    stairway    shall    not    reduce    the    free    passage-way   of    the 
landing   to    a    width    less    than    the    width    of   the    stairway.      Figure    62   shows 
typical    arrangements    for    smokeproof    towers.      Figures    64    to    68    are    photo- 
graphs    illustrating     different     architectural     treatment     of     epcterior     balcony 
connection    to    smokeproof    towers. 


470 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE  i — It  is  recommended  that  the  balustrades  enclosing  the  balconies 
of  smokeproof  towers  be  of  sheet  metal  or  other  suitable  solid  material. 
This  would  give  confidence  to  the  timid,  and  afford  valuable  protection 
from  smoke  and  flames  issuing  from  a  door  or  window  beneath  the  balcony. 

For  the  same  reasons,  the  balustrades  of  outside  exit  stairways,  where 
directly  over  or  near  wall  openings,  should  be  enclosed  in  the  same  manner. 

NOTE  2 — The  use  of  a  smokeproof  tower  or  stairway  is  recommended  a* 
one  of  the  best-known  means  of  safe  escape  from  a  burning  building.  At 
the  same  time  it  provides  a  protected  position  from  which  firemen  can 
attack  a  fire  on  any  floor. 

Plan  or  Smokeproof  Tower  wifh   Vestibule 
Entrance  Common  to  Two  £>uildin6s 


Party  Wall 


Interior  of 
Build in6 


Interior  of 
Building 


Open  Air  Vestibule 


Opening 
]in6 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.    63. — Diagram    of    smokeproof    tower    adapted    for    use    of    two    adjoining 

buildings 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      471 

(c)  Outside  Exit  Stairways.  Such  stairs  shall  be  connected  to  each  story 
by  means  of  an  approved  self-closing  fire  door  and  incombustible  balcony. 
The  door  shall  be  not  less  than  40  inches  wide,  and  the  balcony  shall  be 
the  same  width  as  the  stairs.  All  wall  openings  within  10  feet  of  such 
stairs  shall  be  protected  by  approved  self-closing  fire  doors  on  doorways, 
and  automatic  or  fixed  fire  windows  on  window  openings.  No  riser  on  such 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  64. — Smokeproof  tower  with  outside  balcony 
entrance.  Note  solid  platform,  an  excellent 
construction. 


stairs  shall  be  nearer  than  4  feet  to  any  such  wall  opening,  except  to  doors 
giving  access  to  the  same.  Metal  mesh  or  other  rigid  guards  at  least  4 
feet  high  shall  be  provided  on  each  side  of  such  stairway  throughout.  Figs. 
69  to  73  illustrate  different  methods  of  construction.  Provisions  shall  be  made 
to  properly  drain  the  stairs  and  landings. 

NOTE  i — It  is  very  important  that  outside  exit  stairways  be  so  placed  that 
they  are  not  in  front  of  or  over  windows.  Although  the  windows  be  pro- 
tected by  wired  glass,  the  heat  radiated  through  them  from  a  fire  in  the 
building  might  easily  make  it  impossible  for  people  to  pass,  and  there  is 


472 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


always  the  added  danger  of  flame  and  smoke  from  a  window  which  for  some 
reason  is  open.  If  such  windows  are  strictly  necessary,  the  stairway  should 
be  set  away  from  the  building  not  less  than  four  feet,  as  required.  Portions 
of  such  stairways  over  or  near  windows  should  be  made  solid,  and  additional 
safety  for  travel  in  cold  and  wet  weather  would  be  secured  by  making  all 
treads  and  landings  with  non-slipping  surfaces. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd   of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  65. — Smokeproof  tower  Con  the  right)  connected  to 
building  by  open  balcony.  Arrangement  is  good,  ex- 
cept the  windows  opening  upon  the  balcony,  and  the 
metal  grating  flooring. 


NOTE  2 — The  ordinary  so-called  "  fire  escapes,"  consisting  of  steel-framed 
balconies  attached  to  a  wall  and  connected  by  narrow  steel  ladders  or 
steps  leading  from  openings  in  the  floors  of  the  balconies,  are  considered  very 
inefficient  and  unsafe  means  of  ekit.  If  any  considerable  number  of  people 
attempt  to  use  such  an  exit  in  time  of  fire  panic,  it  quickly  becomes  so 
congested  that  travel  is  very  much  impeded  or  entirely  blocked.  If  fire 
occurs  on  the  floor  below  that  from  which  people  are  endeavoring  to  escape, 
and  the  windows  facing  such  exit  are  not  protected  by  wired  glass,  the 
fire  escape  is  worthless;  and  even  with  wired  glass  the  exit  is  of  doubtful 
value  because  of  the  intense  heat  which  radiates  through  the  windows.  Such 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      473 

means  of  exit  should  never  be  permitted  except  upon  existing  buildings, 
where  the  number  of  people  to  be  accommodated  by  them  is  small,  and  where 
structural  conditions  are  such  that  it  is  impossible  to  secure  anything  better. 
They  are  not  recognized  as  a  required  means  of  exit  in  this  code. 

The  horizontal  exit  and  the  three  types  of  stairways  specified  in  section  45 
are  all  efficient  and  safe  means  of  exit.  The  outside  exit  stairway  is  the  leabt 
desirable  of  the  four,  since  when  wet  or  covered  with  ice  or  snow  it  is  more 
difficult  to  travel.  A  roof  over  the  stairway  would  lessen  this  defect.  Com- 
pletely enclosing  the  stairway  would  render  it  nearly  as  efficient  as  a  smoke- 
proof  tower. 

Horizontal  exit,   Sees.  46,  par.  -2,    (c),   and  47. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  66. — An  artistic  arrangement  of  a  smokeproof  tower,  which  does 
not  disfigure  a  building 


The  Committee  on  Safety  to  Life  of  the  National  Fire  Protec- 
tion Association  reports: 

Except  they  be  enclosed  in  a  tower,  outside  stairs,  even  if  well  designed 
and  erected,  are  not  recommended  on  buildings  over  six  stories  in  height. 
The  fundamental  reason  lies  in  the  timidity  of  persons  at  a  considerable 
height,  no  matter  how  safe  the  conditions  may  actually  be. 


474 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Also    that: 

After  being  erected,  outside  stairs  shall  be  painted. 

Outside  stairs  shall  be  scraped  and  painted  at  least  once  a  year  thereafter. 

Outside  stairs  shall  be  kept  clear  of  incumbrances. 

Outside  stairs  shall  be  promptly  cleaned  after  snow  or  ice  has  accumulated 
upon  them. 

No  obstructions  such  as  lighting  or  telephone  wires,  shall  be  permitted  on 
or  near  outside  stairs. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  possible  interference  by  awnings  at 
windows  or  over  sidewalk,  and  to  other  obstructions  at  or  near  the  street 
level. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  67.. — An  excellent  arrangement  of  two  types  of  approved  emergency  fire 
exits  communicating  to  the  same  building.  Smokeproof  tower  on  the 
left,  and  outside  stairway  on  the  right.  Solid  floors  would  be  an  improve- 
ment. 

SECTION  46.     REQUIREMENTS  FOR   EXITS  AND  STAIRWAYS.— i.   Every  building 
hereafter    erected,    and    every    building    altered    or    converted    to    increase    its 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      475 


476 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


occupancy,  excepting  dwellings,  tenement  houses,  theatres,  and  assembly  halls, 
which  are  elsewhere  provided  for,  shall  have  exits  and  stairways  as  required 
in  this  section. 

2.  (a)  The  term  floor  area  in  this  section  shall  mean  the  entire  space  in  a 
given  story  between  exterior  walls,  fire  walls  or  fire  exit  partitions,  except 
that  in  computing  such  area  the  space  occupied  by  walls,  partitions,  columns, 
and  all  shafts  may  be  excluded. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  69. — Two  types  of  outside  exit  stairways.  One  with  stair  flights  parallel, 
and  the  other  at  right  angles  to  the  building.  The  former  has  the  defect 
of  windows  facing  the  stairway.  In  time  of  panic,  such  stairs  would  be 
safer  if  constructed  with  risers. 

(b)  The   term   stair   exit   in   this   section   shall  be    as    required   in   paragraph 
10,    Section   45. 

(c)  The    term    horizontal    exit    shall    be    understood    to    mean    one    or    more 
openings    through    or    around    a    fire    wall,    fire    exit    partition,    or    any    wall 
separating  two  buildings;   no  such  opening  shall  be  less  than   30   inches  wide: 
Or    such    an    exit    may    be    an    exterior    bridge    or    balcony    connecting    two 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      477 

buildings  or  two  floor  areas  of  the  same  building.  Where  there  is  a  dif- 
ference in  level  between  connected  buildings  or  floor  areas,  gradients  shall 
be  provided  of  not  more  than  i  foot  in  6  feet  where  practicable.  The 
bridges  or  balconies  shall  be  not  less  than  44  inches  wide,  and  shall  be 
constructed  of  incombustible  material,  and  enclosed  on  the  sides  at  least  4 
feet  high.  All  exterior  exposing  openings  in  connected  buildings  or  floor 
areas  within  10  feet  of  bridge  or  balcony  shall  be  protected  by  fire  doors 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's, 

FIG.  70. — Another  method  of  outside  exit  stairway  con- 
struction. Compare  framing  with  similar  stairway 
on  left  of  Fig.  69.  The  windows  opening  upon  both 
stair  flights  and  landings  are  a  serious  defect. 

or  fire  windows  with  fixed  or  automatic  sash.  The  floor  of  a  bridge  or 
balcony  shall  be  not  more  than  7%  inches  below  the  door  sill  opening  upon 
it;  the  connecting  floor  within  the  building  shall  be  not  more  than  i  inch 
below  the  sill.  Every  such  bridge  or  balcony  when  enclosed  shall  be  pro- 
vided with  means  for  lighting. 

Fire    exit    partitions    to    provide    horizontal    exits,    Sec.    47. 

Fire    walls    as    horizontal   exits,    Sec.    29,    par.    4. 


478 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


All  horizontal  exits  shall  be  provided  with  self-closing  fire  doors.  Such 
doors  shall  be  kept  unlocked  during  the  occupancy  of  any  portion  of  the 
floor  areas  or  connected  buildings.  No  glass  shall  be  used  in  such  doors 
when  used  on  exits  through  fire  walls  as  provided  in  Section  29,  paragraph  4. 
Wired  glass  may  be  used  in  doors  in  other  horizontal  exits  provided  it 
conforms  to  the  requirements  of  Section  47,  paragraph  4. 

Requirements    for    self-closing    fire-doors,    Sec.    29,    par.    4,    Note. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bel.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  71. — Very  safe  arrangement  of  outside  exit  stairway.  Arrow 
indicates  a  metal  guard  plate  3  feet  wide  erected  to  protect  land- 
ings from  flames  that  might  issue  from  windows. 

The  available  floor 'area  on  each  side  of  a  horizontal  exit  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  joint  occupancy  on  the  basis  of  not  less  than  3  square  feet  of 
unobstructed  space  per  person,  and  shall  be  provided  with  at  least  one 
stairway  as  defined  in  Section  45.  - 

NOTE. — As  a  means  of  rapid  and  safe  egress  from  a  burning  building,  the 
use  of  horizontal  exits  through  or  around  a  fire  wall  or  a  fire  exit  partition 
are  very  strongly  recommended.  Such  an  exit  would  afford  an  area  of 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS       479 


480  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

quick  refuge  upon  either  side.  An  important  feature  of  the  horizontal  exit 
is  that  it  removes  necessity  for  hasty  flight  down  long  stairways  in  case  of 
fire.  The  physical  effort  of  hurrying  down  stairs  from  a  height  of  even 
eight  or  ten  stories  is  excessive,  especially  for  those  who  are  not  strong. 
In  still  higher  buildings  there  is  always  danger  of  stairways  becoming  blocked 
by  people  collapsing  from  exhaustion  before  reaching  the  street  level.  Much 
of  this  danger  is  removed  when  people  know  they  are  safe. 

The  efficiency  of  a  horizontal  exit  as  a  means  of  escape  from  fire,  is 
considered  three  times  that  of  an  equal  width  of  stairway.  See  Note  in 
paragraph  6. 

3.  (a)    In   all   buildings   not   exempted   in   paragraph    i    of    this   section,    one 
of    the    two    required    means    of    exit    from    every    floor    area    above    the    first 
floor  shall  be  a  stair  exit,  and  the  other  may  be  a  stair  exit  or  a  horizontal 
exit.      No    part    of    any    floor    area    above    the    first    floor,    excepting    buildings 
of    Class    F,    shall    be    more    than    100    feet    distant    from    an    entrance    to    one 
such   means   of  exit. 

When  a  building  over  35  feet  in  height  is  occupied  for  business  purposes 
on  the  lower  floors  and  for  the  home  of  not  more  than  two  families  on 
the  floors  above,  at  least  one  continuous  enclosed  stairway  shall  be  provided 
to  the  street  level  through  the  stories  occupied  for  business. 

(b)  In    buildings    of    Class    E,    over    55    feet    high,    except    office    buildings, 
one   of   the   two   required   means    of   exit   shall    be    either    a   smokeproof    tower 
or    an    interior    enclosed    stairway    with    self-closing    doors-    opening    into    hall- 
ways which  are  also  enclosed  with  fireproof  partitions   as  specified   in   Section 
115,    paragraph    i. 

(c)  In    every   building   over    90    feet    in    height   one    of   the    required   means 
of   exit   shall   be   a   smokeproof   tower   or   a  horizontal   exit   as    herein   defined. 

4.  In    determining   the    occupancy    of   any    building,    the    width    of    stairways 
required   for   any   floor   area   above   the  first  floor   shall   be   determined   by   the 
number    of    persons    occupying    such    floor    area,    computed    on    the    basis    of 
fourteen    persons    for    each    22    inches    width    of    stairway,    plus    one    person 
for  every   3   square    feet  of   hallway  floor   and   stairway   landings   in   the    story 
height    of    such    floor,    excepting    that  .in    any    building    where    a    system    of 
automatic    sprinklers    is    installed    throughout    the    entire    building,    the    number 
and   width   of   stairways   may   be   computed   on   the   basis   of   twenty-one   persons 
for   each    22    inches    width    of    stairway;    and    excepting    that    when    horizontal 
exits  are   provided  as  requited-  in   paragraph   2    (c)    of  this  section,   the  number 
and  widths  of  required  stairways  for  floor  areas  above  the   first  floor  may  be 
diminished   to   a  basis   of   fifty   persons   for  each   22   inches   width   of   horizontal 
exit,  provided  that   in   no   case   there   shall   be   less  stairway   or  means   of   exit 
than   required   in   paragraph    3,    (a)    and    (b)  .of   this   section. 

NOTE. — In  all  building  codes  the  treatment  of  exits  must  necessarily  be 
largely  theoretical  until  more  systematic  study  of  the  subject  has  been  made, 
and  the  correctness  of  conclusions  based  thereon  have  been  demonstrated 
under  practical  service  conditions. 

As  a  fundamental  principle,  exit  requirements  are  a  function  of  the  occu- 
pancy of  a  building  and  not  of  the  area.  To  promote  safety  to  life,  two 
means  of  egress  should  be  required  from  every  floor  of  every  building  subject 
to  exit  specifications,  irrespective  of  its  area.  Beyond  this,  exit  calculations 
should  be  based  solely  upon  the  number  of  occupants. 

The  method  herein  employed  for  computing  exit  requirements,  is  not  claimed 
to  be  all  that  could  be  desired.  It  is  an  attempt  to  provide  safety  without 
too  drastic  demands,-  and  is  based  upon  the  best  information  available.  Ex- 
perience may  prove  that  changes  should  be  made. 

5.  Exits   shall   also   be   provided   from   the   cellar,   basement,    and    first   story 
of  every  building  as  may  be   required  by  the   superintendent. 

NOTE. — In  buildings  where  large  numbers  of  people  are  employed  it  is 
urged  that  fire  drills  be  organized  and  .practiced  frequently  enough  to  keep 
the  employees  familiar  with  their  operation.  The  employees  should  also 
be  taught  that  when  once  they  have  entered  an  enclosed  stairway,  or  passed 


FIRE  PROTECTION  FOR  PEOPLE  IN  BUILDINGS      481 


Reproduced  by  permission  Xat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 

FIG.  73. — Outside  balconies  and  stairway  with  balanced  flight  at  the  bottom. 
Stairways  of  this  type  permissible  on  existing  moderate  height  buildings 
where  occupancy  is  not  large.  Windows  protected  by  wired  glass  in 
metal  frames. 


482 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


through  a  horizontal  exit,  they  are  safe,  and  can  then  proceed  leisurely  to 
the  street  with  no  necessity  for  undue  haste  or  crowding.  Conspicuous 
notices  explaining  these  facts  should  be  posted  in  all  exit  stairways. 

SECTION  47.  FIRE  EXIT  PARTITIONS. — i.  Partitions,  erected  to  furnish  hori- 
zontal exits,  shall  be  built  of  fireproof  materials.  No  construction  shall  be 
••used  for  such  partitions  less  than  5  inches  thick,  unless  it  has  been  approved 
•after  a  fire  test;  in  no  case  shall  such  partition  be  less  than  4  inches  thick 
if  of  block  or  tile  construction,  or  less  than  3  inches  thick  if  of  reinforced 
•concrete  or  solid  metal  lath  and  cement  plaster  construction,  except  as  herein 
permitted  for  non-fireproof  buildings. 

When  tile  or  block  partitions  are  less  than  5  inches  thick,  substantial  pro- 
tected reinforcement  shall  be  provided  at  intervals  not  exceeding  20  feet  in 
length  to  resist  the  effect  of  buckling  due  to  heat. 

Requirements    for   horizontal  exits,    Sec.    46,   par.    2,    (c). 

2.  Fire  exit  partitions  shall  be  supported  at  each  floor,  and  shall  be  securely 
Anchored   to   the   walls,   floor,   and   ceiling  of   the   rooms  which  they  subdivide. 
In   fireproof  buildings   such   partitions   shall   rest   upon   the    fireproofing   of   the 
floor. 

3.  In    non-fireproof    buildings    five    exit    partitions    shall    be    not    less    than    3 
Inches    thick   if   of   block    or    tile    construction,    and   not   less   than    2%    inches 
thick   if   of    reinforced    concrete    or   solid   metal    lath    and   cement   plaster   con- 
struction,   and    shall    be    continuous    through    all    stories    of    the    buildings    and 
be    placed    one    above    the    other.      The    space    between    floor    joists    included 
between    the    top    of   a   partition    in    one   story,    and    the   bottom    of   the   corre- 
sponding   partition    in    the    story    above,    shall    be    completely    fire-stopped    with 
incombustible   material. 

Fire-stopping  of  partitions,    Sec.    97,   par.    3. 

NOTE. — In  non-fireproof  buildings  it  is  recommended  that  fire  exit  parti- 
tions be  of  masonry  construction  not  less  than  8  inches  thick,  extending  con- 
tinuously from  cellar  to  roof. 

4.  Doorways    in   fire   exit    partitions    shall    be   not   more   than    60    feet    apart, 
but    doorways    may    be    omitted    if  approved    means    of   exit    around   the    parti- 
tions   are    provided.       No    openings    other    than    doorways    protected    by    fire 
doors,  shall  be  placed  in  such  partitions  except  that  fire  windows   not  exceed- 
ing   ty    of    i    per   cent   of   the   area   of   the   partition   may   be   permitted   where 
strictly   necessary    for   purposes   of   observation.      Such   fire   windows   shall   have 
fixed  sash,   and  may   be  placed   either  in   the   partition   itself  or   in   the    doors. 
Windows    placed    in    partitions    shall    also    be    protected    by    automatic    closing 
iire    shutters.      No    single    pane    shall    exceed    144    square    inches   in    area,    and 
not  more  than  one  pane  shall  be  placed  in  a  door. 

NOTE  i.— The  amount  of  glazed  surface  in  such  partitions  should  be  kept 
as  small  as  possible  owing  to  the  danger  that  in  case  of  fire,  the  heat 
radiating  through  the  glass  would  make  the  area  of  refuge  untenable  before 
the  people  who  fled  to  it.  could  escape  by  other  exits.  There  would  also 
fee  the  added  danger  of  panic  if  a  large  portion  of  the  burning  area  were 
tfreely  exposed  to  view. 

NOTE  2. — To  promote  safety  to  life  it  is  recommended  that  buildings  of 
Class  C,  also  office  buildings  and  tenements,  should  not  have  above  tne 
first  story,  floor  areas  in  excess  of  2,000  square  feet  without  providing  a 
horizontal  exit.  In  buildings  of  that  type  this  provision  can  be  easily  and 
inexpensively  accomplished  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

SECTION  48.  EXITS  AND  PROTECTION  FOR  EXISTING  BUILDINGS. — i.  Where 
the  exit  facilities  of  existing  buildings  are  found  by  the  superintendent  of 
building  construction  to  be.  inadequate,  additional  exits,  sprinklers,  or  other 
protection  shall  be  provided  of  approved  types. 

NOTE. — The  construction  of  fire  exit  partitions  to  provide  horizontal  exits 
in  existing  buildings,  is  probably  the  simplest,  cheapest,  and  most  efficient 
method  of  affording  real  safety  to  occupants  in  case  of  fire.  They  are  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  floor  areas  where  many  persons  are  employed  or 
liable  to  congregate,  also  in  the  upper  stories  of  buildings  where  outside 
succor  would  be  difficult  or  impossible.  See  Note,  Sec.  46,  par.  2,  (c). 

SECTION  49.  ENGINEERS'  STATIONARY  LADDERS. — Every  building  in  which 
high-pressure  steam  boilers  are  placed  in  the  cellar  or  lowest  story  shall 
have  stationary  iron  ladders  or  stairs  from  such  story  leading  direct  to  a 
manhole  through  the  sidewalk  or  other  outside  exit  in  addition  to  another 
approved  means  of  entrance  and  exit. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 

Ranking  only  slightly  below  automatic  sprinkler  systems  as  a 
life-saver  and  property  guardian  against  fires  are  the  various  sig- 
nalling systems.  These  are  of  several  kinds  and  Combinations, 
from  simple  gongs  or  whistles  which  can  be  pulled  from  different 
places  in  the  plant  to  the  modern  automatic  system  operated  by 
thermostats. 

Whatever  form  of  signalling  system  is  adopted,  if  it  depends  upon 
a  human  agency  to  put  it  in  operation,  it  is  of  vital  importance  to 
impress  upon  every  one  in  the  plant  that  the  first  duty  on  the  dis- 
covery of  a  fire  is  to  make  sure  the  fire  alarm  lias  been  sent  in,  and 
only  after  that  to  attempt  to  extinguish  the  fire.  Delayed  alarms 
have  been  the  cause  of  many  of  the  holocausts  of  recent  years.  A 
few  seconds  quicker  sounding  of  the  alarm  often  means  the  lives 
of  many  of  the  workers,  and  generally  means  saving  the  plant,  as 
notwithstanding  how  well  trained  and  powerful  the  private  brigade 
is,  the  help  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  public  fire  department  is 
often  inestimable. 

Interior  Fire  Alarm  Service 

Auxiliary  fire  alarms  come  under  the  head  of  private  fire  noti- 
fication, and  form  a  very  valuable  adjunct  to  the  municipal  systems. 
The  necessity  of  having  alarms  transmitted  promptly  to  the  fire 
department  by  whoever  discovers  fire  would  seem  to  be  self-evi- 
dent, and  yet  comparatively  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  this 
feature  as  regards  ability  to  send  out  the  alarm  from  inside  the 
risk.  In  a  few  cases  we  find  that  a  private  city  fire  alarm  box  has 
been  installed,  but  this  is  not  common.  Much  ingenuity  as  well  as 
money  has  been  spent  on  the  fire  department  house  and  its  appur- 
tenances to  save  every  second  possible  after  alarm  has  been  re- 
ceived ;  also,  as  regards  the  city  fire  alarm  system,  that  no  delay 
may  be  occasioned  after  alarm  box  has  operated;  but  when  we 
come  to  the  risk  itself  we  find,  as  a  rule,  no  means  of  using  to 

483 


484  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

best  advantage  the  public  alarm  or  the  fire  department,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  whoever  discovers  fire  frequently  must  waste  several 
valuable  minutes  in  reaching  the  fire  alarm  box,  which  may  be 
several  blocks  distant.  Even  supposing  there  is  a  fire  alarm  box 
at  risk,  the  fire  may  be  located  at  some  distance  from  the  box,  as 
on,  the  top  floor  of  a  high  building,  or  in  some  other  building  of 
the  risk,  necessitating  a  considerable  delay  where  seconds  count. 
The  auxiliary  fire  alarm  system  largely  eliminates  this  defect,  and 
its  use  should,  therefore,  be  encouraged.  The  system  is  simple, 
and  when  properly  installed  with  auxiliary  boxes  located  on  each 
floor  and  at  such  points  that  not  more  than  200  feet  will  have  to 
be  traversed  in  order  to  reach  a  box,  we  have  a  device  which  will 
save  valuable  time  at  the  start,  and  thereby  we  can  make  full  use 
of  the  public  fire  department,  which  is  maintained  at  a  great  ex- 
pense and  able  to  render  efficient  service  if  promptly  notified  of  fire. 

Pneumatic  and  Electric  Thermostat  Systems 

Of  the  greatest  value  in  any  plant  must  be  placed  the  thermostat 
signalling  system;  these  are  ever  on  the  watch  for  a  fire  and  if 
properly  maintained  can  be  counted  upon  to  sound  alarms  for  fires 
one  or  two  minutes  before  sprinklers  operate  and  in  many  cases 
quite  a  time  before  the  fire  would  be  discovered  by  a  watchman  in 
his  rounds.  One  of  the  disadvantages  to  a  system  of  this  kind  has 
been  that  thoroughly  reliable  thermostats  had  not  been  brought  out. 
Only  in  recent  years  have  any  been  approved  by  the  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  and  the  unapproved  ones  have  given  much  trouble  on 
account  of  false  alarms  and  other  trouble. 

Every  hazardous-process  plant,  and  all  having  many  employees 
whose  life  would  be  endangered  by  fire  should  be  equipped  with 
thermostat  alarm  systems.  It  is  probably  only  a  question  of  time 
before  these  will  be  required  by  law  in  department  stores,  loft  build- 
ings and  many  factories. 

The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  list  two  types  of  thermostat  sys- 
tems, pneumatic  and  electric;  the  first  is  known  by  the  trade  name 
of  "Aero "  when  sold  by  one  company  and  '"  Compensating "  by 
another  company ;  the  electric  are  the  "  May-Oatway "  and  the 
"Reichel."  These  are  described  as  follows: 

PNEUMATIC  THERMOSTAT. — These  systems  utilize  the  principle  of  the  expan- 
sion under  heat  of  air  contained  in  a  small  copper  tube  which  is  installed 
along  ceilings  or  pipings.  Tube  leads  to  contact-closing  and  test  devices  of 
special  type.  '  The  expansion  of  air  in  tube  actuates  a  diaphragm  closing  an 
electric  circuit  whereby  signal  is  transmitted. 

These  devices  as  sold  by  the  manufacturers  are  standard  subject  to  the  fol- 
lowing conditions: 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  485 

1.  Inspection   departments   having  jurisdiction   to   be   consulted   in   all   cases 
before  installations  are  made. 

2.  Tubing  to  be  installed  to  comply  as  to  location,  distribution  and  spacing 
with  the   following  requirements: 

a.  Each    circuit    having   but    one   electrical    contact    device    must    consist   of 
a   continuous    length    of   tubing   not   exceeding    1,000    feet   in    length,   without 
branches  or  alternative   paths. 

b.  Where  two   or  more   electrical  contact   devices   are  connected  to   a  single 
line  of  tubing  one  such  device  must  be  placed  not  more  than   1,000  feet  from 
each    end    of    the   tubing   circuit,    and    adjacent   contact   devices    must   not   be 
more   than    1,500    feet   apart. 

c.  Where    necessary,    tubing    must    be    protected    against    mechanical    injury 
as  may  be  required  by  the   Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

d.  Tubing    must    be    enclosed    in    conduit,    or   otherwise    insulated    or   lagged 
where    this    is    necessary    in    order    properly    to    isolate    the    signals    on    the 
annunciator. 

e.  In   every   enclosed   space   or    separate   room   there   must   be   at   least   two 
and    one-half    per    cent    of    the    total    length    of    the    tubing    comprising    the 
circuit  where  only  one   electrical  contact  device  is  used,   or  two   and   one-half 
per  cent  of  the  length  of  tubing  between  any  contact  device  and  an  end  of 
the    circuit,    or    of    the    length    between    adjacent    contact    device    where    more 
than   one   per   circuit   is   used. 

f.  In   no   case   shall   less   than    10   feet   of  tubing   be   used   in   any   enclosed 
space  or  separate  room. 

g.  Lines  of  tubing  shall  be  so  disposed  throughout  the  area  to  be  protected 
that    they    shall    be    not    more    than    30    feet    apart,    and    so    that    no    point    on 
the   ceiling  will  be  more  than   15   feet  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  tubing. 

h.  Tubing  may  be  run  either  directly  on  ceilings,  or  on  side  walls,  if  the 
tubing  is  placed  not  more  than  20  inches  below  ceilings,  or  on  the  lower 
sides  of  timbers  or  projections. 

i.  In  rooms  where  timbers  or  other  projections  form  bays  more  than  one 
foot  deep,  each  bay  must  be  treated  as  a  separate  fire  area. 

3.  Central  station  equipments,  local  equipments,  electric  devices  and  circuits 
and   other   portions   of   this   system   other   than    the   tubing  and   the   pneumatic 
devices  connected  with  it  to  comply   in  all  respects  with   the.  general   require- 
ments   for    automatic    fire    alarm    systems. 

4.  Labels. — Tubing    for    these    systems    constructed    according    to    standard 
specifications  and  inspected  at  factory  under  the  supervision  of  Underwriters' 
Laboratories,  bears  tag  reading:    "  Underwriters'   Laboratories,   Inc.,   Inspected 

Tubing    for   Automatic    Fire   Alarm    No (50    feet).      This   tag   must 

be    preserved    after    tubing    is    installed."      One    such    tag    for    each    length    of 
tubing  installed  should  be  preserved  in  transmitter  case  at  risk  as  permanent 
record   of   tubing   used.      Each   detector,   annunciator   and   transmitter    for   this 
system   constructed   according  to   standard   specifications   and   inspected   at   fac- 
tory under  supervision  of   Underwriters'   Laboratories,   bears   label    reading   as 
above. 

ELECTRIC  THERMOSTAT. — Electric,  closed-circuit  central-station  systems,  with 
detectors,  transmitting,  recording  and  testing  devices.  Central  station  and 
local  equipments,  devices,  circuits  and  portions  of  these  systems  other  than 
detectors  or  thermopiles  to  comply  with  the  general  requirements  for  auto- 
matic fire  alarm  systems. 

Labels. — Each    indicator    set,   detector,    thermopile,    transmitter,    manual    box, 


486  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

and  central  station  relay  constructed  according  to  standard  specifications  and 
tested  under  the  supervision  of  Underwriters'  Laboratories  bears  a  label. 

May-Oatway. — The  thermostat  or  detector  of  this  system  consists  of  a 
copper  wire  hung  beneath  a  steel  bar  and  provided  with  an  electric  contacting 
device  at  its  middle  point. 

Detectors  to  be  installed  to  comply  as  to  location,  distribution  and  spacing 
with  the  following  requirements:  Maximum  floor  area  for  one  7%-foot 
detector,  750  square  feet.  Maximum  floor  area  for  one  s-foot'  detector,  500 
square  feet.  Maximum  distance  apart  between  detectors,  in  general,  40  feet; 
in  corridors,  60  feet.  Maximum  distance  between  centers  of  detectors  nearest 
walls  and  such  walls,  20  feet  (30  feet  from  ends  of  corridors). 

"  Reichel." — This  system  employs  thermopiles  of  special  design  connected 
in  a  series  circuit  with  special  alarm,  testing  and  transmitting  devices.  Cur- 
rent generated  in  the  thermopiles  by  heat  resulting  from  a  fire  actuates  the 
transmitting  device.  Thermopiles  are  to  be  installed  to  comply  as  to  location, 
distribution  and  spacing  with  the  following  requirements:  Maximum  floor 
area  for  one  thermopile,  400  square  feet.  Maximum  distance  apart  between 
centers  of  thermopiles,  in  general,  25  feet;  in  corridors,  40  feet.  Maximum 
distance  between  centers  of  thermopiles  nearest  walls  and  such  walls,  10 
feet  (20  feet  from  ends  of  corridors). 

As  a  safeguard  against  water  damage  especially,  and  also  to 
enable  a  quick  response  of  the  fire  department  in  case  it  is  needed, 
every  automatic  sprinkler  system  should  have  a  sprinkler-flow  alarm 
system  provided.  Also  to  ensure  the  proper  maintenance  of  the 
sprinkler  system,  the  supervisory  alarm  is  absolutely  necessary. 

As  mentioned  above,  an  early  notification  of  the  public  fire  depart- 
ment is  of  vital  importance ;  the  use  of  manual  fire  alarm  system  or 
auxiliary  service  to  a  street  fire  alarm  box  furnishes  ready  means 
of  obtaining  this  and  is  usually  considerably  cheaper  than  some  of 
the  other  forms.  This  auxiliary  fire  alarm  service  is  used  exten- 
sively in  all  the  larger  cities,  particularly  in  office  buildings  and 
large  factories,  where  someone  is  usually  available  at  all  times ;  its 
service  is  very 'satisfactory  where  the  apparatus  is  properly  main- 
tained. Although  recognized  by  the  underwriters  by  a  reduction  in 
rates  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  no  regulations  have  been  issued 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  covering  its  use  or 
installation. 

In  the  preamble  to  the  requirements  issued  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  for  other  signalling  systems,  which  are  given 
below,  it  is  stated  that: 

Especial  importance  is  placed  upon  the  methods  employed  in  testing,  in- 
specting and  maintaining  signaling  systems.  None  of  these  systems  is  suf- 
ficiently automatic  to  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  periodical  inspections 
and  working  tests  of  all  of  their  parts.  Such  systems  must  be  under  the 
supervision  of  a  responsible  person,  satisfactory  to  the  municipal  authorities 
and  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  who  shall  cause  proper 
tests  and  inspections  to  be  made  at  frequent  intervals  and  have  general 
charge  of  all  alterations  and  additions.  Records  of  such  tests  and  inspec- 
tions should  be  kept  accessible  to  the  Inspection  Department  and  others 
Interested. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  487 

SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS* 

Part  I 
Class  A — Wiring  for  all  Systems 

NOTE. — For  other  rules  governing  wiring  for  signaling  systems  which  are 
hazardous  only  because  of  their  liability  to  become  crossed  with  electric  light, 
heat  or  power  circuits,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  "  National  Electrical 
Code." 

1.  UNDERGROUND    WIRES. — To    secure    the    largest    measure    of    safety    and 
efficiency  in  the  operation  of  signaling  systems  all  wires  outside  of  buildings 
should   be   placed   underground. 

2.  AERIAL   WIRES. — Where   from   the    nature   of   the   case   it   is   impracticable 
to  place   wires   underground   the    following  rules   must   be   observed: 

a.  Must   be    equipped    at    points    where    they   enter   buildings    with    approved- 
heavy  current  protectors. 

b.  Must    be    equivalent    in    conductivity    and    tensile    strength    to    No.     14 
galvanized    iron    (12    B.    &    S.)    where    single   wires    are    used,    and   to    No.    16 
B.   &   S.   hard  drawn  copper  where  cables  are  used. 

c.  Must    have    an    approved    insulating    covering.      Line    wires    must    have    a 
good    weatherproof    covering,    consisting   of    a    thoroughly   saturated   and    filled 
braided    covering   at   least    1/32    inch    in   thickness.      Wires   in   cables   to    have 
same    covering    as    single    wires    and    in    addition    a    substantial    filled    covering 
around    the    several    wires.      Service    wires   to    building   and   boxes    must    have 
an  approved   rubber  covering.      See   list  of   Electrical   Fittings. 

d.  Must,   when   strung  on   poles,   be   supported  at   least   every   150   feet,   and 
as  far  as  possible,  run  under  rather  than  over  electric  light  and  power  wires. 

Where  wires  are  carried  along  the  outside  walls  of  buildings,  they  must 
have  an  approved  rubber  insulating  covering,  and  must  be  supported  at  least 
every  12  feet. 

3.  WIRES    INSIDE    BUILDING. — a.    Must    be    equivalent    in    conductivity    and 
tensile  strength  to  No.    16  B.  &   S.   copper  wire  where  single  wires  are   used, 
and   to   No.    18   B.   &   S.   copper  wire  where   cables  are   used. 

NOTE — For  the  wiring  in  Central  Stations — Sections  "  c  "  and  "  f  "  may  be 
modified  as  circumstances  demand. 

b.  Must  have  an  approved  covering,  consisting,  except  as  noted  below,  of  a 
rubber    insulation    at    least    one    thirty-second   of    an    inch    in    thickness    and   a 
substantial  braid  both  constructed   in   accordance  with   the   National   Electrical 
Code    for    rubber    wire.      For    open    work    in    dry    places    and    for   tubing    and 
wooden    moulding    a    filled    braided    covering   at    least    1/32    inch    in    thickness 
may    be    used. 

c.  Unless   encased    in   approved   tubing  or   thoroughly   filled   moulding   must, 
except   as   hereinafter   provided,   be   run   in  plain   sight   and  entirely   supported 
on    non-combustible    insulators    placed    not    more    than    8    feet    apart,    and    so 
arranged  that  the  insulating  covering  of  the   conductors  will  come  in  contact 
with   no  other  substances  than  the  designed  supports,  the   protecting  bushings 
and  the   connecting  instruments. 

d.  Must  be  protected   from  abrasion  and   from  accidental  contact  with  other 
conductors.     Where  subject  to  severe  mechanical  injury,  substantial  boxing  or 
iron   conduit   must  be  used   on   side    walls,    otherwise   approved   moulding   may 
be  used.     Wires  should  be  run  over  rather  than  under  pipes,  and  their  cover- 


*  Regulations  of  the   National   Board  of   Fire   Underwriters. 


488  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

ings  must  be  separated  from  contact  with  all  pipes  by  a  solid  insulating  sub- 
stance creating  a  separation  of  at  least  %  inch.  Special  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  mechanical  execution  of  the  work.  Careful  and  neat  running, 
taping  of  wire,  and  attaching  and  securing  of  fittings  are  required. 

e.  Must    be   installed   as    far   as   possible   without   joints.      Where   joints    are' 
necessary,    they    must    be    mechanically    and    electrically    secure,    and    covered 
with  an  insulation  equal  to  that  on  the  conductors. 

f.  Must,  in  bay  construction,   follow  contour  of  ceiling,   and  not  be  strung 
from  beam  to  beam.     In  joisted  construction,  unless  run  parallel  with  joists, 
must   be  placed    in  moulding  or  have   a  4-inch  wide  wood  backing   strip  with 
knobs  or  cleats  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  this  strip. 

g.  Must,  where  exposed  to  mechanical  injury,  and  between  batteries,  trans- 
mitters,   testing    apparatus,    annunciators,    bells,    etc.,    be    enclosed    in    boxing, 
moulding   or   approved   conduit. 

h.  Must,  when  passing  through  iron,  brick,  stone  or  any  damp  partition 
or  through  any  floor,  be  protected  by  approved  bushings. 

NOTE. — Glass  and  porcelain  are  approved  for  bushings.  Where  from  the 
nature  of  the  case,  it  is  impossible  to  use  glass  or  porcelain,  approved  flexible 
tubing  may  be  used.  See  list  of  Electrical  Fittings. 

Class  B — Energy  for  all  Systems 

4.  CENTRAL  ENERGY. — The  following  sources  of  energy  are  given  in  their 
order  of  preference: 

1.  Storage   Batteries. — To   be   in   duplicate  sets,   each   set  capable   of   operat- 
ing  the    system   at    full    capacity   for    60    hours,    installation    to    be   in    a    room 
provided  with  suitable  ventilation  and  effectually  separated  from  that  contain- 
ing other  fire  alarm  apparatus. 

Cells  should  be  mounted  on  glass  and  porcelain  supports,  secured  to  metallic 
frames  suitably  protected  from  corrosion,  except  that  when  cells  too  large 
to  be  so  mounted  are  used,  such  cells  may  be  mounted  on  suitable  glass 
insulators. 

At  least  two  reliable  independent  sources  of  charging  current  to  be  pro- 
vided. It  is  preferable  that  the  voltage  of  the  charging  circuit  be  not  over 
250  volts.  Batteries  to  be  "protected  by  approved  enclosed  fuses  in  tight 
metal  cabinets  at  the  battery  terminals. 

NOTE. — It  is  recommended  that  all  copper  conductors  in  battery  room  be 
coated  with  lead — applied  directly  on  the  copper. 

Suitable  provision  to  be  made  on  a  switchboard  for  charging  the  batteries, 
with  approved  means  of  protecting  them  against  injury  due  to  interruption 
of  charging  current,  to  reverse  charging  current  or  to  excessive  rate  of 
charge;  also  provision  for  shifting  the  respective  batteries  from  charging 
to  working  and  from  working  to  charging  without  opening  any  of  the  work- 
ing circuits  during  the  process  of  shifting,  and  so  that  charging  current 
cannot  be  accidentally  connected  to  any  of  the  working  lines  during  the 
process  of  shifting. 

2.  Motor   Generators. — A   sufficient   number   of  motor   generators   to   be    pro- 
vided   to    supply    all    circuits    without    overloading    any    machine,    and    with    a 
reserve    capacity    equivalent   to    one-half   of    the   total   capacity    of   the   station. 
Motor  generators  to  be  driven  from  all  available  independent  exterior  sources 
•of  energy,   and   also  by  a  special   generating  plant  in   the   headquarters   build- 
ing, driven  by  some  form  of  prime  mover  constantly  available   for  immediate 
operation. 

With  either  battery  or  motor  generator  source  of  energy  the  voltage  applied 
to  maintain  normal  line  current  on  circuits  must  be  such  that  the  line  current 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  489 

will  not  be  reduced  below  safe  operating  value  by  the  simultaneous  action  of 
eight    (8)   transmitters. 

5.  LOCAL    BATTERIES. — In   cities   having   a   complete    system   of   underground 
distribution  for  electric  light,  heat  or  power,  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction  may  permit  connection  with  such  system  in  lieu  of  local  batteries. 

a.  Must  be  located  in  a  place  favorable  to  their  operation  and  maintenance. 

b.  Must  be  enclosed  to  prevent  mechanical  injury,  but  be  readily  accessible 
for  inspection. 

Class  C — Central  Stations 

Before  acceptance  is  obtained  for  any  equipment  operating  through  a  central 
station,  the  company  must  file  with  the  Inspection  Department  having  juris- 
diction, a  general  description  of  the  apparatus  it  proposed  to  install,  together 
with  such  detailed  information  and  drawings  as  are  necessary  to  the  complete 
understanding  of  the  operation  of  the  system.  It  must  also  furnish  such  daily 
reports  to  its  customers  and  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  as 
may  be  required. 

If  the  Inspection  Department  requires  it,  the  operating  company  shall  also 
furnish: — 

First. — Diagrams  showing  the  manner  in  which  it  proposes  to  connect  the 
various  equipments  to  its  central  station  and  deliver  signals  to  the  patrol  and 
city  department. 

Second. — A  satisfactory  guarantee  as  to  its  ability  to  render  this  service 
and  as  to  the  maintenance  and  efficiency  of  its  system.  • 

6.  HEADQUARTERS. — a.    Must    be    located    in    a    building    provided    with    fire 
protection,  satisfactory  to  the  Inspection   Department  having  jurisdiction,   and 
be   equipped  with  the  necessary  instruments  of  an  approved  pattern   for  auto- 
matically   receiving    and    recording    all    signals.      The    time    of    the    receipt    of 
signals  must  also  be  recorded,  preferably  by  an  automatic  device. 

b.  Must  have  at  least  two  competent  men  on  duty  constantly,  and  in  addi- 
tion,  maintain  a  runner  service  so  arranged  that  any  building  protected  can 
be    reached   within    15    minutes. 

All  runner  service  maintained  must  be  sufficient  so  that  the  two  operators 
will  always  be  in  attendance,  except  that  only  in  an  extreme  case  one  of 
the  operators  may  be  used  as  a  runner.  All  runners  shall  be  of  mature  age, 
and  one  such  man  shall  also  be  in  charge  of  the  central  station. 

c.  Must    have    two    independent    means    of    transmitting    alarms    to    the    fire 
department. 

d.  One   approved   hand  chemical  extinguisher  and  six  sand   pails  to  be  pro- 
vided for  each  2,500  sq.  ft.  of  floor  area.     When  any  portion  of  the  building 
is  occupied  as  a  stable,  garage,  machine  shop  or  for  storage  purposes  used  in 
connection    with    the    maintenance    of    the    system,    the   part    thus    occupied    to 
be  protected  by   an   approved  system  of   automatic  sprinklers. 

DEVICES,  CIRCUITS,  ETC. — a.  Must  be  designed  and  installed  so  as  to  suc- 
cessfully meet  the  most  severe  conditions  obtained  in  practice  and  no  change 
nor  alteration  shall  be  made  in  same  without  approval. 

b.  Must    be    arranged    so    that    interference    of    signals    will    be    impossible 
under   any   conditions  likely  to   be   met  in  practice. 

c.  Must    automatically    register    at    the    central    station    distinctive    trouble 
signals  when  any  part  of  the  wiring  system  is  grounded,  broken  or  impaired, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  normal  operation  of  the  system. 

d.  Must,    from    the    risk    to    the    central    station,    under    normal    conditions, 
employ   complete   metallic   circuit    for   the   transmission   of   signals    and   depend 
upon   an  earth  return  circuit,   if   at  all,   only  for  transmitting  trouble   signals, 


49°  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

except  that   where   fire   signals   are   transmitted   over   two   independent   circuits 
by  the  same  piece  of  apparatus,   the  two  circuits  may   have  earth  return. 

e.  Must  be  arranged  to  receive,  record  and  transmit  to  fire  department  and 
insurance   patrol   the   box   number    of   the   building   from   which   an   alarm   has 
been  received. 

f.  A   terminal    board    of   slate   or   marble    must   be   provided.      Each   side   of 
each    entering    circuit    must    be    equipped    with    protectors    especially    approved 
for   this   service. 

g.  Approved  automatic  devices  to  be  provided,  by  means  of  which  openings 
of    circuits    will    be    immediately    announced    by    visual    and    audible    signals. 
Manual   tests   of   all   circuits   to   be   made   at   least   four  times   during   each   24 
hours. 

In  every  case  facilities  must  be  provided  for  making  the  following  test — 
current  strength  on  each  circuit;  this  current  to  be  adjusted  to  normal 
before  making  the  other  tests.  Voltage  across  terminals  of  each  circuit  at 
the  inside  terminals  of  protective  devices.  Voltage  between  ground  and 
each  side  of  each  circuit.  Voltage  between  positive  side  of  each  circuit 
and  negative  side  of  all  other  circuits. 

Class  D — Manual  Fire  Alarm  Systems 

8.  BOXES  AND  MANUALS. — a.   Must  be  of  an  approved  type;   be  used   for  no 
other  purpose,  and  must  be  arranged  to  give  a  signal  from  each  box  or  manual. 

NOTE. — A  box  such  as  is  approved  for  Central  Station  Night  Watch  and 
Fire  Alarm  Systems  may,  however,  be  used  if  desired. 

b.  Must   be   located  near   all   main   exits   and,   in   addition,   must   conform   to 
the  following: 

1.  Must  be   located  so  that   from  any  part   of  the  plant  equipped  not  more 
than    200    feet   will   have   to   be   traversed   in    order   to   reach   a   box. 

2.  Must,    where    buildings    are   more   than    one   story   in   height,   have    a   box 
on  the  first  story,  and  at  least  one  in  alternate  stories;  i.  e.,  3d,  sth,  7th,  etc. 
Where    buildings    have    single    floor   area    of    7,500    square    feet   or    over,    there 
shall    be    at   least   one    box   on   each    floor. 

NOTE. — If  risk  has  multiple  tenant  occupancy,  Inspection  Departments  may 
require  additional  boxes  to  those  called  for  above. 

3.  Must,    where    any    plant    or    building    equipped    is    divided    into    sections, 
have  the  boxes  in  each  section  to   agree   with  above   rules,   account  not  being 
taken   of   the   boxes   in   any  other   section. 

c.  Not  over  40  boxes  or  transmitters  shall  be  permitted  on  a  single  circuit. 
EDITOR'S    NOTE. — This    was    amended    in    1916   to   permit    50    boxes. 

9.  TESTS. — All  boxes  to  be  tested  at  least  monthly,  a  record  of  these  tests 
being  made. 

Class  E — Automatic  Fire  Alarm  Systems  and  Thermostats 

NOTE. — Only  systems  operating  through  a  Central  Station  are  approved. 

10.  CIRCUITS  AND  APPARATUS. — a.   Must  be   arranged  to   transmit  to  central 
station   the  box  number  of  the   building  in   which   a  thermostat  has   operated, 
and  unless  floor  number  is  transmitted  with  alarm,  must  automatically  register 
the    floor    number    on    an    annunciator    located    as    required    by    the    Inspection 
Department   having  jurisdiction. 

b.  Must  be  so  arranged  that  not  more  than  fifteen  building  equipments 
will  be  connected  on  a  single  circuit  unless  the  circuit  is  mainly  underground, 
in  which  case  the  number  of  equipments  shall  not  exceed  twenty-five  (25), 
except  by  special  permission  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  491 

c.  Transmitters,  manual  alarm  boxes,  testing  boxes  and  annunciators  must 
be  of  an  approved  make,  and  so  located  that  a  considerable  jar  cannot  start 
their  mechanism.  i 

it.  INSTALLATION  OF  THERMOSTATS. — For  all  Systems. — a.  Must  be  placed 
throughout  premises,  including  inside  of  all  closets,  in  basements,  lofts,  ele- 
vator wells  and  under  stairs.  Special  instructions  must  be  obtained  relative 
to  placing  them  under  large  shelves,  decks,  benches,  tables,  overhead  storage 
racks,  and  platforms,  and  inside  small  enclosures,  such  as  drying  and 
heating  boxes,  caul  boxes,  tenter  and  dry  room  enclosers,  chutes  and  cup- 
boards. No  portion  of  the  premises  shall  be  excepted  without  written 
consent. 

Special  instructions  must  be  obtained  from  the  Inspection  Department  hav- 
ing jurisdiction  as  to  the  location  of  high  test  thermostats  in  boiler  rooms, 
heating  boxes,  skylights,  etc. 

b.  The   distance   from   wall  or  partition  not  to  exceed  one-half  the   distance 
between    thermostats    in   the    same    direction. 

c.  A   line   of   thermostats  to   be   run   on   each   side   of  partition.      This   rule 
applies    to   both    solid    and   slatted   partitions. 

d.  Special    instructions    to    be    obtained    from    the    Inspection    Department 
having  jurisdiction   relative  to   location  of  thermostats  under  floors   *md   roofs 
of    panels    or    other    unusual    construction    and    for    which    provision    is    not 
hereinbefore  made. 

e.  Must  be  supported  in  all  cases  indep«ndently  of  their  attachment  to  the 
wires,    except    when    cleats    or    knobs    are    within    one    foot    of    each    side    of 
thermostats. 

f.  Thermostats  for  hatch  closers  must  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  elevator 
well    or   hoistway    equipped,    and    on    the   ceiling  below   each   floor   opening   in 
such  numbers  and  so  arranged  in  each  case  as  may  be  required  by  the  Inspec- 
tion   Department    having   jurisdiction. 

FOR  SYSTEMS  EMPLOYING  THERMOSTATS  OPERATING  AT  A  FIXED  TEMPERATURE. 
— g.  Under  mill  ceilings  (smooth  solid  plank  and  timber  construction,  6  to 
12  feet  bays)  one  line  of  thermostats  should  be  placed  in  center  of  each 
bay  and  distance  between  the  thermostats  on  each  line  not  to  exceed  the 
following:  8  feet  in  12  foot  bays;  9  feet  in  n  foot  bays;  10  feet  in  10 
foot  bays;  n  feet  in  9  foot  bays;  12  feet  in  6  to  8  foot  bays. 

Measurements  to  be   taken   from  center  to  center  of  timbers. 

Special  instructions  should  be  asked  where  rule  allows  thermostat  spacing 
to  be  over  10  feet,  because  special  conditions  may  require  the  Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction  to  modify  the  rule. 

h.  Under  joisted  ceiling,  open  finished,  distance  between  thermostats  not  to 
exceed  8  feet  at  right  angles  with  joists  or  10  feet  parallel  with  jcists. 

Exception. — An  exception  may  be  made  to  this  rule  if  the  conditions  war- 
rant, viz.,  special  permission  may  be  given  to  install  but  one  line  of  thermo- 
stats in  bays  10  to  11%  feet  wide  from  center  to  center  of  the  timbers  which 
support  the  joists.  In  all  cases  where  such  bays  are  over  n%  feet  wide,  two 
or  more  lines  of  thermostats  should  be  installed  in  each  bay  as  required  by 
the  rules  for  spacing.  This  does  not  apply  where  beams  are  flush  with  the 
joists,  in  which  case  thermostats  may  be  spaced  as  called  for  in  Rule  h. 
Where  permission  is  given,  the  thermostats  should  be  placed  closer  together 
on  a  line  so  that  in  no  ca'se  will  the  area  covered  by  a  single  thermostat 
exceed  80  square  feet.  Also  see  Rule  d. 

i.  Under  smooth  cheathed  or  plastered  ceiling  in  bays  6  to  12  feet  wide 
(measurement  to  be  taken  from  center  to  center  of  timber,  girder  or  other 
projection  or  support  forming  the  bay)  one  line  of  thermostats  to  be  placed 
in  center  of  each  bay,  and  distance  between  the  thermostats  on  each  line 
not  to  exceed  the  following:  8  feet  in  12  foot  bays;  9  feet  in  n  loot  bays; 


492  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

10  feet  in  6  to  10  foot  bays.  Bays  in  excess  of  12  feet  in  width  and  less 
than  23  feet  in  width  to  contain  at  least  two  lines  of  thermostats;  bays  23 
feet  in  width  or  over  to  have  lines  therein  not  over  10  feet  apart.  In  bays 
in  excess  of  12  feet  in  width,  not  more  than  100  sq.  ft.  ceiling  area  to  be 
allotted  to  any  one  thermostat. 

j.  Under  a  pitched  roof  sloping  more  steeply  than  i  foot  in  3,  one  line 
of  thermostats  to  be  located  in  peak  of  roof,  and  thermostats  on  either  side 
to  be  spaced  according  to  above  requirements.  Distance  between  thermostats 
to  be  measured  on  a  line  parallel  with  roof.  Where  the  roof  meets  the  floor 
line  there  should  be  a  line  of  thermostats  placed  not  over  3%  feet  from 
where  roof  timbers  meet  floor. 

NOTE. — Two  lines  of  thermostats  not  ..more  than  2%  feet  distance  each  way 
from  the  peak  of  the  roof,  measured  on  a  line  with  the  roof,  may  be  used  in 
lieu  of  one  line  of  thermostats  located  in  peak  of  roof.  Also  see  Section  d. 

k.  Under  open  finish,  joisted  construction  floors,  decks  and  roofs,  the 
thermostats  should  be  "  staggered  "  spaced  so  that  the  heads  will  be  opposite 
a  point  half  way  between  thermostats  on  adjacent  lines,  the  end  thermostats 
on  alternate  lines  to  be  not  more  than  two  feet  from  wall  or  partition.  Also 
see  Section  b. 

NOTE. — This  regulation  does  not  except  thermostats  within  a  bay,  whether 
on  one,  two  or  more  lines.  Special  instruction  to  be  obtained  in  each  case  as 
to  whether  staggered  spacing  shall  be  required  under  open  joist  construction, 
where  the  channel  spaces  between  joists  are  positively  blocked  off  within  the 
territory  of  any  two  adjacent  thermostats. 

FOR  SYSTEMS  EMPLOYING  THERMOSTATS  OF  ALL  OTHER  TYPES. — For  thermo- 
stats not  of  the  fixed  temperature  type  special  rules  and  requirements  are 
established.  These  rules  and  requirements  will  be  found  in  the  List  of 
Approved  Fire  Appliances,  copies  of  which  may  be  obtained  from  Inspection 
Departments,  which  should  in  all  cases  be  consulted  before  these  thermostats 
are  installed. 

12.  MANUAL  ALARMS. — Manual  alarm  boxes  must  be  of  an  approved  pattern, 
must   be   used    for   no    other   purposes,    and   must    be   located    as    required    for 
Manual  Fire  Alarm  Boxes.     (See  Rule  8,  Section  b.) 

NOTE. — Manual  boxes,  may  be  of  the  type  such  as  is  approved  for  Watch- 
man's Time  Recording  Apparatus,  Central  Station  Systems,  if  desired. 

Class  F — Automatic  Journal  Alarms 

13.  CIRCUITS  AND  CONNECTIONS. — a.  Circuits  must  be  so  sub-divided  that  not 
more  than  25  thermostats  will  be  on  any  one  circuit.     There  must  be  a  finding 
switch   for  each  boot  in  grain  elevator  equipments  and  elsewhere  when  called 
for  by  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction.     All  the  finding  switches 
in  one  circuit  must  be  located  in  one  Jbox.     The  finding  switches  to  be  wired 
so   that    the   cutting   out   of    one    group    or   boot   will   not   cut   off   the    current 
from   any   of   the   other   groups   in   the   same  circuit   and   will   show   a  broken 
wire   when   the   test   is   made   by   the   testing   apparatus. 

b.  Connections   must  be   made  by   running  circuit  wire   without  break   from 
the   binding  posts.      Where  there  is  liability  of  mechanical   injury,   conductors 
must  be  encased  in  approved  flexible,  armored  or  iron  conduits  as  the  special 
needs    of    each    case    require.      Armored    or    iron    conduit    must    be    securely 
fastened  in  place  so  as  to  prevent  any  strain  on  the  conductors. 

Where  bearings  are  not  fixed,  such  as  tighteners,  etc.,  a  special  approved 
flexible  stranded  conductor  must  be  used. 

c.  Circuits  must  be  all  metallic  and  must  normally  test  free   from  grounds. 
When  open  circuit  systems  are  used  they  must  be  so  arranged  that   a  single 
break   will   not   prevent    an   alarm   being  transmitted. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  493 

d.  Thermostats  must  be  on  every  bearing  throughout  grain  elevators,  excep- 
tions only  being  made  by  consent  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  juris- 
diction.    Bearings  must  be  drilled  to  the  full  depth  of  thermostat  base  where 
practicable  and  thermostats  must  be  securely  fastened  in  place. 

e.  Thermostats  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  readily  be  taken  out  of 
the    bearings    and    disconnected    without    impairing   the    wiring    or    connections 
in    any    way,    and   their   connections   must   be   so    arranged   that  journal   boxes 
can  be  removed  and  replaced  without  breaking  the  wires. 

f.  Thermostats  must  be  set  to  give  an  alarm  at  approximately   165   degrees 
Fahr.,  except   by   special   consent   of  the   Inspection    Department   having  juris- 
diction  when   thermostats   may  be  set   at  not   over   212   degrees. 

g.  An    annunciator    must    be    located    near    the    testing    apparatus    with    the 
indexes    plainly    marked    to    show    the    various    circuits.      It    must   be   enclosed 
in    a    dust-proof    case    arranged    so    that    the    indexes   can    be    reset    from    the 
outside  of  the  case. 

h.  Independent  relays  must  be  used  for  each  circuit;  they  must  be  enclosed 
in  a  dust-proof  case  and  have  spring  knife  edge  contact  points  in  addition  to 
the  ordinary  relay  contacts. 

14.  GONGS. — a.   When   vibrating  gongs   are   used,   all   gongs   must   be  of  the 
regular    vibrating    pattern    (not    single    stroke)    and    the    system    must    be    so 
arranged   that   the    failure    of  any   one   gong  to   vibrate   can   in   no   way   inter- 
fere with  the  proper  action  of  any  of  the  other  gongs. 

b.  There  must  be  one  8-inch  gong  placed  over  the  annunciator  in  the  engine 
room,  which  gong  shall  ring  continuously  in  case  of  short  circuit  on  system. 
This  gong  to  be  on  a  relay  and  separate  set  of  batteries. 

c.  There   must   be   no   gongs    in   the   journal   alarm   circuit   when    in   normal 
condition.      All   gongs    must    ring    from    a    relay. 

d.  There  must  be  a  6-inch  gong  placed  near  each  set  of  "  finding  switches," 
which  shall  ring  continuously  in  case  of  short  circuit  on  system.     This  gong 
to   be  on   a  relay   and  separate   set   of   batteries. 

e.  Unless   there   is   a   spare   man   in   engine   room  who   can   answer  journal 
alarms,    there    must   be    an    auxiliary   system   whereby   the   circuit  number   can 
be  transmitted  to  each  floor.     Such  a  system  to  consist  of  an  8-inch  vibrating 
gong  located  near  center  of  each  floor,  gongs  being  on  separate  relay  circuits. 
Approved   transmitting  and  testing   devices  to   be  provided. 

15.  TESTING    APPARATUS. — a.    When    all    the    wires    of    the    system    are    not 
under  constant  battery  test,  there  shall  be  a  testing  apparatus  located  in  the 
engine    room    or    where    there    is    some    employee    on    duty    the    entire    time. 
Entire  test  to  be  made  daily  by  operation  of  mechanism  which,   after  test  is 
completed,    shall    automatically   leave   the   system   in   normal   condition,   or   else 
give  a  continuous  trouble  alarm. 

b.  Testing  apparatus  shall  record  on  dials  continuity  of  all  open  circuits, 
shall  ring  all  open  circuit  bells,  and  shall  throw  indexes  of  annunciators,  a 
proper  record  not  being  obtained  when  any  of  the  circuits  or  bells  are  out 
of  order.  Weakening  of  the  batteries  shall  prevent  the  recording  on  dials 
before  it  has  progressed  sufficiently  to  impair  the  journal  alarm. 

1 6.  GENERAL. — a.  All  journal  alarm  apparatus  must  be  of  an  approved  type, 
b.  Permanently    fixed    ladders    must    be    provided    wherever    needed   to    make 

bearings   readily,  accessible. 

Class  G — Watchmen's  Time  Recording  Apparatus 

17.  CENTRAL   STATION    SYSTEMS. — a.   Must   not  have   more   than   forty   boxes 
connected  on  a  single  circuit,  nor  shall  more  than  five  watchmen  report  on  a 
single  circuit. 


494  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

b.  Must  be  so  arranged  that  fire  signals  which  shall  be  distinct  from  watch 
signals    can   be   sent   from   each   station   installed. 

c.  Watch  boxes  must  be  of  an  approved  pattern,  must  be  used  for  no  other 
purpose,  and  must  be  located  as  required  by  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction. 

When  specific  locations  of  watch  boxes  are  not  furnished  by  the  Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction,  they  must  be  located  so  that  the  watchman 
in  his  rounds  will  cover  plant,  and,  in  addition,  must  conform  with  the 
following: 

Must  be  located  so  that  from  any  part  of  the  plant  equipped,  not  more 
than  200  feet  will  have  to  be  traversed  in  order  to  reach  a  box. 

Must,  where  buildings  are  more  than  one  story  in  height,  have  a  box 
on  the  first  story,  and  at  least  one  in  alternate  stories;  i.  e.,  3d,  sth,  7th, 
etc.  Where  buildings  have  single  floor  area  of  7,500  square  feet,  or  over, 
there  shall  be  at  least  one  box  on  each  floor. 

Must,  where  any  plant  or  building  equipped  is  divided  into  sections,  have 
the  boxes  in  each  section  located  to  agree  with  above  rules,  account  not 
being  taken  of  boxes  in  any  other  section. 

d.  Complete    and    satisfactory    tests    of    all    transmitters    must    be    made    by 
installing   companies   monthly    and   results   reported   to   the    Inspection    Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction. 

18.  LOCAL  OR   PRIVATE   STATIONARY   SYSTEMS. — a.   The   clock   used  must   run 
for  at  least  eight  days  without  rewinding,  and  must  be  so  encased  that  watch 
record    dials    cannot    be    seen    without    opening    door,    and    so    arranged    that 
opening  or  closing  of  door  will  make  a  distinctive  record  on  dial,   this  to  be 
done    by   mechanical    means. 

b.  Records  must  be   made   by  perforating  a  paper  dial   and  the   puncturing 
device   must   be    so    arranged   that   it   is   not    liable   to   stick   in,    adhere    to,   or 
tear  the  dial. 

c.  Magnetos   must  be  used   for  the  transmission   of  signals,   must  be   of  an 
approved  type,  and  may  be  either  portable  or  fixed  at  each  station. 

NOTE. — Where  single  station  clocks  are  employed  the  recording  apparatus 
may  be  operated  by  an  approved  mechanical  device. 

d.  Stations  must  be,  placed  as  required  by  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction. 

19.  PORTABLE    WATCH    CLOCKS. — a.    The    clock   used   must    run    for    at   least 
48    hours    without    rewinding,    must    be    substantially    mounted    and    strongly 
encased.      It    must    be    made    so    that    the    watch    record    dial    cannot    be    seen 
without  opening  the  case  and  so  that  it  cannot  be  opened  without  puncturing 
or  cutting  the  dial. 

b.  Records    must    be    made    by  embossing   or   puncturing   the    dial   and   must 
be  easily   legible.      Dial   must  be  of  sufficient   size   so   that   time   at  which   the 
record    is    made    can    be    accurately    determined. 

c.  Stations    must    be    located    as    required    by    the    Inspection    Department 
having  jurisdiction,   and  fixed  so  they  cannot  be   removed  without  giving  evi- 
dence  of  the   fact. 

Keys  must  be  made  so  that  they  are  difficult  to  duplicate,  and  must  be 
of  a  pattern  susceptible  of  variations  tending  to  reduce  the  probability  that 
a  set  of  keys  fitted  for  one  clock  will  operate  other  clocks. 

Class  H — Automatic  Sprinkler  Alarm  and  Supervisory  Systems 

20.  CENTRAL    STATION. — a.    From    the    central    office    to    the    protected    risk, 
there   must   be   two    (2)    separate   circuits,   one   for   the   water   flow   alarm,   and 
the  other  for  the  supervision   features.     Manuals  must  not  be  installed  on  the 
supervision  circuit  unless  of  approved  non-interfering  pattern. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  495 

b.  The  central  office  must,  at  all  times,  be  able  to  determine  from  the  signal 
received,  the  particular  feature  of  the  sprinklered  risk  which  is  out  of  order 
and  when  it  has  been  restored. 

This  may  be  accomplished  by  having  separate  transmitters  for  each  feature 
of  the  service  or  distinctive  signals  from  the  same  transmitter  or  by  a  com- 
bination of  both  methods. 

21.  DEVICES,    CIRCUITS,   ETC. — a.   Must  be  so   arranged  that  devices   cannot 
easily   be   tampered   with   or   removed   without   giving   a   signal  in   the  central 
office. 

b.  All  circuits  and  electrical  apparatus  must  comply  with   the  requirements 
stated  under  Class  A.     It  is,  however,  strongly  recommended  that  all  interior 
circuits    be    entirely   run    in   approved   conduit  piping,    wire   to    be    such    as    is 
required  in   damp  places,   under   Rule   3,   Section  b,   Class  A. 

c.  All  pipe  connections  to  sprinkler  system  must  be  made  in  a  workmanlike 
manner,   equal   in  all   respects   to   the   regular  standard  required   for  sprinkler 
work. 

d.  Not   more   than   twenty-five    (25)    sets   of   transmitters   or   not   exceeding 
one  hundred   (100)   break  wheels  must  be  connected  on  a  single  circuit. 

22.  TESTS. — Complete    and    satisfactory    tests    of    all    transmitters    must    be 
made   by  installing  companies  monthly  and   results  reported  to  the   Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction. 

Supervision  Details 

23.  GATE   VALVES. — a.    Connection,   by   means   of  approved   devices,   must  be 
made  to  all  gate  or  other  stop  valves,  under  control  of  the   assured,  in  feed 
pipes   to  sprinklers,   including  all  valves  on  tanks,   fire  pump,   steam   and   dis- 
charge   connections,     city    main    connections,    pump    suction,    post    Indicator 
valves,    and    where    necessary,    on    small    valves    used    in    installation    of    the 
service.      Devices   to   be   so   attached   as   not   to    interfere   with   the    operation 
of  the   valve   nor  obstruct  the   view   of  indicator   or  access  to  stuffing  boxes. 

b.  Attachments  on  all  valves  must  give  a  signal  between  the  first  and  second 
revolutions  of  the  hand  wheel,  tending  to  move  the  valve  from  its  proper 
position;  or  when  valve  is  not  controlled  by  hand  wheel,  signal  must  be  given 
before  the  valve  has  moved  1/5  of  the  stem  movement  from  its  proper 
position. 

Two  separate  and  distinctive  automatic  signals  will  be  required  for  the 
gate  valve  alarm,  one  signal  to  show  that  a  valve  has  been  removed  from  its 
normal  position,  and  another  distinctive  and  different  signal  to  show  that  the 
valve  has  been  returned  to  its  normal  position.  The  latter  signal  shall  not  be 
given  until  all  valves  have  been  returned  to  their  normal  position,  or  at  least 
to  the  point  where  the  first  or  trouble  signal  was  given. 

24.  PRESSURE. — a.   All   tanks   or   their  sources   of   pressure,   including   steam 
supply    for   fire    pumps,   also   pressure    on    dry   pipe   system,   must   be   provided 
with  separate  and  independent  attachments,   unless   otherwise   specified   by   the 
Inspection   Department  having  jurisdiction. 

Pipe  to  which  supervisory  devices  are  connected,  must  be  provided  with 
a  plugged  test  gauge  connection  and  a  stop  and  relief  valve  of  satisfactory 
pattern;  the  whole  to  be  so  arranged  that  pressure  on  attachment  and  plugged 
connection  can  be  released  for  testing  purposes. 

b.  Pressure  tank  attachment  must  give  a  high  and  low  pressure  signal 
at  ten  (10)  pounds  below  and  thirty  (30)  pounds  above  the  normal  pressure. 

Steam  pressure  attachment  must  give  a  low  pressure  signal  at  forty-five 
(45)  pounds. 

Attachment  to  dry  pipe  pressure  system  must  give  a  high  and  low  pressure 
signal  at  ten  (10)  pounds  variation  above  or  below  normal  pressure. 


496  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

In  special  cases  and  for  other  pressure  sources,  specific  instructions  must 
be  obtained  from  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

Two  separate  and  distinctive  automatic  signals  will  be  required  for  pressure 
alarm,  one  to  show  that  the  pressure  has  gone  below  or  above  the  required 
amount  and  another  distinctive  and  different  signal  to  show  that  the  normal 
pressure  has  been  restored. 

25.  WATER  LEVELS. — a.  All  pressure  and  surge  tanks,  gravity  tanks,  cisterns 
and  reservoirs  used  as  a  supply  for  sprinkler  systems,  must  be  equipped  with 
separate    and    independent    attachments    unless    otherwise    specified    by    Inspec- 
tion Department  having  jurisdiction. 

All  devices  used  for  this  purpose  must  be  designed  to  withstand  corrosion 
and  possible  mechanical  obstructions. 

b.  Must  give  a  low  water  signal  in  all  supplies,  except  pressure  tanks,  when 
water  droRS  12  inches  below  the  required  level.  Pressure  tank  device  must 
give  a  signal  when  water  drops  4  inches  below  or  rises  4  inches  above  the 
required  level. 

Two  separate  and  distinctive  automatic  signals  will  be  required  for  water 
alarm,  one  to  show  that  water  has  changed  from  the  required  level,  and 
another  to  show  that  the  proper  water  level  has  been  restored. 

26.  TEMPERATURE. — a.  All  gravity  tanks,  cisterns  and  reservoirs  for  sprinkler 
service  in  which  water  might  freeze,  must  be  equipped  with  suitable  tempera- 
ture   indicator,   located  two    feet  below   the    required   water   level. 

NOTE. — Where  tanks,  cisterns  or  reservoirs  are  located  in  houses  in  which 
water  might  freeze,  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  may  require 
suitable  temperature  indicators  for  such  houses. 

b.  The  indicator  must  give  a  separate  and  distinctive  signal  when  tempera- 
ture falls  below  40  degrees  Fahr.,  or  rises  above  160  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
another  distinctive  and  different  signal  to  show  that  water  has  been  restored 
to  the  proper  temperature. 

27.  FIRE  PUMPS. — Where  automatic  fire  pumps  are  used,  a  complete  super- 
vision   shall   be    provided   in   each    case,    for    which    special    instructions    must 
be   obtained. 

28.  WATER    FLOW    ALARM    DETAILS. — a.    At   the   base   of   each    system    riser, 
satisfactory    and    positive    connections    must    be    made    by    an    approved    device 
for  indicating  the   flow   of  water  in   the   sprinkler  system,   except  that   due  to 
waste  surges  or  variable  pressure. 

b.  The  device  must  indicate  at  the  central  station  any  leak  or  flow  of  water 
in    the    sprinkler    system,    equal    to    or    greater   than    at    the    rate    of   ten    (10) 
gallons  per  minute. 

Trouble   signal   to   be   distinctive   and   different   from   the   water   flow   signal. 

c.  Where    any   private   local   water   flow    alarm    system   is   in   use   the    super- 
visory water  flow   alarm   must  be   so   arranged  that  it  shall   not  be   dependent 
upon    the    operation    of    or    interfered    with    by    trouble    on    the    local    private 
alarm   circuit. 

29.  MANUAL   ALARMS. — Where   a   sprinklered   risk   is   provided  with   either   a 
central  station  water  flow  or  a  central  station  supervision  alarm,  or  both,  and 
has   not   an    approved   and   properly   maintained   automatic   fire    alarm   system, 
or    watchman's    central    station    time    recording    system,    a    manual    fire    alarm 
system  installed  in  accordance  with  rules  8  and  9  must  be  provided. 

30.  SIGNALS  AND   REPORTS. — a.  Arrangements  must,  if  possible,  be  made  by 
the    operating   company,    by    which    they    shall    have    access    to    premises   under 
supervision,    at    all    hours    of   the    day    and    night.      Where    such    arrangements 
cannot  be   made   and  it   might  become  necessary  to   force  an  entrance  to  the 
building,  a  proper  guard  shall  be  placed  over  the  building  so  long  as  required. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  497 

XOTE. — It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  all  arrangements,  under  the 
above  paragraph,  should  be  made  with  the  owner  of  the  property  and  must  be 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

b.  Arrangements  must  be  made  to  furnish  such  reports  of  signals  that 
may  be  received  and  in  such  form  as  may  be  required  by  the  Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction. 

31.  DISPOSITION  OF  SIGNALS. — a.  Upon  receipt  of  signals  referring  to  matters 
of    purely   equipment    maintenance,    the    operating    company    must    immediately 
send  a  runner  to  investigate  and,  if  possible,  see  that  the  trouble  is  remedied 
at  once. 

They  shall  also  notify  the  assured  by  telephone  or  by  the  quickest  method 
available. 

Written  notice  should  be  given  the  assured  in  all   cases. 

b.  Upon  receipt  of  signals  showing  flow  of  water  in  the  system,  the  central 
office  must  notify  the  nearest  insurance   patrol  and  such   other  parties  as  the 
Inspection    Department    having   jurisdiction    may    require. 

They  shall   also   dispatch   a  runner  to  the   risk. 

They  shall  also  notify  the  assured  by  telephone  or  the  quickest  method 
available. 

In  addition  to  which,  written  notice  should  be  given  to  the  assured. 

In  all  cases  where  notification  is  required  to  parties  with  whom  private 
lines  of  communication  have  not  been  provided,  the  quickest  available  means 
of  communication  must  be  used. 

c.  If,  at  any  time,  a  combination  signal  is  received,  which  from  its  nature, 
is  indicative  of  water  flow  on  the  premises  equipped,  such  combination  signal 
must   be   treated   by   the   central   office   as   a   fire   alarm. 

All  manual  alarms  are  to  be  treated  as  fire  alarms.  Fire  alarms  received 
from  sprinkler  supervisory  service  must  be  transmitted  to  the  city  fire  alarm 
office  and  patrol  or  such  other  places  as  required  by  the  Inspection  Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction,  and  should  at  all  times  be  treated  as  still  alarms. 

Local  Systems 

32.  ALARM    DETAILS. — a.   Must   be   arranged   to  give   signals  at   points   desig- 
nated by   the   Inspection   Department   having  jurisdiction. 

These  connections  should  be  chosen  from  the  following,  choice  being  made 
in  the  order  given. 

1.  Fire    department    house    within    2,500    feet,    having    men    and    horses    sta- 
tioned therein. 

NOTE. — In   certain   large  cities  the   above  connection   alone   will  be   required. 

2.  Fire  department   house  within  2,500   feet,   having  "  bunkers  "   and  horses 
at  night. 

3.  House   of  engineer   or  fireman   of   risk,   when   same   is  within    i.r-oo    feet. 

4.  House  of  owner  or  superintendent  of  risk,  when  same  is  within  1,200  feet. 

5.  House  of  chief  engineer  or  foreman  of  local  fire  department,  when  either 
is   within    1,200   feet. 

6.  House    of    regular    employee,    other    than    those    above    mentioned,    when 
same  is  within   1,200  feet. 

When  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  any  of  the  above,  special  instruction  shall 
be  obtained. 

Connection  to  city  or  town  fire  alarm  box  is  not  allowable. 

?3.  GONGS. — Must  be  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter.  Where  there 
is  only  one  outside  connection,  gong  shall  be  of  vibrator  pattern.  Where 
there  are  two  outside  connections,  gongs  to  be  wired  in  series,  a  vibrator 
being  placed  in  principal  one,  and  a  single  stroke  in  the  other. 


498  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

34.  TESTING  OF  LOCAL  ELECTRIC  ALARMS. — a.  System  to  be  tested  daily 
by  closing  a  circuit  through  the  binding  posts  of  the  alarm  valve.  Test  to 
be  recorded  by  a  device  which  shall  make  a  series  of  punctures  on  a  dial 
showing  the  vibration  of  the  main  gong.  This  device  to  be  of  single  stroke 
pattern  normally  out  of  main  circuit  (i.  e.,  in  the  test  circuit  connecting 
the  binding  posts)  in  series  with  and  vibrated  by  main  gong. 

NOTE. — Inspection  Department  haying  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted  as  to 
the  necessity  for  installing  the  testing  device,  called  for  below. 

b.  Switches   for  cutting  out  alarms   are   prohibited. 

The  following  requirements  were  submitted  by  the  Committee  on 
Signalling  Systems  at  the  1915  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Protec- 
tion Association.  Up  to  the  time  this  book  went  to  press,  they  had 
not  been  finally  approved  by  the  Executive  Committee  nor  adopted 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters;  they  are  given  here 
as  advisory  to  any  one  installing  such  a  system,  as  many  parts  will 
not  be  changed  in  any  modification  which  may  be  made  by  the  com- 
mittee, as  they  are  standard  practices  in  present  good  installations. 
The  sections  on  which  objections  were  raised  are  indicated  herein. 

Part  II 
Fire  Alarm  Signal  Systems  to  Supplement  Factory  Fire  Drills  * 

For  use  in  factories,  workshops  and  institutions  where  occupants  are  under 
discipline  and  control. 

(These  regulations  are  not  considered  generally  acceptable  for  hotels,  apart- 
ment houses  or  department  stores.) 

NOTE. — The  portion  of  these  rules  relating  to  the  design  and  construction 
of  appliances  is  but  a  partial  outline  of  requirements.  A  device  which  fulfills 
the  conditions  herein  outlined,  and  ne  more,  will  not  necessarily  be  accept- 
able. Samples  of  all  appliances  should  be  submitted  to  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories, Inc.,  for  examination  and  report  before  being  introduced  for  use. 

i.  GENERAL. — (a)  All  devices  and  equipment  constructed  and  installed  under 
these  rules  and  requirements  shall  be  expressly  approved  for  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  intended. 

(b)  Before    acceptance    is    obtained    for   any   equipment,    the    building    owner 
must  file  with  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction  a  general  descrip- 
tion   of    the    apparatus    he    proposes    to    install    together    with    such    detailed 
information   and   drawings   as   are   necessary   for   a   complete   understanding   of 
the  installation  and  operation  of  the  system. 

(c)  Call    systems    now    in   use    employing    a    signal   code,    or    when    installed 
in  any  factory  building  covered  by  these  rules  and  requirements,  must  employ 
sounding    devices    of    a    distinctive    type    from    those    used    in    the    fire    alarm 
system. 

(d)  More  than  one  class  of  fire  alarm  boxes  shall  not  be  installed  generally 
throughout  a   factory  building.      Owners   desiring  to   retain  or  secure  the   pro- 
tection  afforded   by   connection   with   the  municipal   fire   department  may   com- 
bine  such  service  with  the   equipment  covered  by  these   regulations. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — An  objection  having  been  made  as  to  the  wording  of  this 
sub-section,  it  will  probably  be  changed  in  the  final  draft. 

If  the  inspection  department  requires  it,  the  building  owner  shall  also 
furnish: 


*  Reported   by   the    Committee    on    Signalling    Systems   at   the    National    Fire 
Protection  meeting  in    1915,  but  not  yet  finally  adopted. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  499 

L       J 

First. — Specifications,  wiring  diagrams  and  floor  plans  in  duplicate  showing 
the  complete  equipment  including  the  source  of  electrical  energy  and  the 
location  of  firm  alarm  boxes,  signaling  devices,  exits,  stairways,  elevators 
and  partitions,  also  the  make  and  type  of  fire  alarm  .equipment  to  be  used 
and  a  schedule  of  signals  indicating  each  floor.  A  copy  of  the  approved 
plans  and  specifications  will  be  returned  as  authority  to  proceed  -with  the 
work. 

Second. — A  satisfactory  guarantee  as  to  the  maintenance,  operation  and 
efficiency  of  the  system. 

2.  WORKMANSHIP   AND    SUPPORTS. — (a)    All   work   must   be   done    in    a   work- 
manlike manner  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

(b)  All  material  must  be  rigidly  secured  in  position,  and  when  attached  to 
masonry  walls,  shall  be  properly  fastened  by  metal  expansion  shields  or 
toggle  bolts.  Wooden  plugs  will  not  be  acceptable.  When  deemed  necessary 
to  mount  fire  alarm  apparatus  upon  a  back  board,  such  back  board  must  not 
be  less  than  seven  eights  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  filled  with  a  non-nbsorptive 
compound,  with  an  air  space  of  at  least  one  quarter  of  an  inch  behind  the 
back  board  for  the  free  circulation  of  air. 

3.  TEST. — All    systems    must    normally    test    free    of    grounds    and,    upon    the 
completion   of   the   fire   alarm    system,   a   satisfactory   test   of   the  entire   equip- 
ment shall  be  made  in  the  presence  of  and  under  the  direction  of  the  inspec- 
tion  department  having  jurisdiction. 

4.  ACCESSORIES. — Automatically    operated    circuit-breakers    and    engine    stops 
for   shutting  down   machinery  in  extremely   noisy   or  hazardous  premises   may 
be    required,    connected   with   and   made   a   part   of   the   fire   alarm  system.      In 
no  case  shall  such  circuit-breakers  or  engine  stops  be  installed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cut  off  the  power  for  lighting  or  to  operate   elevators. 

5.  DESCRIPTION  OF  SYSTEMS. — (a)  A  supervised  system  in  the  intent  of  these 
rules    is    one    in    which,    when    any    part    of    the    wiring    system    except    open 
circuit   portion   of   ringing  circuit   is   grounded,   broken    or   impaired,    so  as   to 
prevent    the    normal    operation    of    the    system,    a    distinctive    trouble   signal    is 
automatically    registered    at    an    approved    central    station     of     a     supervising 
company. 

(b)  Boxes   in   all   cases   must   be  on   closed   circuits.      Signaling  devices  may 
be   on   either   open   or   closed   circuits. 

NOTE. — A  switchboard  for  closed-circuit  electro-mechanical  bell  systems  is 
shown  in  diagram  No.  3,  and  one  for  combined  open  and  closed  circuit  systems 
(vibrating,  bells)  is  shown  in  diagram  No.  4. 

(c)  For  the  transmission  of  an   alarm   on  non-supervised   systems    a  current 
flow    must    be    employed    of    not    less    than    100    milli-amperes    through    an    all 
closed   circuit  system,   and    50   milli-amperes   through   circuits   containing   boxes 
only. 

6.  CIRCUITS. —  (a)     In    all    combined    open    and    closed    circuit    systems,    the 
open  or  signal  portion  of  the  system  must  be  divided  into  at  least  two  circuits 
in  any  one  building. 

NOTE. — For  example,  in  a  six-story  building  requiring  two  signaling  devices 
on  each  floor,  one  on  each  floor  must  be  on  one  circuit.  When  two  or 
more  signaling  devices  are  located  on  any  floor  they  must  be  divided  approxi- 
mately equally  between  the  two  circuits. 

(b)  If  primary  batteries  are  used  to  furnish  the  actuating  energy,  each 
open  circuit  must  be  operated  by  an  independent  battery  of  approved  wet 
or  semi  dry  cells  as  indicated  (K.  K.)  in  wiring  diagram  No.  2. 

In  combined  open  and  closed  circuit  systems  employing  storage  batteries 
to  furnish  the  actuating  energy,  the  gong  circuits  and  box  circuits  may 
be  operated  from  the  same  battery. 


500  .FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(c)  No    circuit    in    which    vibrating    bells    are    connected    in    multiple    shall 
contain  more  than  eight  bells. 

No  relay  shall  control  more  than  sixteen  vibrating  bells  or  more  than  two 
open  circuits.  (See  wiring  diagram  No.  i.) 

(d)  When    an    alarm   has    been   sent   in    from   any   one   of   the   alarm   boxes, 
all    the    signaling    devices    on    the    various    floors    of    the    building    shall    auto- 
matically  sound    the   number    indicating   the    floor    from    which    the    alarm   was 
sent,  and  shall  repeat  the  signal  at  least   four  times. 

(e)  The   fire   alarm   system   must   be   used    for   no   other   than   fire  protective 
purposes.      A   milli-ammeter    shall    be    provided    in   every    closed    circuit   except 
in  supervised  systems. 

(f)  All  signaling  devices,  alarm  boxes,  relay  boxes  and  alarm  box  enclosing 
cases    must    be    finished    in    red    to    distinguish    them     from     other     signaling 
apparatus. 

7.  TROUBLE   SIGNALS.— (a)    An  enclosed  trouble   bell  not   less   than   3    inches 
in   diameter  with  magnets  wound  to  not  less  than    10   ohms   resistance,  except 
in    supervised    systems,    must    be    provided    in    connection    with    each    closed 
circuit   to   ring   continuously   in   case   of   weak  batteries   or   an   opening  of   the 
circuit.      The    bell,    which    shall    be    of    an    approved    design    of    the    vibrating 
type,    must   be    placed    in    the   engine    room    or    other   central    point.      At   least 
four   cells   of   open   circuit   battery   of    approved   make   and   type   must   be  pro- 
vided   for    the    bell.      The   bell   and   battery   shall    connect   with   the   contact   of 
a   relay  having  the   magnet  windings   in  series  with   the  closed  circuit.    »!,   ,.i,; 

(b)  Systems  deriving  energy  from  storage  batteries  may  employ  the  reserve 
set  of  batteries  to  operate  the  trouble  bell  under  conditions  acceptable  to 
the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction.  (See  winding  diagram  No.  4.) 

8.  MAINTENANCE. — The    system    must    be    tested    every    morning    before    the 
hour  of  starting  work  in  the  building  to   insure  the  system  and   the   batteries 
being    in    an    operative    condition.      The    test    signal   shall    consist    of    two    taps 
or   blasts.      Each   alarm   box   must    be    operated   at   least    once   every   month    to 
prove  that  the  mechanism  is  in  perfect  working  order,  in  addition  to  necessary 
use  -of    boxes    in    fire    drills.      All    apparatus    operated    by    springs    requiring 
winding    shall    be    rewound 'after    each    alarm,    and    kept    in    normal    condition 
for    operation.      A    complete    record    shall    be    kept    of    the    operation    of   each 
system,    which    shall   be   subject   fo   examination   by    the   inspection    department 
having  jurisdiction. 

Fire  Alarm  Boxes 

9.  GENERAL. — There   must   be   one  or   more   fire   alarm   boxes   on   each   floor 
of  the  building.     Boxes  shall  be  of  an  approved  type   and  make  and  must  be 
operated    by    a    lever    or    by    breaking    glass.      The    box    must    be    so    designed 
that   when   once   started  the   proper   transmission   of   a  complete   set   of  signals 
cannot    be    interfered    with    by    manipulation    of    its    starting   device. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — An  objection  was  made  to  this  last  requirement. 
Boxes  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  alarm  shall  begin  to  sound  not  more 
than  two  seconds  after  the  box  has  been  started.  Each  box  must  be  arranged 
to  send  a  definite  code  of  signals  to  indicate  the  floor  or  portion  of  same 
on  which  it  is  located.  Not  less  than  three  taps  or  blasts  shall  be  sounded 
at  each  revolution  of  the  break  wheel.  The  following  suggestion  is  offered 
as  a  guide  to  assist  in  the  arrangement  of  the  signal  code,  but  it  is  not  to 
be  considered  as  mandatory: — 

r    ist  floor  2-1 

Single  Building  of  sd  floor  2-2 
four  floors  and J  30!  floor  2-3 
basement  4th  floor  2-4 

^  Basement  2-5  •' 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS  501 

10.  DURATION    OF    SIGNALS. — (a)    Whenever    fire    alarm    boxes    are    made    a 
part    of    the    system    in    which    electro-mechanical    gongs    are    employed,    break 
wheels   should  be  so   designed  that  the  signal   duration  shall  be   not  less  than 
one-halt   second  with  silent  interval   of  not  less  than  one-half  second  between 
signals,    except   between   numbers  consisting  of  two   or  more   digits  and  silent 
period   between  sounds. 

(b)  Boxes  used  in  systems  in  which  whistles,  vibrating  bells  or  horns  are 
employed  should  be  so  designed  that  the  signal  duration  shall  be  not  less  than 
one  second,  nor  more  than  one  and  one-half  seconds  with  silent  intervals 
of  three  quarters  of  a  second  to  one  second,  except  between  numbers  con- 
sisting of  two  or  more  digits  and  between  sounds. 

11.  DESIGN  AND  CONSTRUCTION. — (a)   There  must  be  a  metal  case  completely 
enclosing   the   movement   and    made    dust-proof   as    far   as   possible    by   the    use 
of    gaskets    or    other    suitable    means.      The    metal    case    shall    be    drilled    and 
tapped   to   receive  standard   conduit  at   top   and   bottom. 

(b)  All   parts  of   the   mechanism   must   be  of   the   best  grade   and  workman- 
ship.     Contact  points  operated   by  a  break   wheel,   and  contact   points  on   test- 
ing   devices   shall    be    of   commercially    pure    platinum   or    silver,    and    shall    be 
of    the    scraping   type.      All    contact    points    must    be    secured    in    a   substantial 
manner    to    phosphor    bronze    springs,    and    all    current-carrying   parts    shall    be 
insulated    from   the    mechanism   of   the    box.      The   break   wheel   shall   be   made 
of  suitable  non-conducting  material,  or  insulated  from  the  carrying  shaft,  and 
shall  not  be  employed  in  any  manner  as  an  electrical  conductor. 

Provision  must  be  made  for  a  silent  test  of  the  box  mechanism  without 
operating  the  signaling  devices.  The  testing  device  must  be  of  a  design 
which  will  prevent  any  person,  except  those  in  authority,  from  operating 
same.  Testing  devices  must  be  so  designed  as  to  prevent  possibility  of  box 
being  ieft  inoperative. 

(c)  Lever    boxes    must    be    designed    to    wind    automatically    when    the    lever 
is  pulled   for  an   alarm. 

Lever  box  cases  must  be  fitted  with  a  door  which  can  readily  be  opened, 
so  constructed  as  to  protect  the  pull  lever  against  accidental  injury  and  on 
which  a  handle  is  rigidly  secured.  The  wording  "  In  case  of  Fire  open 
Door  and  pull  down  Lever  as  Far  as  it  will  go,"  or  equivalent  instructions 
must  appear  on  the  door.  If  used  in  exposed  places,  the  box  shall  be  enclosed 
in  a  suitable  weatherproof  outer  shell. 

Approved  types  of  break-glass  boxes  will  be  acceptable  with  no  additional 
protection  except  where  made  necessary  by  weather  conditions,  and  every 
break-glass  type  fire  alarm  box  shall  be  provided  with  suitable  hammer  on 
chain  which  shall  be  attached  to  or  near  the  box,  so  that  the  glass  can  readily 
be  broken.  All  break-glass  boxes  shall  have  lettered  on  the  fronts  the  word.; 
"  Fire  Alarm — In  case  of  fire  break  glass."  All  boxes  requiring  glass  replace- 
ments shall  be  so  arranged  that  replacement  cannot  be  made  until  the 
mechanism  is  reset  for  another  alarm. 

Signaling  Devices 

12.  GENERAL. — Signaling   devices   may   consist   of   bells   of   approved   type   or 
other    devices    acceptable    to    the    inspection    department    having    jurisdiction. 
There    shall    be    installed    on    each    floor    of    the    building    one    or    more    alarm 
devices    sufficient    in    number    and    efficiency    to    be    plainly    heard    throughout 
the   floor  above   the   noise  of  the   machinery   and   other  sounds.      Where   floors 
are   divided    by   fire    walls,    each    section   may   be    deemed   a   separate   floor    for 
the    purpose    of    these    requirements. 

Systems  consisting  of  several  types  of  sounding  apparatus  should  be  avoided. 

13.  DESIGN    AND   CONSTRUCTION. —  (a)    All   signaling   devices   must   be   of   an 


5O2  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

approved  type,  and  the  movement  enclosed  in  a  substantially  dust-proof  metal 
casing  insulated  from  all  current-carrying  parts.  Where  conditions  require 
it,  moisture-proof  casings  must  be  provided.  Signaling  devices  shall  be  placed 
with  their  lowest  parts  about  eight  feet  from  the  floor.  Wherever  there  is 
danger  of  mechanical  injury,  the  entire  device  shall  be  enclosed  in  a  pro- 
tecting case  made  of  approved  wire  netting  or  perforated  metal. 

(b)  Gongs    must    be    made    of    a    high    grade    of    cast    bell    metal,    or    other 
approved   material,    and   shall   be,   except   by   special   permission,    not   less   than 
8  inches  in  diameter. 

(c)  Adjustments    must    be    of    such    a    character    that    they    can    be    securely 
locked  in   an   approved  manner. 

(d)  Cohtact  points  must  be  ample  in  area,  not  only  to  take  care  of  current 
used    in    operation,    but    to    insure    long    life,    and    shall    be    of    commercially 
pure   silver,   platinum,   carbon,   or   other   approved   material.  ' 

(e)  Hammer  rods  must  be  protected  against  mechanical   injury   or  derange- 
ment by  the   use   of   a   guard  or   other   suitable   means. 

14.  HORNS    AND    WHISTLES. — When'   conditions    in    a    factory    building    make 
the    use    of   fire    alarm    horns    necessary,    they    may    be    required    and    shall    be 
installed    in    a    manner   acceptable    to   the    inspection    department    having   juris- 
diction.     A    difference    of   potential   of   not   less   than    30   volts,   nor   in   excess 
of    50    volts    shall    be    provided    on    horn    circuits.      Horn    field    and    armature 
windings  shall  be  of  a  resistance  value  suitable   for  the  voltage  employed. 

Electrically  controlled  whistles  may  be  required  as  auxiliary  equipment, 
and  shall  be  installed  in  a  manner  acceptable  to  the  inspection  department 
having  jurisdiction. 

'  i(,  .  Relays 

15.  DESIGN  AND  INSTALLATION. —  (a)   All  relay  must  be  mounted  in  a  vertical 
position,   magnets   up,   and   be  enclosed   in  an  approved  metal  case   under   lock 
and   key   and   located   where   there   is   no   danger   of   sparking  contacts   igniting 
inflammable    gases    or   flyings. 

(b)  Relays    must    be    mounted    where    they    will    be    least    affected    by   vibra- 
tion   in    building,    and   in    no    case    shall   they   be   mounted   on    the    same   back- 
board with  sounding  apparatus,  or  so  that  they  will  be  affected  by  the  vibra- 
tion   caused    by    such    sounding   apparatus,    and    shall    be    plainly    marked    with 
the    maximum    and    minimum    operating   current    values    to    which    such    relays 
will    safely    respond. 

Wiring 

1 6.  WIRING. — (a)   All  conductors  must  be  run  in  approved  metallic  conduits 
or  armored  cable  installed  as  follows:    Conduits  and  armored  cables,  when  not 
terminated  in  drilled  and  tapped  fittings,  shall  be  rigidly  secured  to  all  fittings 
by   approved   locknuts   and   bushing.      Conduits   shall   be   not    less   than    i^-inch 
internal  diameter  where   not  more  than    four   conductors   are   used,   and   where 
a  greater  number  of  conductors  is  used,  the  internal  diameter  of  the  conduit 
shall    be    at    least    3/16    of    an    inch    larger,  than    the    outside    diameter    of    the 
bunched    wire    it    is   to    accommodate. 

Fire  alarm  conduits  shall  not  contain  any  foreign  wires  whatever.  The 
conduit  system  shall  be  permanently  and  effectually  grounded. 

'(b1)  All  wires  must  be  rubber  covered,  and  braided  National  Electrical 
Code  standard.  ;  Wiring  in  all  systems  shall  be  installed  after  the  manner 
prescribed  under  National  Electrical  Code  rules  as  applying  to  conduit  and 
armored  cable  installation. 

(c)  Except    for    supervised    systems,    no    conductor    of    less    than    No.     14 
B.  &  S.   gauge,  riot  having  a  rubber   Insulation   wall   of  less  than   3/64  of   an 
inch   thick  will   be  approved. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 


503 


For  supervised  systems,  wires  must  have  an  approved  covering  consisting, 
except  as  noted  below,  of  a  rubber  insulation  at  least  1/32  inch  in  thickness 
and  a  substantial  braid. 

Multiple  conductor  cables  consisting  of  three  or  more  wires  may  be  not 
less  than  No.  16  B.  &  S.  gauge,  and  have  an  approved  rubber  insulation  not 
less  than  1/32  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

(d)  Where  wires  pass  from  one  building  to  another,  they  must  be  enclosed 
in   rigid  conduit   underground  between   buildings  wherever  possible,   and   when 
so  installed  must  be  lead  encased. 

(e)  Wires    between    buildings    when    not    run    in    conduit    must    be    at    least 
equivalent    in    conductivity    and    tensile    strength    to    No.    12    B.    &    S.    copper 
for    box    and    signaling   circuits.      They    must    be    supported    at   least    every    75 
feet    on    approved    glass    insulators    and    brackets.      As    far    as    possible,    they 
should   be   run   under   rather  than   over   electric   light   or   power   wires. 

PROPERTIES  OF  WIRE 


Size, 
B.  &  S. 
Gage 

Area, 
Square 
Inches 

Area, 
Circular 
Miles 

Resistance, 
Ohms  per 
1000  feet 

Weight 
per  Mile, 
Lbs. 

Breaking 
Strength, 
Lbst 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Copper  Wire,  Hard-drawn 


7 
8 
9 
10 
12 
14 
16 

.0163 
.0130 
.0103 
.0082 
.0051 
.0032 
.00203 

20820 
16510 
13090 
10380 
6530 
4107 
2583 

0.5085 
0.6413 
0.8087 
1.0197 
1.6218 
2.5780 
4.0996 

332. 
264. 
209. 
166. 
104. 
65.7 
41.3 

990 
788 
630 
506 
318 
202 
140 

60000 
60500 
61100 
61600 
62400 
63100 
68000 

Aluminum  Wire,  Average  Grade  A75 


7 
8 
9 
10 
12 
14 

.0163 
.0130 
.0103 
.0082 
.0051 
.0032 

20820 
16510 
13090 
10380 
6530 
4107 

0.86 
1.105 
1.367 
1.724 
2.741 
4.467 

100.21 
79.46 
62.99 
48.71 
31.43 
19.76 

586 
481 
402 
328 
214 
141 

36000 
37000 
39000 
40000 
42000 
44000 

B.  W.  G. 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
14 
16 

.0213 
.0172 
.0141 
.0113 
.0094 
.0054 
.0033 

Iro 

27225 
21904 
17956 
14400 
11881 
6889 
4225 

n  Wire,  E. 

2.36 
2.93 
3.57 
4.45 
5.39 
9.29 
15.16 

B.  B. 

378. 
305. 
250. 
200. 
165. 
96. 
59. 

1134 
915 
750 
600 
495 
288 
177 

18800 
18800 
18800 
18800 
18900 
18800 
18700 

DOUBLE  GALVANIZED  TELEGRAPH  WIRE 


Size 
B.  W.G. 

Diam., 
Inches 

Weight, 
Lbs. 
per 
Mile 

Breaking  Strength, 
Lbs. 

Resistance  Ohms  per 
Mile 

E.  B.  B. 

B.  B. 

Steel 

E.  B.  B. 

B.  B. 

Steel 

4 
6 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
14 

.238 
.203 
.165 
.148 
.134 
.120 
.109 
.083 

811 
590 
390 
314 
258 
206 
170 
99 

2433 
1770 
1170 
942 
774 
618 
510 
297 

2676 
1947 
1287 
1036 
851 
680    , 
561 
327 

3000 
2183 
1443 
1162 
955 
762 
629 
366 

5.98 
8.14 
12.43 
15.44 
18.80 
23  .  54 
28.53 
49.00 

7.15 
9.83 
14.87 
18.47 
22.48 
28.15 
34.12 
58.58 

8'.  32 
11.44 
17.31 
21.62 
26.16 
32.76 
39.70 
68.18 

504 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


COPPER  AND  COPPER-CLAD  WIRES 

Comparison  of  Hard  Drawn  Copper  and  Forty  Per  Cent  Copper 
Clad  Steel 


Bo     c 

Weight, 
Lbs.  per  Mile 

Breaking  Strength, 
Lbs. 

Resistance, 
Ohms  per  Mile 

.  &  b. 
Gage 

Copper 

Copper 
Clad 

Copper 

Copper 
Clad 

Copper 

Copper 
Clad 

6 

419 

390 

1237 

1800 

2.18 

5.45 

7 

332 

309 

980 

1450 

2.76 

6.90 

8 

264 

245 

778 

1200    - 

3.49 

8.73 

9 

209 

194 

617 

975 

4.39 

10.97 

10 

166 

154 

489 

800 

5.49 

13.72 

11 

131 

122 

388 

650 

6.90 

17.25 

12 

104 

97 

307 

510 

8.70 

21.75 

13 

83 

77 

244 

410 

10.01 

27.57 

14 

66 

61 

193 

330 

13.44 

34.85 

15 

52 

49 

153 

250 

17.57 

43.92 

16 

41 

38 

133 

200 

21.95 

54.97 

18 

26 

24 

77 

130 

35.71 

89.27 

Weights  of  Copper  and  Copper  Clad  Weather-proof  Wire,  pounds 
per  Mile 


B.  &  S. 
Gage 

Diam., 
Inches 

Double  Braid 

Triple  Braid 

Copper 

Copper  Clad 

Copper 

Copper  Clad 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 

•18 

12 

14 

.2294 
.2043 
1819 
1620 
1285 
1144 
1019 
0808 
.0641 

993 
800 
644 
528 
349 
284 
250 
158 
106 

918 
748 
608 
499 
330 
268 
229 
151 
102 

1059 
866 
736 
591 
402 
330 
285 
185 
132 

991 
818 
673 
560 
376 
310 
268 
178 
127 

Three  per  cent  variation  allowed. 

Sources  of  Electrical  Energy 

The    following   sources    of   energy   may   be   employed: — 

1.  Storage   batteries   in   duplicate. 

2.  Electric   Light  or   Power   system    (Public    Service   or  isolated  plant),   sup- 
plemented by  storage  batteries  controlled   by  automatic  throw,  over  device. 

NOTE. — By  special  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having  juris- 
diction the  storage  batteries  may  be  omitted. 

3.  -Primary    batteries    in    duplicate., 

17.  STORAGE  BATTERIES. — '(a)  Storage  batteries  may  be  employed  if  under 
competent  supervision  and  equipped  with  reliable  charging  and  controlling 
devices. 

(b)  Storage  batteries  must  be  of  approved  make  and  type.  Each  set  must 
be  capable  of  maintaining  the  system  efficiently  for ,'  seven  days  without 
recharging,  and  must  be  of  not  less  than  24-ampere-hour  capacity. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 


505 


Wiring:  Diagram  No.   i. 


506  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(c)  A    sufficient    number    of    storage    cells    must    be    provided    in    battery    to 
secure    thoroughly    satisfactory    operation,    the    required    number    in    each    in- 
stallation   to    be    designated   by   the   inspection   department   having   jurisdiction. 

(d)  Storage  batteries  must  be  installed  in  an  approved  manner  in  properly 
ventilated    protecting    cabinets    and,    wherever    possible,    must    be    placed    in    a 
room    not    containing    other    fire    alarm    apparatus.       If    these    batteries     are 
placed    in    a   separate   room    with    proper   ventilation    and    where   they   will    not 
be   subject  to   mechanical   injury,   protecting  cabinets   will   not   be    required. 

(e)  The '  batteries    must    not    be    disconnected    from    the    fire    alarm    system 
during  working  hours  in   the   factory. 

(f)  A    difference    of    potential    of    more    than    60    volts    will    not    be    allowed 
on    working    circuits    of    storage    battery    systems    when    the    current    flow    at 
any  time  through  any  part  of  the  system  is  more  than  one  ampere. 

(g)  A    full    description    of    the    operation    of    each    system,    together    with 
instructions    for   its   proper   care    and   maintenance,    must   be   posted   in   a   con- 
spicuous place  and  in  a  substantial  manner,  accessible  to  the  person  in  charge 
of  the  system. 

(h)  It  is  preferable  that  the  voltage  of  the  charging  circuit  be  not  over 
250  volts. 

(i)  Suitable  provision  to  be  made  on  a  switchboard  for  charging  the  batteries, 
with  approved  means  of  protecting  them  against  injury  due  to  interruption 
of  charging  current;  also  provision  for  shifting  the  respective  batteries  from 
charging  to  working  and  from  working  to  charging  without  opening  any  of 
the  working  circuits  during  the  process  of  shifting. 

Fixed  resistance  units  (of  approved  type  and  design)  to  be  provided,  one 
in  each  leg  of  the  charging  circuit  of  such  a  value  as  operating  conditions 
may  warrant  but  in  no  case  shall  the  charging  rate  be  in  excess  of  two  thirds 
of  the  normal  charging  rate  of  the  storage  cells  unless  a  variable  charging 
rate  is  required. 

One  third  of  the  total  resistance  to  be  used  shall  be  fixed  in  each  leg  of 
the  charging  circuit,  and  the  balance  provided  with  approved  shifting  device 
for  varying  the  charging  rate;  the  minimum  resistance  to  be  such  that  the 
batteries  cannot  be  charged  in  excess  of  their  normal  charging  rate.  Resistance 
in  any  case  must  not  unduly  heat. 

Lamps  will  not  be  permitted  for  resistance. 

Fuses  50  per  cent  in  excess  of  normal  load  and  not  in  excess  of  allowable 
carrying  capacities  of  wire  must  be  provided  at  battery  terminals,  and  on 
all  working  circuits.  All  fuses  must  be  of  the  enclosed  type. 

(j)  Motor  generators  of  suitable  capacity  and  standard  design  may  be  used 
for  charging  storage  batteries,  and  when  used  must  be  installed  in  accordance 
with  the  National  Electrical  Code  rules,  and  a  proper  field  regulator  must  be 
provided  in  addition  to  regular  switchboard  equipment  referred  to  above,  except 
that  resistance  in  charging  circuits  will  not  be  required. 

(k)  For  alternating,  current  when  alternating  current  is  used  for  charging 
storage  batteries,  approved  motor  generators  or  rectifying  sets  with  necessary 
transformer  must  be  provided, '  together  with  regular  switchboard  equipment 
above  specified. 

NOTE.— Electrolytic  rectifiers  will  only  be  allowed  when  under  competent 
supervision,  and  when  employed  a  reserve  set  of  electrodes  and  charge  of 
salts  must  be  kept  on  hand. 

1 8.  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER  (PUBLIC  SERVICE  OR  ISOLATED  PLANT),  SUP- 
PLEMENTED BY  STORAGE  BATTERIES. — Systems  of  this  character  are  special,  and 
complete  details  of  installation  must  be  submitted  for  approval  in  each  case 
to  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction,  which  may,  by  special 
permission,  authorize  the  omission  of  the  supplementary  storage  batteries. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 


507 


r'l'lffl 


ri 


1 1 


e. 


U 

o 


U 

o 


Wiring  Diagram  No.  2. 


508  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

19.  PRIMARY  BATTERIES. — (a)  The  battery  on  the  closed  circuit  must  be  in 
duplicate  and  be  provided  with  an  approved  single  pole,  double  throw,  knife 
blade  switch,  so  arranged  that  when  changing  from  one  set  of  batteries  to 
another  the  "circuit  cannot  be  broken,  and  shall  consist  of  approved  standard 
closed  circuit  cells  of  not  less  than  3oo-amperes-houijs  capacity.  Approved 
heat-resisting  glass  jars  are  preferred,  but  at  least  one  glass  jar  shall  be 
used  in  each  series  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  condition  of  the  elements. 
The  working  voltage  of  approved  closed  circuit  cells  is  .65  volts  per  cell. 
Dry  cells  shall  not  be  used  as  actuating  energy  in  any  closed  circuit,  except 
in  supervised  systems. 

(b)  The  .battery   on   the   open   circuits   as   indicated    (K.    K.)    in   wiring   dia- 
gram   No.  ,i,   shall  consist  of   high   grade   open   circuit,    wet   or  semi-dry   cells 
of   approved   type   and   make.      A    reserve   set   of    batteries   must   be   provided 
and   chemicals    furnished   with   them,  in   a   dry   state,   and   as   any   set   becomes 
exhausted,   they  shall   immediately   be  prepared   for  service.      Multiples  of  dry 
cells   in   approved  containers  may  be  substituted   for   wet   or  semi-dry   cells   in 
each  open  or  bell  circuit  under  conditions  acceptable  to  the   inspection  depart- 
ment  having  jurisdiction.      A  sufficient  number   of   cells   must   be   provided   in 
each   battery   to   secure   thoroughly   satisfactory    operation. 

(c)  The  current  flow  from  any  primary  battery  shall  not  exceed  2  amperes. 

(d)  All     batteries    must    be    coupled    together  .  by    means    of    battery    con- 
nectors   of-'approved    type. 

20.  CABINETS  FOR  PRIMARY  BATTERIES. — (a)  All  :primary  batteries  must  be 
placed  hi  substantial  well-fitted  cabinets,  elevated -not  less  than  six  inches  and 
not  moije  than  six  feet  above  the  floor  and  located  in  a  clean,  dry  place  where 
the  teniperature  will  not  fall  below  40  degrees  Fahr.  nor  rise  above  100 
degrees  'Fahr. 

(b)  Cabinets  must  be  provided   with  shelves  of  wood  not  less   than    %-inch 
in  thickness  or  of   other  approved  material,   properly   fastened   and  secured   to 
prevent    sagging. 

Supports  for  dry  batteries  must  be  so  constructed  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  the  cells  to  come  in  contact  with  each  other  or  with  the  metal  enclosures. 

Main  battery  cabinets  must  be  so  constructed  that  the  condition  of  the 
elements  may  be  observed  without  disturbing  the  cells. 

(c)  Metal    cabinets    must    be    of    approved    type,    constructed    of    sheet   iron 
or  steel  J  of  ;not:  less  than  No.    14  U.   S.  metal  gauge. 

Doorsj  must  be   provided   with   lock  and   key   and   kept .  closed. 

The  interior  and  the  exterior  of  metal  cabinets  must  be  painted*  with  two 
coats  of  asphaltum  compound,  each  coat  to  be  thoroughly  dried  before  the 
next  is  Applied.  Baked  enamel  will  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  the  above. 

(d)  Wooden    battery    cabinets    must    be    constructed    of    the    best    grade    of 
kiln   dried   wood   not   less   than    %-inch    thick.      Doors   must   be   provided   with 
a  padlock  ,and  kept;  closed. 

Wooden  cabinets  must  be  painted  on  the  interior  with  two  coats  of  asphaltum 
compound  and  on  the  exterior  with  two  coats  of  lead  paint,  varnish  or  asphal- 
tum compound. 

Automatic  Equipment 

. 

21.  SPECIAL  PERMISSION  REQUIRED. — Approved  automatic  fire  alarm  devices 
and  thermostat  systems  arranged  automatically  to  set  in  motion  transmitting 
devices  in  connection  with  the  manual  fire  alarm  systems  covered  by  the 
foregoing  rules,  may  be  allowed  by  special  permission  of  the  inspection 
department  having  jurisdiction. 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 


509 


Closed  Circuit  D.  C.  Control  Board 
for  Electric  Mechanical  Gongs. 


Wiring  Diagram  No.  3. 


5io  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Wiring  Diagram  No.  i 

In  this  wiring  diagram  an  outline  has  been  given  of  a  satisfactory  method 
of  installing  a  combined  open  and  closed  circuit  system  employing  vibrating 
bells  as  signaling  devices. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  resistance,  voltage  and  current  values  given  below 
be  followed : — 

A.  Multiple    contact    master    combination    relay.      Magnets    shown    connected 
into  the  closed   or  box  circuit  be  wound   to   25   ohms  resistance.      Relay  to  be 
mounted    in    a   vertical    position,    magnets    up,    and    enclosed    in    a    metal    case 
under  lock  and  key. 

B.  Fire    alarm    trouble    relay    wound    to    25    ohms    resistance    mounted    in    a 
metal  case  under  lock  and  key,  in  a  vertical  position,   magnets   up. 

D.  Single   pole  double  throw  switch. 

E  Duplicate  closed  circuit  batteries  consisting  of  3bo-ampere-hour  closed 
circuit  cells  sufficient  in  number  to  cause  a  current  flow  through  the  closed 
circuit  of  50  milli-amperes  based  on  an  E.  M.  F.  of  .65  volt  per  cell. 

F.  Local    battery   of   approved   cells. 

G.  Vibrating  bells. 

H.  Covered  trouble  bell  not  less  than  3.  inches  in  diameter,  with  magnets 
wound  to  not  less  than  10  ohms  resistancte. 

K.  Open  circuit  batteries  consisting  of  approved,  cells.  A  sufficient  number 
of  cells  to  be  provided  in  each  battery  tq  secure  thoroughly  satisfactory 
operation: 

X,  Milli-ammeter   scale   to    read   o-ioo    milli-amperes. 

Storage  batteries  may  -  be  substituted  to  supply  actuating  energy  in  this 
system  (see  diagram  No.  4). 

All  wiring  to  be  installed  in  rigid  iron  conduit  or  steel  armored  calle. 

For  additional  details,  see  specifications. 

Wiring  Diagram  No.  2 

In  this  wiring  diagram  an  outline  has  been  given  of  a  satisfactory  method 
of  installing  a.  closed  circuit  electro-mechanical  bell  system. 

Tt  is  suggested  that  the  resistances,  voltage  and  current  values  given  below 
be  followed. 

B.  Fire    alarm    relay    mounted    in    a    metal    case    under    lock    and    key,    in    a 
vertical  position,  magnets  up. 

C.  Single  pole   double  throw  switch. 

E.  Duplicate    batteries    consisting     of     3oo-ampere-hours     approved         closed 
circuit   cells   sufficient   in   number   to   cause   a  current  flow   through   the  closed 
circuits  of  100  milli-amperes  based  on  an  E.  M.   F.  of  .65  volt  per  cell. 

Storage  batteries  may  be  substituted.  (See  specifications  and  diagram 
No.  3.) 

F.  Local   battery  of  approved  cells. 

H.  Covered  trouble  bell  not  less  than  3  inches  in  diameter  of  approved 
type  with  magnets  wound  to  not  less  than  10  ohms  resistance. 

E,  M.  Electric-mechanical  gongs  of  approved  single  stroke  type  wound  to 
not  less  than  30  ohms  resistance. 

X.  Milli-ammeter    scale    to    read    0-200    milli-amperes. 

All  wiring  to  be  installed  in  rigid  iron  conduit  or  steel  armored  cable. 

For   additional    details,   see   specificatons. 

Watchman  Time  Recording  Apparatus. — As  an  auxiliary  to 
any  signalling  system,  and  a  necessity  where  the  signalling  system 
is  not  automatic,  such  as  a  thermostat  or  sprinkler  flow  system,  is 


SIGNALLING  SYSTEMS 


Wiring  Diagram  K.o.  4. 


512  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

the  service  of  a  watchman.  Not  only  is  he  of  value  in  discovering 
fires,  but  also  in  preventing  them,  by  turning  off  carelessly  left  gas 
or  electric  current  on  heaters,  etc.,  and  cleaning  up  rubbish  which 
may  ignite  spontaneously. 

To  be  of  full  value,  assurance  of  his  being  on  duty  is  a  requisite, 
and  as  a  general  rule  underwriters  insist  that  he  be  checked  up  in 
his  rounds  by  being  made  to  punch  a  clock  at  stated  times,  or  to 
send  in  a  signal  to  a  central  station.  These  clocks  or  signal  sta- 
tions must  be  of  such  a  design  that  they  can  not  be  tampered  with, 
or  the  records  changed.  Practically  the  only  assurance  that  such 
apparatus  is  properly  safeguarded  from  tampering  is  by  insisting 
on  a  system  or  a  time  recorder  labeled  by  the  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories, who  have  listed  to  date  one  make  of  watchman's  call  and  fire 
alarm  box  for  use  in  connection  with  standard  normally-closed  cir- 
cuit central  station  watchman's  time  recording  apparatus,  eleven 
manufacturers  of  portable  time  recorders  and  key  boxes,  and  four- 
teen manufacturers  of  stationary  recorders. 

In  any  watch  service  it  is  strongly  recommended  that  the  old 
idea  of  employing  superannuated  men  for  watchmen  be  discarded ; 
the  service,  although  probably  not  showing  immediate  returns  on 
the  profit  side  of  the  books,  such  as  other  workmen's  services 
about  a  plant  do  is  of  really  such  great  value  that  only  men  in 
their  prime  should  be  employed,  and  a  sufficient  wage  paid  to 
get  good,  sober,  efficient  men,  who  can  be  properly  trained. 
With  such  a  watchman  a  plant  is  far  better  protected  than  the 
average. 


We  safeguard  you 

FIRE against WATER 

We  Watch  Your  Watchman. 

We  Supervise  Your  Sprinkler  System. 

We  Send  the  Fire  Department. 

We  Ring  the  Local  Fire  Drill  Gongs. 

We  Operate  All  Kinds  of  Signal  Systems. 

Offices    Everywhere 

Controlled  Companies  of 

AMERICAN  DISTRICT  TELEGRAPH  COMPANY 

Main  Office,  195  Broadway,  New  York 


THE  DESIRABILITY  OF  HIGH  PRESSURE 
FIRE  SYSTEMS* 

1  lie  immense  aggregations  of  values  in  the  buildings  and  their  contents 
in  the  business  districts  of  metropolitan  cities,  and  the  possibility  of  con- 
tl.ig  rations,  with  their  tremendous  losses  and  disastrous  effects  on  business 
and  civic  growth,  are  striking  arguments  in  favor  of  providing  the  most 
elective  known  means  of  preventing  such  catastrophes. 

Although  there  is  a  tendency  at  the  present  time  to  replace  old  buildings 
with  others  of  fireproof  construction,  such  being  required  for  certain  heights 
and  areas  by  city  building  laws,  the  number  of  buildings  of  such  construction 
is  comparatively  small.  The  probability  of  serious  fires  originating  in  these 
buildings  is  small,  but  with  the  general  lack  of  protection  against  exposure 
across  narrow  streets  and  passageways,  they  would  not  withstand  the  attack 
of  a  fire  from  adjacent  and  neighboring  buildings  of  other  classes. 

Although  a  sprinkler  equipment  will  effectively  control  a  fire  originating 
within  the  building  in  which  it  is  installed,  it  does  not  make  that  building 
a  conflagration  barrier;  and  since  most  of  the  equipments  are  connected  to 
the  system  of  street  mains,  the  efficiency  of  the  supply  to  all  these  equip- 
ments may  be  seriously  impaired,  and  the  ability  to  resist  exposure  fires 
K  -setied,  by  the,  breaking  of  service  connections  to  one  or  more  buildings  in 
which  a  fire  has  got  beyond  control. 

btructural  conditions,  occupancies  and  other  features  tend  to  produce  a 
high  conflagration  hazard  particularly  in  sections  which  consist  of  large-area 
blocks,  with  crowded  and  poorly  accessible  interiors,  no  floor-opening  or 
window  protection  where  especially  needed,  and  numerous  large  floor  areas, 
affording  opportunity  for  the  rapid  spread  of  fire. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  chances  for  sweeping 
tires  in  large  cities  are  considerable,  even  though  the  fire  department  is 
efficient  and  well  maintained.  All  that  .is  required,  under  existing  weak 
building  conditions,  is  the  right  combination  of  circumstances  to  make  a 
fire  too  large  for  the  department  to  handle.  This  combination  of  circUm*- 
stances  nearly  occurred  in  Boston  on  August  9,  1910,  when  two  serious  simul- 
taneous fires,  as  described  hereinafter,  called  out  practically  the  entire 
IV.ston  tire  department  and  much  apparatus  from  the  surrounding  cities. 
Had  either  .of  these  fires  been  a  little  larger,  or  had  a  third  fire  occurred 
almost  anywhere  in  the  city,  for  example,  in  any  of  the  number  of  con- 
ucstcd  frame  residential  sections,  which  are  becoming  increasingly  hazardous, 
n  had  conflagration  would  undoubtedly  have  occurred. 

Ft  is  in  realization  of  the  possibilities  of  such  conditions  that  the  larger 
American  cities  are  making  every  effort  to  install  the  most  powerful  fire- 
rightin.cr  facilities  available.  Systems  of  high  pressure  water  mains  used 
exclusively  for  fire  protection  are  installed  in  New  York  (one  in  Manhattan, 
i-ne  in  Brooklyn  and  one  at  Cdney  Island),  Philadelphia,  Toronto,  Ont., 
Winnipeg,  Man.,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Buffalo,  Oakland,  San  Francisco  and 
Baltimore.  Portland,  Ore.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  Boston  and  Cincinnati  have 
started  them. 


*  Abstracted   from  a  pamphlet  issued  by  the   National   Board  of   Fire   Under- 
writers. 

513 


514  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

;  Philadelphia  has  used  its  system  for  nearly  12  years,  and  Manhattan  and 
Brooklyn  about  7  years;  the  experience  in  these  cities  proves  the  feasibility 
of  separate  high  pressure  fire  systems  and  their  superiority  over  fire  engines, 
especially  for  large  fires  which  tend  to  assume  conflagration  proportions. 

The  Manhattan  system  illustrates  the  possibilities  and  advantages  of  such 
equipments.  The  main  features  are  a  gridrironed  system  of  underground 
pipes,  12  to  24  inches  in  diameter,  to  which  is  connected  two  pumping  stations 
taking  water  from  the  city  mains  and  delivering  into  the  high  pressure 
system  at  pressures  of  125  to  300  pounds.  Each  station  is  equipped  with 
6  centrifugal  pumps,  driven  by  direct  connected  induction  motors.  Each 
pump  was  guaranteed  to  deliver  3,000  gallons  of  water  per  minute  at  300 
pounds  pressure,  and  at  the  acceptance  tests  did  deliver  an  average  of  3,600 
gallons  per  minute,  a  total  of  43,000  gallons  for  both  stations.  The  delivery 
is'  proportionately  greater  at  lower  pressures,  and  reaches  a  total  of  about 
62,000  gallons  per  minute  at  200  pounds  pressure.  Fresh  water  is  used,  as 
'  it  causes  less  'damage  to  stock  than  salt  water,  and  also  because  it  has  less 
effect  on  'tlie  pine  of  the  'system;  however,  the  stations  are  located  close 
to  tide  water  and  all  necessary  connections  are  made  for  the  use  of  salt 
water  in  emergency.  The  precautions  taken  to  insure  the  integrity  of  the 
pumping  stations  and  the  reliability  of  operation  include:  Pumping  stations 
of  fireproof  construction  throughout,  protected  against  exposure  fires  and 
located  outside  the  conflagration  zone;  power  for  operating  the  pumps  sup- 
plied from  5  different  power  stations  of  the  New  York  Edison  Company, 
with  duplicate  sets  of  underground  cables  to  each  pumping  station;  dupli- 
cate mains  from  the  pumping  stations  to  the  gridiron  system,  and  automatic 
relief  and  pressure-regulating  valves  at  each  station.  Pressure  is  not  kept 
up  at  all  times;  when  a  fire  alarm  comes  in  from  the  district  covered  by 
the  system  the  pumps  are  started  and  pressure  raised  to  125  pounds.  This 
takes  less  than  one  minute,  so  that  the  water  is  always  ready  before  the  fire 
department  can  Jay  a  line  of  hose  and  connect  to  a  hydrant. 

Large  post  hydrants,  to  which  4  or  5  lines  of  hose  may  be  attached,  are 
the  only  connections  through  which  water  can  be  drawn  from  the  system, 
and  the  possibility  is  avoided  of  connections  inside  buildings  breaking  and 
bleeding  the  system.  Each  hydrant  is  capable  of  supplying  at  high  pressure 
as  much  water  as  5  ordinary  fire  engines  of  the  first  size. 

The  tendency  in  all  modern  fire  departments  is  to  use  large,  penetrating 
streams,  as  these  alone  are  effective  on  a  fire  well  under  way  in  the  ordinary, 
large-area  building  filled  with  combustible  stock.  Each  large  stream  requires, 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  cne  first  size  or  larger  engine  or 
two  smaller  ones,  working  up  to  full  capacity,  while  one  hydrant  on  the 
high  pressure  system  can  supply  4  or  5  such  streams. 

A  signalling  system  is  provided,  by  means  of  which  the  officers  in  charge 
at  a  fire  can  communicate  with  the  pumping  stations  from  any  location  in 
the  district  covered.  More  pressure  can  be  ordered  at  any  time  and  is 
immediately  available.  As  many  of  the  pumps  are  operated  as  are  necessary 
to  maintain  the  desired  pressure  and  this  pressure  can  be  sustained  for  any 
length  of  time.  Mr.  I.  M.  de  Varona,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Department 
of  Water  Supply,  Gas  and  Electricity,  New  York,  reports  as  follows  on 
January  26,  1909: 

"  The  high  pressure  fire  system  in  New  York,  which  was  put  officially 
into  service  on  July  6,  19,08,  has  been  successfully  operated  since  that  date 
at  one  hundred  and  fifteen  fires,  but  it  had  its  crucial  test,  and  one  to  which 
it  will  not  probably  be  subjected  again  in  years,  on  the  7th,  8th  and  gth  of 


DESIRAMIUTY  or  Ilic.n   PRESSURE  SYSTEMS         515 

January,  1909,  when  it  was  brought  into  service  for  five  simultaneous  fires, 
three  of  them  of  much  more  than  the  usual  extent  and  activity,  one  par- 
ticularly so. 

"  These  fires  occurred  at  Hudson  and  Franklin  streets,  Hester  street  and 
the  Bowery,  Houston  street  and  Broadway,  Sixth  avenue  and  I7th  street, 
and  Houston  street  and  the  Bowery.  The  situation  became  so  dangerous 
that  every  engine  south  of  37th  street — i.  e.,  forty  engines — was  summoned, 
as  well  as  a  force  consisting  of  twelve  battalion  chiefs  and  more  than  600 
men,  but  there  was-  no  need  to  use  a  single  one  of  the  fire  engines.  The  fire 
at  Franklin  and  Hudson  streets  was  particularly  severe,  and  described  by 
Chief  Croker  as  a  '  3-9  '  fire.  But  even  in  that  case,  the  extraordinarily 
effective  work  of  the  high  pressure  fire  streams  prevented  the  spread  of  the 
(lames  beyond  the  building  in  which  the  fire  originated,  and  successfully 
extinguished  it — a  result  which  the  Fire  Department  Chief  declared  could 
never  have  been  accomplished  with  the  old  system.  The  result  was  the 
same  at  the  four  other  fires. 

"  The  area  of  buildings,  number  of  alarms  and  time  of  service  were  as 
follows: 

"At  Hudson  and  Franklin  streets,  where  the  largest  fire  occurred,  the 
area  of  the  building  affected  was  13,400  square  feet.  For  this  fire,  four 
alarms  were  received,  the  first  at  7:22  p.  M.,  on  January  7th,  and  the  service 
was  shut  down  at  10:34  A.  M.,  on  January  gth. 

"At  Hester  street  and  Bowery,  the  area  of  building  affected  was  3,600 
square  feet.  Three  alarms  were  received,  the  first  at  7:52  p.  M.,  January  7th. 

"As  the  violence  of  the  fire  increased,  additional  pumps  were  brought  into 
service,  so  that  at  one  fine  four  pumps  and  motors  were  in  commission  at 
the  Oliver  and  South  Street  Station  and  three  pumps  at  the  Gansevoort  and 
West  Street  Station,  delivering  33,500  gallons  per  minute  against  an  average 
pressure  of  225  pounds  at  the  pumps  and  205  pounds  at  the  hydrants." 

Chief  Croker  of  the  New  York  Fire  Department  is  of  the  opinion  that 
several  fires  have  been  checked  by  the  use  of  the  high  pressure  system  which 
would  otherwise  have  assumed  disastrous  proportions.  This  is  due  to  the 
ability  of  the  department  to  put  in  operation  a  large  number  of  powerful 
streams  in  much  less  time  than  could  be  done  with  fire  engines  and  without 
the  confusion  attendant  upon  their  use. 

The  other  high  pressure  systems  in  operation  and  in  course  of  construction 
involve  the  same  general  features,  differing,  according  to  local  conditions, 
in  capacity,  in  type  of  pumps  and  in  motive  power;  in  addition  to  centrifugal 
pumps  and  electric  motors,  reciprocating  pumps  and  steam,  gas  and  oil 
engines  are  successfully  used.  The  Muffalo,  Detroit  and  Milwaukee 
systems  are  not  provided  with  pumping  stations,  fire-boats  being  used  for 
this  purpose;  this  has  such  serious  disadvantages  that  most  of  these  cities 
are  contemplating  the  erection  of  a  pumping  station  when  money  is  available. 

In  the  area  covered  by  a  high  pressure  system,  it  is  possible  to  dispense 
with  a  number  of  fire  engines  and  substitute  large  hose  wagons;  in  Man- 
hattan, eight  engines  have  been  thus  replaced.  The  number  of  pieces  of 
apparatus  necessary  is  reduced  and  the  engines  replaced  can  be  removed  to 
districts  where  they  may  be  needed.  Not  much  additional  apparatus  would 
have  to  be  provided,  as  the  hose  wagons  and  hose  with  which  the  department 
is  now  equipped  could  be  used  in  connection  with  the  system.  An  engine 
company  of  13  or  14  men  equipped  with  a  large  hose  wagon  can  lay  3  or 
4  lines  and  handle  as  much  water  as  could  be  delivered  by  twice  that  number 
of  engines.  This  means  that  2  of  the  men  required  to  operate  and  drive 
an  engine  would  not  be  needed  for  this  purpose  and  would  be  available  for 
hose  duty  in  each  company  converted  from  an  engine  to  a  high  pressure 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

hose  company.  Two  of  the  high  pressure  wagons  may  be  put  in  the  quarters 
which  now  house  a  single  engine  company,  thus  the  protection  of  the  district 
covered  from  one  station  can  be  greatly  increased. 

Another  great  advantage  of  such  a  system,  as  brought  out  in  the  report 
quoted  above,  is  that  the  high  pressure  companies-  responding  on  first  alarms 
can  handle  fires  which,  under  the  present  system,  require  second  or  third 
alarms,  being  able  to  quickly  put  powerful  streams  in  operation  on  the  fire 
and  also  to  handle  in  the  early  stages  as  many  streams  as  can  be  obtained 
from  the  engines  responding  on  third  alarms.  The  average  time  between 
the  receipt  of  a  first  alarm  and  the  sending  of  a  second  alarm  for  the 
same  fire  is  6  minutes  in  Boston,  and  it  will  take  an  average  of  5  minutes 
more  before  the  second  alarm  companies  are  at  work,  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions.  Thus,  with  the  high  pressure  system  there  is  a  saving 
of  time  at  the  most  vital  stage  of  a  fire;  this  saving  will  be  at  least  as 
much  as  the  time  between  the  first  and  second  alarms,  and  for  fires  which 
would  now  require  a  third  alarm  the  saving  is  even  more. 

But  of  all  points  justifying  the  installation  of  a  special  high  pressure 
system,  probably  the  most  important  is  the  unprotected  condition  of  the  con- 
gested value  district,  if  fire  engines  are  depended  upon,  during  the  progress 
of  a  seriosu  fire  of  several  hours'  duration  in  another  part  of  the  city.  This 
was  exemplified  in  Boston  on  August  9,  1910:  An  alarm  was  received  at 
6:17  P.  M.  from  Box  58  (corner  of  Dover  and  Albany  streets)  for  a  fire 
which  started  in  the  lumber  yard  of  Blacker  &  Shepard  Lumber  Company, 
at  350  Albany  street.  The  fire  had  attacked  adjoining  property  when  the 
first  apparatus  arrived,  and  in.  a  few  minutes  crossed  Albany  street  into  a 
frame  tenement  block,  the  fire  department  repair  shop  and  a  wood-working 
factory.  Boxes  56  and  112  were  also  pulled  for  this  fire,  and  alarms  from 
Bpx  58  were  sent  as  follows:  Second  at  6:23,  third  at  6:27,  fifth  at  6:28, 
and  sixth  or  general  at  6:30  P.  M.  These  alarms  called  to  the  fire  38  engines, 
2  fife-boats,  16  ladder  companies,  5  chemical  engines  and  3  water  towers.  This 
left,  for  the  immediate  protection  of  the  city,  7  engines,  1 1  ladder  and  8 
chemical  companies.  At  6:28  p.  M.,  while  the  fire  was  still  spreading,  the 
fire  alarm  office  began  calling  for  assistance  from  the  surrounding  towns 
and,  cities;  17  engine  and  hose,  2  hose  and  a  ladder  company  were  sent 
and  began  to  arrive  in  about  30  minutes.  The  first  of  this  apparatus,  9 
engines  in  all,  went  directly  to  the  fire.  Three  engines  and  one  ladder  com- 
pany went  into  quarters  to  cover  districts  without  protection. 

At  7:50  P.  M.,  while  the  fire  on  Albany  street  was  still  burning  fiercely 
and  not  as  yet  well  under  control,  an  alarm  was  received  from  Box  44  for 
a  fire  in  a  5-story  granite  building,  55-59  High  street,  occupied  by  the 
H.  W.  Johns-Manville  Company.  Four  engine,  4  ladder  and  3  chemical 
companies  of  the  Bostori  department,  which  were  in  quarters,  responded  and 
out-of-town,  apparatus  on  the  way  to  the  Albany  street  fire  began  to  arrive 
soon  after.  This  fire  was  very  stubborn  and  at  8:43  a  second  alarm  was  sent 
from  Box  44.  At  that  time  the  only  apparatus  in  fire  stations  in  the  City 
of  Boston  consisted  of  a  ladder,  a  chemical  and  two  engine  companies  in 
East  Boston,  a  ladder  company  and  a  chemical  engine  in  Charlestown,  an 
engine,  a  chemical  and  a  ladder  company  in  Brighton,  an  engine,  a  ladder 
and  a  chemical  company  in  Roxbury  and  West  Roxbury,  an  engine,  a  ladder 
and  a  chemical  company  in  Dorchester,  and  2  chemical  engines  in  the  down- 
town and  Backbay  districts.  None  of  this  apparatus  responded  to  this 
alarm,  6  engine  and  4  ladder  companies,  a  chemical  engine  and  3  water 
towers  being  ordered  from  the  .Albany  street  fire,  which  was  then  under 
control.  The  time  required  for  these  companies  to  pick  up,  go  to  the  High 
street  fire  and  get  to  work  was  of  course  much  longer  than  it  would  take 


DESIRABILITY  OF  HIGH  PRESSURE  SYSTEMS        517 

second  alarm  apparatus  to  get  to  work  under  ordinary  conditions.  (So  that 
for  over  two  hours  during  these  two  fires,  41  engines  (7  from  out  of  town), 
2  fireboats,  12  ladder  companies  and  4  chemical  engines  were  working  at 
the  Albany  street  fire,  while  16  engines  (8  from  out  of  town),  8  ladder 
companies  and  4  chemical  engines  were  working  on  the  High  street  fire, 
and  the  3  water  towers  were  at  one  fire  or  the  other.  Companies  began 
to  return  to  quarters  after  11  p.  M.,  but  until  the  following  day  the  protec- 
tion of  many  sections  of  the  city  was  very  weak,  and  during  much  of  this 
time  the  protection  in  the  adjoining  cities  was  seriously  weakened.  From 
6:30,  when  the  general  alarm  was  given,  until  u  p.  M.,  the  situation  was 
serious,  and  would  have  been  much  more  so  except  for  the  assistance  sent 
in  from  the  surrounding  towns.  Such  conditions  are  liable  to  occur  at  any 
time  and  are  a  strong  argument  for  providing  the  additional  protection  of 
a  high  pressure  system. 

To  sum  up  the  advantages  of  the  high  pressure  fire  system:  A  large 
number  of  powerful  streams  can  be  concentrated  on  a  fire  in  much  shorter 
time  and  with  fewer  men  and  less  apparatus  than  with  fire  engines,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  protection  of  the  rest  of  the  city  would  not  be  weakened 
to  the  extent  now  necessary  on  third  and  fourth  alarms  from  the  district 
covered  by  the  system.  It  will  deliver  its  full  capacity  at  any  point  in  the 
district  covered  and  at  any  desired  pressure,  and  can  sustain  this  pressure 
as  long  as  wanted.  It  eliminates  the  confusion  entailed  in  the  operation 
of  a  large  number  of  fire  engines,  tends  to  prevent  the  misunderstanding 
of  orders  and  in  every  way  simplifies  operation.  Above  all,  it  provides  pro- 
tection to  the  congested  value  district  even  with  a  general  alarm  fire  under 
headway  in  another  part  of  the  city  and  is  the  greatest  insurance  against 
conflagration,  forming  an  effective  barrier  against  fires  starting  outside  the 
district,  and  affording  the  most  efficient  check  of  fires  in  the  district  which 
might  otherwise  involve  a  number  of  large  blocks. 

Practical  experience  has  shown  that  the  following  requirements  should  be 
met  in  the  design  of  a  separate  high  pressure  fire  system  to  insure  good 
fire  protection  in  districts  it  is  to  cover: 

A  fireproof  pumping  station,  with  all  openings  protected  in  an  approved 
manner  and  removed  from  the  zone  of  sweeping  conflagrations.  Station  to 
lie  equipped  with  sufficient  pumping  units  of  moderate  capacity  to  aggregate 
a  total  capacity  of  20,000  gallons  per  minute  at  300  pounds  pressure,  taking 
Auction  from  a  fresh  water  supply,  and  delivering  into  the  gridiron  system 
through  well  looped  and  gated  discharge  connections. 

The  distribution  system  to  be  connected  with  the  pumping  station  through 
duplicate  supply  mains  and  to  be  so  designed  as  to  deliver  the  full  capacity 
of  20,000  gallons  per  minute  about  any  block  within  the  area  served,  without 
excessive  loss  of  head;  to  contain  no  pipes  less  than  12  inches  in  diameter, 
no  dead  ends  and  be  connected  at  all  intersections.  Connections  to  be  pro- 
vided to  the  system  so  that  the  fire-boats  may  be  used  as  auxiliary  pumping 
stations  in  case  of  emergencies,  and  system  to  be  provided  with  gate  valves 
so  placed  that  not  more  than  500  feet  of  pipe  will  have  to  be  cut  out  at  one 
time. 

Hydrants  to  be  of  ample  dimensions,  with  4  independently  gated  hose  out- 
lets and  connected  to  the  mains  through  8-inch  gated  connections;  to  be  so 
distributed  that  the  average  area  served  by  each  shall  not  exceed  40,0*00  square 
feet. 


MINOR    FIRE   EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS 

Fire  Extinguishing  Agents. — Water  is  the  universal  extinguish- 
ing agent  for  use  on  fires,  its  principal  value  being  the  cooling 
effect  it  has ;  only  when  applied  to  a  small  fire  or  in  very  large 
quantities  on  a  large  fire,  or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  completely 
surround  the  burning  object  can  it  serve  as  an  excluder  of  oxygen. 
The  best  extinguishers  are  those  of  a  gaseous  nature ;  carbon 
dioxide,  sulphur  dioxide  and  ammonia  and  the  gases  liberated  by 
carbon-tetrachloride  when  applied  to  a  heated  object. 

Of  the  three  gases  mentioned  above,  carbon  dioxide  is  to  be 
preferred,  being  cheaper,  more  easily  obtainable,  and  safer  to  work 
with  than  the.  others,  which  are  far  more  dangerous  to  man.  When 
present  in  sufficient  quantity  (about  10  per  cent)  carbon  dioxide — 
and  in  some  instances  sulphur  dioxide  as  well — will  render  explosive 
mixtures  of  air  and  gases  harmless. 

In  all  cases  where  water  is  inadmissible,  dry  fine  sand  is  suitable, 
and  the  blanketing  effect  of  sawdust  and  like  substances  has  been 
used  successfully,  if  thrown  on  to  the  seat  of  the  fire.  Once  used, 
especially  when  fires  of  oil  or  resin  are  in  question,  such  sand,  etc., 
should  be  thrown  aside,  and  not  employed  again. 

For  extinguishing  fire  in  special  cases,  the  following  substances 
and  methods  have  proved  most  useful : 

Fires  of  oil,  fats,  mineral  oils,  waxes,  ozokerit,  tar,  resins,  lacquer, 
varnish,  carbon  disulphide,  alcohol,  ether,  benzol,  acetone,  wood 
spirit,  and  similar  substances: 

In  the  open :  application  of  carbon  tetrachloride,  ammonia,  chloro- 
form, sand,  earth,  ashes,  bags  and  clothes; 

In  closed  rooms :  exclusion  of  air,  introduction  of  quenching 
gases  or  steam; 

In  lanks :    putting  on  the   covers ; 

\yith  the  oils  and  fats  water  should  never  be  used. 

Fires   concerning   acids,    acid   carboys   and   nitrating   liquid : 

Water  must  be  used  in  all  cases  \  never  sand,  earth,  or  even 
ashes.  Tan,  sawdust,  or  organic  substances  will  only  feed  the  fire. 
•  Fires  of  gases,  vapors,  mixtures  of  air  with  gas  or  vapor: 

In  the  open :    chloroform,   carbon  tetrachloride. 

Indoors:    steam,  exclusion  of  air. 

In  tanks.:    putting  on  the  covers. 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS    519 

Fires  in  the  centre  of  coal  heaps : 

At  the  outset:    dividing  into  smaller  heaps   (surface  cooling); 

In  advanced  stages :  water,  but  only  in  the  event  of  a  sufficient 
supply  being  available  to  thoroughly  drench  the  whole  heap ;  partial 
quenching  will  merely  favor  the  progress  of  the  fire. 

Fires  in  waste  heaps,  dumped  soda  waste,  pyrites,  or  substances 
containing  metallic  sulphides : 

In  the  advanced  stage  (mostly  internal  conflagrations  },  water 
must  never  be  used,  on  account  of  the  risk  of  oxyhydrogen  gas 
being  formed,  and  of  the  liberation  of  combustible  sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

Furthermore,  when  extensive  heaps  take  fire  there  is  nothing  to 
be  done  but  to  stop  up  all  openings,  so  as  to  prevent  access  of  air. 
Small  heaps  should  be  opened  out,  thrown  apart,  and  then  quenched 
with  water,  if  surface  cooling  does  not  effect  the  desired  result. 

Fire  Pails. — Because  everyone  knows  enough  to  throw  a  pail  of 
\vater  on  a  fire,  the  underwriters  consider  fire  pails  an  added  protec- 
tion to  any  plant.  The  principal  fault  to  be  found  with  them  is 
that  usually  when  needed  they  are  not  in  their  regular  place,  but 
are  being  used  in  the  boiler  room  to  mix  boiler  scale  compound,  or 
out  on  construction  work  as  water  pails,  or  in  any  of  a  hundred 
different  places  or  uses  that  a  hand  pail  can  be  put  to.  To  prevent 
this  most  fire  pails  are  made  so  they  will  not  be  handy  to  use  in 
this  way. 

Another  cause  of  complaint  is  that  they  are  seldom  kept  filled 
with  water.  Regular  and  systematic  inspections  is  the  only  cure 
for  this,  although  partial  remedying  of  it  can  be  obtained  by  pro- 
viding a  tank  or  barrel  near  by  into  which  the  pail  can  be  dipped. 

A  very  convenient  form  for  fire  pails  is  the  combined  pail  and 
tank,  the  pail  or  pails  nesting  in  the  tank. 

No  set  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  number  of  fire  pails  neces- 
sary for  every  plant;  there  cannot  be  too  many,  particularly  if  the 
labor  employed  is  ignorant  and  unskilled,  and  probably  would  not 
know  how  to  use  other  appliances.  In  the  Regulations  on  Fire 
Pails  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  ip  1903, 
the  number  and  arrangement  of  pails  was  given  as  follows: 

NUMBER  AND  ARRANGEMENT. — To  be  placed  as  required  by  the  underwriters 
having  jurisdiction,  not  less  than  one  dozen  to  every  5,000  ft.  floor  area, 
and  to  be  hung  on  hooks  or  set  on  shelves  arranged  so  that  bottom  of  pail 
shall  be  not  less  than  2  feet  or  top  of  pail  more  than  5  feet  from  floor. 
Where  other  than  flat  bottom  pails  are  used,  the  holes  cut  in  shelves  shall 
be  only  large  enough  to  receive  the  oval,  the  flanges  to  rest  on  top  of  the 
shelf. 

Three  pails  and  i  filled  cask  of  at  least  60  gallons  capacity,  or  i  approved 
portable  extinguisher  and  6  pails  to  be  considered  the  equivalent  of  12  pails. 


520  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

NOTE. — In  all  cases  there  must  be  at  least  the  number  of  pails  on  each 
floor  as  required  by  the  rule  of  12  to  each  square  feet  floor  area,  i.  e.,  only 
one-half  of  the  pails 'required  on  each  floor  can  be  replaced  by  one  or1  more 
chemical  extinguishers. 

It 'is;  very  important,  with  all  form  of 'fire  extinguishers,  that  a 
sign  be  placed  immediately  by  it,  to  the  effect  that  SOiUNDING'tfFHE> 
ALARM  OF  FIRE  IS  THE  FIRST  CONSIDERATION.  It  is 
impossible  for  the  person  to  tell  whether  he  is  going  to  ;control  the 
fire  or  not,  and  if  he  does  not,  and  spends  valuable  time  in  the 
futile  attempt,  it  will  probably  be  too  late  for  assistance  from  the 
fire  'brigade  or  public  fire  department  to  be  of  any  use  by  the  time 
he  sends  in  the  alarm  after  being  defeated  in  his  efforts  of  extin- 
guishing the  blaze.  It  was  just  such  a  cage  that  resulted  in j 'the 
almost  total  destruction  of  the  Edison  plant  in  1914. 

Regulations  for  the  construction  of  fire  pails  were  last  istied  by 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in  1903  and  were  as 
follows : 

FIRE  PAiLS.-^Size  8,  10,  12  or  14  quart,  the  medium  size  of  12  quart 
being  the  most  generally  used. 

Bottom.— Flat,  oval  or  cone  shape  (s^-inch  pitch),  or  with  rounded  band 
across,  at  least  %  x  i  inch,  bent  to  circumference  of  bottom,  two  rivets  at 
"each  end. 

Material.— Galvanized  iron,  raw  sheet  from  stock  to  be  not  lighter  than 
No.  28  gauge  (.015  inch). 

Construction. — To  be  assembled  with  lock-joints  soldered  or  galvanized. 
Beaded  rim  around  top  of  not  less  than  No.  9  wire,  and  handles  to  be  of 
not  less  than  No.  6  wire.  Ears  for  handles  to  be  riveted  to  pail. 

Covers.— -Not  considered  essential  but  desirable.  If  used,  to  be  of  sheet 
iron  stamped  with  depression  fitting  inside  of  top  of  pail  and  fiat  ?dge 
extending  over  edge.  Knob  or  ring  to  be  provided  to  remove  cover. 

Galvanizing. — To  be   done   after  the  pail   is  made,   entire   pail  -to   be   dipped. 

Painting; — To  be  painted  red  on  oiitside  and  stenciled  'tf  Fire  "  in  black 
letters  2^/2  inches  high. 

Painting  inside  of  pail  not  required,  but  it  is  regarded  an  item  of  economy, 
in  that  it  prolongs  the  life  of  the  pail. 

Marking.— Each  pail  must  be  plainly  and  permanently  marked  '  with  its 
trade-name  and  the  name,  initials  or  trade-mark  of  the  manufacturer. 

These  have  been  modified  somewhat  in  their  application  by  the 
Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.  In  the  list  of  Fire  Appliances 

issued  by  the  Laboratories  the  following  statement  is  made: 

'     ...     ..  ,.:•;..     '    .      ;•  .IITKMI  -.'it 

Hand  Fire  Extinguishers  made  of  iron,  steel  or  fibre;  pail  type;  operated 
by  throwing  liquid  from  pail;  extinguishing  agent  used,  water  or  solutions 
containing  anti-freezing  ingredients. 

These  appliances  have  been  shown  to  be  effective  on  incipient  fires  where 
water  or  solutions  containing  large  percentages'  of  water  are  effective,  but 
on  account  of  their  form  their  use  is  limited  to  fires  which  may  be  readily 
reached  by  the  liquid  thrown  from  a  pail.  Their  use  on '  electrical  ar'cs  or 
machinery  or  wiring  carrying  high  voltage,  may  be  dangerous  on  account  of 
the  conductivity  of  the  liquid.  They  are  of  little  service  in  liquids  of  a 
flammable  nature. 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS    521 

\\hcii  water  only  is  used  they  must  be  protected  against  frost.  Where 
it  i>  desired  to  protect  the  contents  of  exposed  pails  against  freezing,  by 
the  addition  of  calcium  chloride  or  other  salts,  inspection  departments  having 
jurisdiction  should  be  consulted. 

Protective  users  should  first  ascertain  from  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction  under  what  conditions  extinguishers  of  this  type  will  be  accepted,  , 
and  should  make  contracts  subject  to  approval  by  them  of  the  setting,  dis- 
tribution and  number  to  be  used  in  respect  to  floor  area. 

Pails  in  Tanks. — The  Underwriters'  Laboratories  give  under  this 
heading,  the  following : 

Hand  Fire  Extinguishers  consisting  of  six  nested  iron  or  steel  pails 
immersed  in  water  or  suitable  non-freezing  solution  in  cylindrical  steel  tank. 
Tank  capacities  22  to  40  gallons;  pails  10  to  14  quarts. 

These  tanks  are  made  to  take  the  place  of  ordinary  fire  pails  and  have 
the  advantage  of  storing  liquid  in  a  tight  receptacle  so  that  there  is  prac- 
tically no  evaporation. 

Hand  Pumps. — In  the  earlier  days,  and  to  a  small  extent  by 
fire  departments  now,  use  was  made  of  a  small  pump  which  set 
ki  a  bucket  and  from  which  a  stream  could .  be  delivered  for  a 
considerable  distance.  This  has  now  been  superseded  by  chemical 
extinguishers. 

Chemical  Extinguishers. — Various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
apply  the  principle  of  generating  gas  chemically  in  a  closed  con- 
tainer and  thus  provide  sufficient  pressure  back  of  a  column  of 
water  to  permit  its  use  as  a  fire  extinguisher. 

SODA  AND  ACID  TYPE. — Of  the  different  forms  the  most  common 
is  the  soda  and  acid  extinguisher,  in  wfiich  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  on  a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  generates  sufficient  car- 
bonic acid  gas  to  expel  the  water  with  good  force.  The  gas  itself 
acts  as  an  extinguishing  agent,  and  the  soda  solution,  which  must 
be  of  sufficient  strength  not  to  leave  a  trace  of  the  sulphuric  acid, 
as  the  acid  would  injure  goods,  has  a  slightly  greater  extinguishing 
effect  than  plain  water. 

The  acid  must  necessarily  be  securely  contained,  to  prevent  a  too 
early  application,  but  must  also  have  its  container  of  such  a  type 
that  sureness  of  operation  will  be  obtained.  Two  general  types  are 
in  use,  one  where  the  acid  stopper  fits  loosely  in  the  container  and 
drops  out  when  it  is  inverted  and  the  other  with  a  container  which 
is  ruptured  by  puncturing  or  pressure. 

Such  extinguishers  can  be  made  in  any  size,  but  usually  are  suffi- 
ciently small  to  be  portable,  whether  on  wheels  or  by  hand.  The 
sizes  generally  used  are  the  33-gallon  wheeled  tank  for  factory  use, 
the  2^-gallon  (standard  size)  hand  extinguisher  and  the  I  ^-gallon 
hand  extinguisher;  the  last  is  primarily  for  use  by  women  and 
children  and  has  approximately  60  per  cent  of  the  value  of  a 
standard  extinguisher.  Their  construction,  in  so  far  as  satisfac- 


522  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

tion  to  the  Underwriters  is  concerned,  is  covered  by  the  inspection 
service  of  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories'.  In  the  list  of  fire 
extinguishers,  the  following  is  given : 

These  appliances  are  effective  on  fires  where  water  or  solutions  containing 
large  percentages  of  water,  are  effective.  Their  use  on  electric  arcs  or 
wiring  carrying  high  voltage  may  be  dangerous  on  account  of  the  conduc- 
tivity of  the  liquid.  They  are  of  limited  service  in  hazardous  liquid  fires. 
They  must  be  protected  from  freezing.  Subject  to  the  above  limitations  these 
extinguishers  are  standard  for  general  use. 

All  forms  of  fire  extinguishers  which  have  met  the  tests  of  the 
Laboratories  have  labels  soldered  on  them,  and  as  there  is  consid- 
erable danger  of  poorly  constructed  appliances  being  ruptured  by 
the  gas  when  put  in  use,  it  is  strongly  advised  that  labeled  extin- 
guishers be  insisted  upon,  to  lessen  such  danger. 

COMPRESSED  AIR  TYPE.— A  form  of  extinguishers  used  in  large 
chemical  engines  of  fire  departments  and  to  a  less  degree  developed 
for  small  extinguishers  is  one  making  use  of  compressed  air  for 
the  force  to  expel  the  fluid,  which  may  be  only  pure  water  or  may 
have  ammonia  or  soda  in  solution.  With  2  to  5  per  cent  solution 
of  soda,  it  is  claimed  that  the  extinguishing  force  is  greatly  in- 
creased, the  heat  driving  off  carbon  dioxide  which  settles  around 
the  fire  and  smothers  it  out;  about  15  per  cent  of  this  gas  in  the  air 
will  extinguish  flame.  The  larger  of  these  air  pressure  systems,  as 
used  by  the  fire  •department,  has  a  separate  tank  or  tanks  which  are 
charged  with  air  at  high  pressure ;  when  put  in  use,  the  air  is  let 
into  the  solution  tank  through  a  regulating  valve  and  discharges  the 
liquid.  These  have  some  points  not  in  their  favor,  principally  the 
danger  of  leakage  of  the  air  and  the  need  of  maintaining  an  air 
pump  of  considerable  power. 

In  some  of  the  small  hand  extinguishers  use  is  made  of  air  or 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  a  metal  capsule  similar  to  those  used  in  charg- 
ing vichy  or  seltzer.  When  these  are  punctured  the  liberated  air 
or  gas  expels  the  liquid.  None  of  these  have  been  listed  by  the 
Underwriters'  Laboratories,  but  it  is  believed  they  will  be  as  they 
are  further  perfected,  especially  in  connection  with  small  extin- 
guishers of  the  type  described  below. 

Carbon  Tetrachloride  Type. — A  form  of  extinguisher  developed 
in  recent  years  that  has  met  the  approval  of  the  Underwriters  is 
the  small  hand  extinguisher  seen  generally  around  places  where  oils 
are  kept  or  used.  These  as  described  by  the  Underwriters'  Labora- 
tories are : 

Hand  Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers  of  about  one  quart  capacity,  utilizing 
as  extinguishing  agents  special  liquids. 

These  appliances  are  effective  on  incipient  fires  in  hazardous  liquid,  calcium 
carbide  and  rapidly  burning  materials  (such  as  celluloid  and  celluloid  products), 
and  on  incipient  fires  in  cotton  and  fabrics.  They  are  of  service  in  fires 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS          523 

not    easily    extinguished    by    water.      They    are   especially    adapted    for    garages, 
automobile   and   motor   boat   use,   and   for  electric  arcs. 

Ik-cause  of  the  low:  freezing  point  of  the  extinguishing  liquids  (minus  50 
degrees  P.),  these  extinguishers  are  recommended  for  service  where  low 
temperatures  prevail.  They  can  be  handled  by  women. 

The  various  manufacturers  furnish  the  liquid  for  recharging 
these  containers  and  advise  against  using  any  other  liquid ;  although 
the  exact  composition  of  these  liquids  is  not  known,  the  basis  is 
carbon-tetrachloride  in  all  of  them,  probably  refined  to  remove 
some  of  the  impurities  that  might  cause  corrosion  of  some  of  the 
parts.  The  earlier  types  were  mainly  sheet  iron  or  tin,  but  these 
would  not  meet  the  Laboratories'  tests,  and  now  they  are  made  of 
copper.  The  first  type  made  was  equipped  with  a  pump,  which 
worked  inside  the  cylinder  and  discharged  the  liquid ;  improvements 
were  made  including  the  substitution  of  a  double-acting  pump. 
Other  types  have  attempted  the  use  of  compressed  air,  but  these, 
although  better  fitted  for  fire  fighting,  because  of  the  greater  ease 
in  handling  and  in  directing  the  stream,  have  not  received  the 
approval  of  several  investigating  bodies,  including  the  New  York 
Bureau  of  Fire  Prevention  and  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories. 
The  liquid  absorbs  the  air  and  then  the  pressure  is  gradually  re- 
duced, until  the  extinguisher  is  useless.  Frequent  inspections  and 
tests  of  the  extinguishers,  by  meuns  of  the  ordinary  Schraders'  tire 
tester,  will  prevent  this  possible  loss  of  pressure  being  a  danger, 
and  where  such  tests  can  be  made  sure  of,  it  is  a  very  valuable  form 
..if  extinguisher. 

Other  forms  involve  plungers  which  are  operated  by  hand  or  air 
and  drive  the  liquid  out. 

Chemical  Extinguishers  in  Connection  with  Standpipes  and 
Sprinkler  Systems. — A  recent  development  of  the  chemical  extin- 
guisher has  been  that  of  a  stationary  chemical-holding  tank  attached 
to  a  standpipe  system,  and  this  is  being  further  developed  to  make 
it  applicable  to  an  automatic  sprinkler  system.  For  the  system  a? 
•perfected  for  standpipes,  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  report: 

Stationary  Chemical  Fire  Extinguishers;  for  connection  to  a  standpipe 
system  provided  with  hose  _  stations;  cylindrical,  tank  made  of  Allegheny 
iron;  liquid  capacity  100  gal.;  chemicals  used,  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  sul- 
phuric acid.  Extinguisher  placed  in  operation  by  inversion  of  the  acid 
receptacle,  this  being  accomplished  by  creating  a  pressure  difference  between 
tank  and  distributing  piping.  This  pressure  difference  is  created  by  a  fairly 
sudden  reduction  in  pressure  in  piping,  due  to  opening  any  hose  valve,  system 
normally  being  under  air  pressure. 

This  air  pressure  is  required  to  cause  operation  of  extinguisher,  it  is 
necessary  that  system  of  piping  be  tight,  and  that  air  pressure  be  maintained 
in  system. 

When  properly  installed,  charged,  and  maintained  in  operative  condition, 
these  extinguishers  may  be  expected  to  give  satisfactory  service  in  fires 
where  water,  or  solutions  containing  large  quantities  of  water  are  effective. 


524 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


— 


FIG.  74 


FIG.  75 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS         525 

Their  use  on  electric  arcs,  or  machinery  or  wiring  carrying  high  voltages, 
may  be  dangerous  on  account  of  the  conductivity  of  the  liquid.  They  are 
probably  of  limited  service  on  fires  in  large  quantities  of  volatile  liquids  of 
a  flammable  nature.  They  must  be  protected  against  freezing. 

Inspection  departments  having  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted  before  in- 
stallation in  regard  to  location  of  tank  and  standpipe,  location  of  hose  sta- 
tions, quantity  of  hose  at  each  station,  provision  for  preventing  tampering 
with  device,  and  provisions  for  inspection  and  maintenance  service. 

Chemical  Extinguishers  for  Tanks*  Holding  Inflammable  Li- 
quids.— The  principal  difficulty  in  fighting  fires  in  tanks  has  been  to 
obtain  a  reliable  extinguishing  medium  which  could  be  easily  applied. 
Because  of  the  nature  of  the  fire,  the  only  good  extinguishing  agent 
is  one  having  a  blanketing  effect,  thus  cutting  off  the  oxygen  from 
the  fire  and  smothering  it  out.  Steam  has  been  the  common  agent 
used,  but  with  little  success  as  it  tends  to  rise  and  is  hard  to  confine 
to  the  surface  sufficiently  to  exclude  the  air. 

A  recently  perfected  system,  passed  upon  favorably  by  the  Labo- 
ratories, makes  use  of  the  principle  on  which  chemical  extinguishers 
work.  This  system,  known  as  the  Erwin,  consists  of  a  tank  holding 
a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  soap  bark  in  water.  By  means 
of  fusible  links  extending  over  and  into  the  inflammable  liquid  in 
the  tank  to  be  guarded,  a  hammer  is  held  up,  which,  when  released, 
breaks  a  bottle  holding  sulphuric  acid.  This  combines  with  the  soda 
solution  and  generates  carbon  dioxide,  which,  because  of  the  soap 
bark,  forms  a  foam;  this  foam  is  discharged  onto  the  burning 
liquid  and  spreads  over  it  several  inches  thick  and  thus  smothers 
the  fire  out. 

These  installations  arc  made  in  two  forms,  one  called  a  "  stand- 
pipe  method  "  and  the  other,  to  be  used  where  there  is  danger  of 
freezing,  called  the  "  underground  method."  The  system  is  reported 
by  the  Laboratories  as  being  suitable  for  all  tanks  up  to  55,000 
barrels  capacity. 

Figures  74  and  75  are  views  of  a  test  made  of  a  tank  114^  feet 
in  diameter,  with  a  fire  started  in  the  middle;  Figure  76  was  taken 
3  minutes  and  20  seconds  after  the  tank  was.  ignited  and  just  as  the 
extinguisher  began  working;  Figure  78  was  taken  just  before  the 
fire  was  extinguished,  which  required  I  minute  and  35  seconds 
after  the  foam  first  appeared. 

In  an  article  on  oil  fire-extinguishers  for  naval  vessels,  by  Henry 
Williams,  printed  in  the  Engineering  News  June  5.  1912,  is  the 
following  account  of  the  use  of  a  form  of  foam  extinguisher: 

The  adoption  of  oil  fuel  for'  naval  vessels  has  introduced  an  element  of 
considerable  danger  from  fire.  Due  to  leakage,  which  it  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  prevent,  from  manholes,  pipe  connections,  pumps  and  seams  in  tanks, 
oil  collects  in  the  bilges  of  the  fire  rooms.  The  surfaces  with  which  it  comes 
in  contact  remain  coated  wifli  a  film  of  oil,  which  burns  freely  when  ignited 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


FIG.   76 


FIG.   77 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS         527 

or  heated,  communicating  the  fire  to  any  oil  that  may  be  exposed.  This  con- 
stitutes a  danger  and  already  there  have  been  several  fires  which  fortunately 
have  not  resulted  in  serious  danger  to  the  ships,  though  all  of  them  presented 
that  possibility. 

The  extinction  of  such  fires,  once  they  have  gained  headway,  is  difficult. 
Water  has  no  effect,  as  the  burning  oil  simply  floats  on  the  surface'  of  the 
water.  Sand  is  more  effective,  acting  to  smother  the  fire.  It  must  cover, 
however,  the  entire  surface  that  is  burning,  and  as  it  does  not  flow,  must  be 
applied  locally.  This  is  difficult  for  portions  of  the  bilges  under  boilers  or 
other  obstructions,  and  the  use  of  sand  thus  does  not  offer  an  entirely  satis- 
factory guarantee  against  oil  fires. 

Recognition  of  these  circumstances  led  the  Bureau  of  Construction  and 
Repair  of  the  Navy  Department  to  undeitake  experiments  looking  to  the 
development  of  suitable  fire-extinguishing  appliances  to  meet  the  possibility 
of  such  fires  and  to  insure  their  prompt  extinction.  A  board  was1  appointed 
to  investigate  the  subject  and  to  undertake  the  necessary  experiments  to 
determine  the  suitability  of  the  various  systems. 

The  most  promising  methods  that  presented  themselves  to  the  board  were 
those  whereby  advantage  is  taken  of  a  heavy  foam  mixture  which,  when 
applied  to  burning  surfaces  of  oil,  flows  over  them  and  smothers  the  flame 
by  shutting  off  its  air  supply.  These  foam  mixtures  have  been  tested  ex- 
tensively abroad,  especially  in  Germany,  and  have  given  results  uniformly 
satisfactory. 

Portable  extinguishers  were  designed  similar  in  shape  and  sizes  to  the 
chemical  fire  extinguishers  seen  in  buildings  on  shore.  These  have  the  liquids 
in  separate  compartments  and  by  inverting  the  extinguisher,  or  in  later 
models  breaking  the  acid  container,  the  foam  mixture  is  obtained  and  suffi- 
cient force  generated  to  throw  the  foam  a  distance  of  about  20  feet.  Two 
extinguishers  of  this  type  are  supplied  in  each  fireroom  of  oil-burning  vessels. 
The  question  is  under  consideration  of  making  stationary  installations  of 
greater  capacity  in  the  firerooms  of  oil-burning  torpedo  boat  destroyers,  and 
experimental  installations  of  this  character  are  being  made.  It  is  by  no 
means  sure,  however,  that  this  system  of  extinguishing  oil  fires  will  prove  a 
success  on  shipboard,  though  it  may  be  accepted  that  its  efficiency  for  shore 
purposes  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  doubt.  One  of  the  most  important 
difficulties  that  may  be  encountered  is  the  possible  effect  on  the  crew  of  the 
carbon-dioxide  gas  given  off  by  the  foamy  mixture.  Ten  per  cent  of  this  gas 
m  air  has  been  known  to  prove  fatal,  and  continued  breathing  of  2  per  cent 
is  dangerous.  In  closed  spaces,  such  as  firerooms,  where  fires  aw  apt  to 
occur,  especial  care  will  need  to  be  taken  to  prevent  accumulation  of  this  gas 
when  the  apparatus  has  been  used. 

Another  difficulty  and  one  that  may  render  the  system  ineffective  when 
needed  is  the  liability  to  deterioration  of  the  mixtures  or  the  loss  by  evapora- 
tion of  the  water  in  which  the  solutions  are  made. 

The  corrosive  action  of  the  acid  mixture  on  the  containers  and  piping  has 
been  met  in  shore  installations  by  lead-lining  them.  The  excessive  weight 
required,  however,  is  an  obstacle  to  this  means  being  adopted  for  shipboard 
installations,  and  in  those  now  being  fitted  up  reliance  is  placed  on  acid- 
resisting  paint  to  prevent  corrosion.  It  seems  probable  that  this  will  not 
prove  adequate  and  that  corrosion  of  the  tanks  and  piping  will  take  place, 
and  that  such  valves  as  are  used  will  be  rendered  ineffective  in  a  short  time. 


528 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


MINOR  FIRE  EXTINGUISHING  APPARATUS         529 

The    formulas    for    the    mixtures   are   as    follows: 

LIQUID  No.    i 

Parts  by 
Weight. 

( ;iuc i 

( Ilueose    , *k 

Soda    IJicarhonatc 7^ 

Salicylic  acid % 

Water 100 


LIQUID  No.  2 

Parts  by 
Weight. 

Aluminum  sulphate 10 

Sulphuric    acid    ,  .  .  '  j 

Water.  .* 100    • 

Carbon-dioxide  gas  is  generated  by  the  mixture  of  the  soda  bicarbonate  and 
aluminum  sulphate.  The  glue  renders  the  liquid  viscous  and  causes  it  to 
produce  the  foam.  The  salicylic  acid  is  added .  as  a  preservative  for  the 
glucose,  which  is  intended  as  a  stabilizer  to  prevent  the  too  sudden  precipita- 
tion of  the  aluminum  hydroxide.  The  sulphuric  acid  aids  in  starting  the 
reaction  and  acts  also  as  a  stabilizer.  It  is  possible  that  it  may  be  found 
that  the  acid  itself  can  be  omitted  and  in  such  an  event  the  corrosive  effect 
of  the  mixture  on  the  container  and  piping  will  be  reduced  considerably. 


STANDPIPES  IN  BUILDINGS 

Functions  of  Standpipes. — The  functions  of  standpipes  in  build- 
ings are  two-fold,  to  enable  the  occupant  to  extinguish  a  small  fire 
and  to  be  an  auxiliary  for  the  fire  department  or  a  trained  fire 
brigade  in  coping  with  serious  fires,  either  in  the  building  equipped 
or  in  a  near  by  building.  Because  of  these  differences  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  has  considered  it  necessary  to  divide 
the  requirements  into  two  sections  in  treating  the  subject  in  the 
latest  revision  of  the  National  Board's  Building  Code,  from  which 
the  requirements  given  below  are  copied. 

Occupant's  Use. — The  first  function,  that  of  use  by  the  occu- 
pant, is  one  which  is  applicable  to  practically  all  buildings,  but  is 
not  considered  an  essential  unless  the  building  is  of  considerable 
size ;  in  the  smaller  buildings,  chemical  extinguishers,  pails  of  water, 
etc.,  are  usually  sufficient  to  control  the  fire  until  the  arrival  of 
the  fire  department.  For  use  of  untrained  men,  small  hose  is  a 
necessity,  and  also  small  hose  permits  quicker  and  surer  work 
and  does  not  tend  to  give  the  excessive  water  damage  that  usually 
results  ffom  untrained  handling  of  large  hose  and  nozzles.  As  a 
standpipe  for  this  use  must  be  immediately  available  it  is  necessary 
to  have  water  constantly  in  the  system ;  there  will  not  have  to 
be  a  large  supply  available  to  maintain  this  flow,  as  if  the  fire 
can  not  be  controlled  within  about  30  minutes,  such  streams  will 
be  of  no  avail.  As  given  in  the  requirements  below,  it  is  recognized 
that  one  standpipe  system  can  serve  both  purposes,  but  in  build- 
ings of  excessive  area  this  is  not  feasible  unless  branches  are  run 
on  the  various  floors  to  give  the  proper  distribution  of  the  smaller 
lines. 

Fire  Department's  Use. — In  considering  standpipes  for  fire  de- 
partment or  fire  brigade  use,  it  must  be  recognized  that  one  of  the 
principal  uses  is  in  fighting  a  fire  in  an  adjoining  building  or 
one  across  the  street;  this  has  not  been  very  general  in  the  past, 
but  fire  chiefs  are  awakening  to  the  advantage  thereby  gained  and 
in  a  few  more  years  it  will  be  a  very  general  practice.  In  the 
Equitable  building  fire  in  New  York,  every  standpipe  in  nearly 
every  building  was  put  in  service.  As  exemplified  in  this  fire,  as 
many  as  4  lines  may  be  taken  from  one  standpipe  and  because 
of  this  it  is  very  essential  that  the  old  idea  of  providing  a  2-  or 
3-inch  standpipe  must  be  discarded,  and  one  of  liberal  size  required. 

530 


STANDPIPKS  IN  BUILDINGS  531 

It  is  practically  impossible  for  a  fire  department  to  fight  a  fire 
in  a  high  building  or  one  of  great  depth,  using  only  lines  from 
the  outside;  to  lay  hose  lines  up  ladders  and  stairs  to  above  the 
4th  floor  is  a  tedious  and  long  task  giving  a  fire  a  great  chance 
to  spread,  but  where  the  engines  can  connect  to  the  Siamese 
inlet  of  a  standpipe  and  the  firemen  have  only  their  nozzles  and 
one  or  two  rolled  lengths  of  hose  to  carry  up  the  stairs  tor 
elevator,  quick  work  can  be  done. 

Standpipe  Hose. — It  is  a  more  or  less  general  practice  for  fire- 
men to  use  their  own  hose  from  standpipe  outlets  and  not  that 
provided  by  the  buildings'  owner.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  familiar  with  linen  hose,  the  type  recommended 
because  of  durability,  and  consider  it  unreliable  because  it  will 
leak  until  the  strands  have  time  to  swell ;  but  an  even  greater 
defect  exists,  it  is  often  in  too  poor  a  condition  to  be  used.  As 
the  firemen  so  seldom  use  it  and  smaller  hose  must  be  provided 
for  the  use  of  the  occupant,  it  might  be  argued  that  there  was 
no  necessity  in  providing  2^-inch  hose  on  fire  department  stand- 
pipe  ;  it  is  the  opinion,  however,  of  some  of  the  more  progressive 
chiefs,  that  it  should  be  provided,  as  at  times  it  is  used  and  in 
such  cases  it  is  of  vital  value. 

Water  Supply  for  Standpipe. — Where  provided  primarily  for 
use  of  the  fire  department,  a  standpipe  docs  not  have  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  water  supply,  as  this  can  not  easily  be  provided  in 
sufficient  quantities  for  an  extensive  fire  and  the  supply  can  be 
obtained  from  the  fire  engines  through  the  Siamese  connection  at 
the  base.  In  the  western  coast  cities  standpipes  for  fire  depart- 
ment use  are  required  in  conjunction  with  or  near  the  fire  escape; 
it  is  considered  that  this  is  satisfactory,  although  greater  use 
could  probably  be  made  of  it  if  it  were  inside  the  building. 

FRICTION  IN  POUNDS  IN  STANDPIPE  PER  100  FEET* 

Gallons     f  4-Inch  6-Inch 

200  2                                   0.3 

300  4  0.6 

400  7  0.9 

500  10                                    1.4 

600  14                                     2.0 

700  19                                  2.7 

800  24                                  3.4 

900  30                                  4.3 

1000  37                                  5.2 

1200  52                                  7.5 

1400  69  10.0 


*  An  allowance  equal  to  100  feet  of  pipe  should  be  made  for  loss  at  Siamese, 
in  bends,  etc. 


532  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

STANDPIPES   FOR   PRIVATE   PROTECTION* 

1.  In  existing  and  new   buildings  three   stories  and   higher,   except  as  given 
below,     there    shall    be    provided     a    standpipe,     not    less     than     2     inches    in 
diameter,  with  water  supply  constantly  maintained   or   furnished   automatically 
with   the   opening   of   a    hose   valve. 

Exceptions:  Buildings  equipped  with  inside  standpipe  for  fire  department 
use  (see  page  533)  and  having  also  i%-inch  connections  with  hose  attached, 
and  automatic  water  supply,  all  as  provided  in  paragraphs  2,  3  and  4  of 
thi<^  section; 

Dwellings; 

Churches; 

Other  buildings  having  maximum  undivided  fire  section  of  less  than  2,500 
square  feet  area  and  provided  with  at  least  one  2t/£-gallon  approved  chemical 
extinguishers  to  each  fire  section; 

Sprinklered  buildings  where  the  requirements  of  this  section  are  met  by 
connecting  hose  to  sprinkler  riser. 

2.  Supply  shall  be    from   one   of  the   following  sources: 

Street  main,  where  pressure  is  sufficient  to  maintain  not  less  than  25 
pounds  at  hose  outlet  in  top  story; 

Gravity  tank  of  2,500  gallons  capacity,  with  bottom  25  feet  above  outlet 
in  top  story; 

Pressure   tank   of   3,750    gallons   capacity,    located    in    top    story   or   on    roof', 

Automatic   pump    of    at    least    250    gallons    a   minute    capacity. 

Provided  that,  if  standpipe  is  intended  also  for  fire  department  use  (see 
page  533),  tank  or  pump  capacity  shall  be  at  least  double  that  given  above. 

3.  Where   a  standpipe   is   connected  to   fire   pump   or  provided,  with   Siamese 
connection,    a    straightway    check   valve    shall    be    provided    in    connecting   pipe 
to    tank,    and    tank    filled    by   a    separate    pipe;    and    where    the    water   in    such 
tank    is    also    used    for    house    supply,    the    house    supply    pipe    shall    extend 
above   the   bottom   of   the   tank  to  such   a   height   as   will   reserve    for   fire  pur- 
poses   not    less    than    the    quantities    required    in    paragraph    2. 

4.  Standpipes    shall    extend    from    the    cellar    to    the    roof,    with    a    i^-inch 
hose    connection    and    gate   valve,    not    over    5    feet    above    floor    level,    in    each 
story,  including  cellar  and  roof. 

Hose  sufficient  to  reach  to  all  parts  of  the  fire  section,  but  not  in  excess 
of  100  feet,  shall  be  attached  to  each  outlet;  hose  for  roof  outlet  may  be 
placed  on  rack  in  top  floor  near  the  scuttle  leading  to  the  roof.  Hose  shall 
be  1^/2  inches  in  diameter,  and  provided  with  nozzle  having  %-inch  dis- 
charge outlet. 

Editor's  Note. — In  a  report  on  standpipes  made  by  a  committee 
of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  in  1914,  it  was  recom- 
mended that  no  hose  line  of  over  50  feet  be  allowed,  as  with  the 
longer  lines,  the  troubles  in  handling  was  much  greater  and  the 
hose  was  more  liable  to  kink.  Semi-automatic  hose  racks  were 
recommended ;  several  of  these  are  approved  by  the  Underwriters 
Laboratories  and  are  reported  as  "  Suitable  for  use  in  connection 
with  inside  standpipe  systems  at  pressures  not  in  excess  of  150 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Designed  to  permit  one  man  to  accom- 
plish all  the  operations  necessary  in  putting  a  line  of  hose  into 
service." 

5.  Standpipes '  and    hose   shall    comply    with    the    requirements   of    Standpipes 
for   Fire   Department   Use    (page   533),   paragraphs   3,   4,    7   and   9,   except   that 
150  pounds  test  pressure  will  be  required. 

*A«  given  in  the  1915  edition  of  Building  Code  recommended  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 


STANDPIPES  IN  BUILDINGS  533 

STANDPIPES   FOR   FIRE   DEPARTMENT   OR   FIRE 
BRIGADE  USE* 

1.  In    existing    buildings    not    already    provided    with    a    4-inch    or    larger 
standpipe,   and   in   buildings   hereafter   erected,   there   shall   be   provided: 

a.  For  buildings  in  excess  of  four  stories  or  55  feet  in  height,  and  not 
within  75  feet  of  exposing  buildings, '  a  standpipe  not  less  than  4  inches  in 
diameter; 

^  b.   For   other    buildings    in    excess    of    four   stories    or    55    feet    in    height,    a 
standpipe   not  less   than    5   inches   in   diameter; 

c.  For  buildings  in  excess  of  six  stories  or  75  feet  in  height,  a  standpipe 
not  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter. 

2.  Standpipes    shall    be    located    within    fireproof    stairway    inclosures.      Pro- 
vided  that,    where   existing   buildings   do    not   have   such    inclosures,    the   stand- 
pines    shall    be    as    near    stairway    as    possible,    or    shall    be    on    the    outside    of, 
embedded    within    or    immediately    inside    an    exterior    wall    and    within    i    foot 
of    a    fire    escape    or    fire    tower. 

3.  One   standpipe   shall   be   provided   for   each   separate   fire   section   exceeding 
2,500   square    feet   area,    with   at   least   one   standpipe    within    75    feet  of   every 
exterior    wall   in   the    building. 

4.  Where    more    than  «one    standpipe    is    required    in    a    building    they    shall 
be    connected    at    their    bases    by    pipes    of    size    equal    to    that    of    largest 
standpipe,   so  that  water  from  any  source  will  supply  all  the  standpipes. 

5.  Standpipes  shall   extend    from   the   cellar   to   and   through    the    roof,    with 
;i    _•' o-inch   hose   connection   and  gate  valve,   not   over   5    feet   above   floor   level, 
in    each    story,    including    cellar,    and    two    21X5-inch     hose    connections,     with 
gate  valve   for  each,  in  the  roof;   roof  connections  to  have  a  controlling  gate 
valve    under    the    roof    and    arranged    to    be    operated    both    from    aJ.ove    and 
below    the    roof,    with    three-quarter-inch    drain    pipe    and    valve    to    prevent 
freezing.      Valves  to   be  of  a   type   giving  a  straight   21/£-inch   water   way. 

Note. — Gate  valves  are  not  suitable  for  these  outlets,  as  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  keep  them  tight.  An  angle  globe  valve, 
similar  to  that  used  on  boiler  blow-offs,  is  recommended. 

6.  Where     standpipes     are     located     inside     of    building,     hose    sufficient    to 
reach    to    all    parts   of   the    fire    section,    but    not    in   excess   of    100    feet,   shall 
be   attached   to  each   outlet,   with   hose    for   roof-hydrant   either   in   hose    house 
on    roof   or   on    rack   in   top   story   near   roof  scuttle.      Hose   shall   be   not   less 
than    2 1/5    inches    in    diameter,    and    provided    with    standard    couplings    in    use 
by    the    local    fire    department. 

7.  Hose    to    be    approved    linen    in    so-foot    lengths,    made    under    specifica- 
tions recommended  by  the  National   Board  of   Fire   Underwriters. 

8.  Each    line    of    hose    shall    be    provided    with    washers    at    both    ends,    and 
be   fitted  with   smooth-bore   brass   play  pipe   or  nozzle  at   least    12   inches   long, 
with    discharge    outlet    i  %     inches    in    diameter.      One    spanner    to    be    located 
at    each    hose    connection. 

9.  Standpipes    shall    be    wrought    iron    or    steel,    galvanized;    valves,    fittings 
and   connections   shall   be   of   cast   steel,   brass    or   malleable    iron.      They    shall 
be  of  such  strength  as  to  safely  withstand  at  least  300  pounds' water  pressure 
to   the   square    inch   when   ready   for  service,   without  leaking   at   joints,   valves 
or  fittings;    such   test   to  be  made  by  the   chief  of  the   fire   department. 

10.  Standpipes   shall   be   connected   by   a   pipe   of   diameter   equal   to   that   of 
the    largest    standpipe    supplied,    to    a    Siamese    steamer    connection    outside    of 

V-    given    in    the    1915    edition    of    Building    Code    recommended    by    the 
National    Board    of    Fire    Underwriters. 


534  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

the  building,  on  each  street  front,  except  that  corner  buildings  having 
one  street  frontage  of  less  than  50  feet  may  have  only  one  connection. 
Siamese  shall  be  about  one  foot  above  the  curb  level,  and  shall  be  provided 
with  check  valves,  and  substantial  caps  to  protect  thread  on  the  connection; 
the  thread  shall  be  uniform  with  that  used  by  the  local  fire  department.  A 
suitable  iron  plate  with  raised  letters  shall  be  provided,  reading:  "  To 
Standpipe." 

Just  inside  of  the  building,  in  a  horizontal  section,  shall  be  placed  a 
straightway  check  valve.  A  drip  pipe,  with  valve  to  same,  shall  he  placed 
between  said  check  valve  and  Siamese  connection  to  properly  drain  this 
section  to  prevent  freezing.  Similar  drip  pipes  shall  be  provided  for  all 
pockets  or  low  places  which  will  not  normally  drain. 

n.  Fire  pumps,  permanently  connected  to  the  standpipe  system,  shall  be 
provided  for  buildings  eight  stories  or  more  in  height  and  in  any  building 
in  excess  of  10,000  square  feet  area,  with  capacities  as  follows: 

One    5-inch    standpipe,    pump    capacity    not    less   than    500    gallons   a    minute; 

One  6-inch  standpipe  or  two  inter-connected  5-inch  standpipes,  pump 
capacity  not  less  than  750  gallons  a  minute; 

Two  6-inch   standpipes,   pump  capacity  not  less  than    1,000   gallons  a   minute. 

Pump  to  have  an  adequate  source  of  power  and  be  supplied  from  street 
main  or  from  well  or  cistern  containing  at  least*  one  hour's  full  supply; 
suction  piping  to  be  well  installed. 

12.  In  every  building  exceeding  one  hundred  feet  in  height,  at  least 
one  passenger  elevator  shall  be  kept  in  readiness  for  immediate  use  by 
the  fire  department  during  all  hours  of  the  night  and  day,  including  holidays 
and  Sundays. 

Special  Standpipe  Fittings. — It  has  been  argued  that  in  the 
higher  buildings,  that  is,  buildings  of  a  height  too  great  for  water 
tower  streams,  a  means  should  be  provided  by  which  a  powerful 
stream  could  be  thrown  on  to  the  fire  on  any  floor  without  the 
firemen  going  inside  the  building  or  to  the  floor  on  which  the 
fire  exists.  Buildings  of  this  class  could  of  course  be  protected 
by  sprinkler  systems  but  a  fire  getting  beyond  the  control  of  the 
sprinklers,  as  sometimes  happens,  would  be  a  serious  matter  to 
fight  without  a  standpipe  to  aid.  A  standpipe  embodying  this 
feature  has  beqn  patented  and  installed  in  several  buildings;  in 
general  design,  it  consists  of  a  4-  or  6-inch  standpipe  of  the  usual 
form,  but  so  hung  and  fastened  at  each  floor  that  raising  or  turning 
the  pipe  is  possible.  The  raising  is  accomplished  by  having  the 
bottom  of  the  standpipe  in  the  form  of  a  plunger,  which,  by  means 
of  the  water  pressure  available,  permits  the  standpipe  to  be  raised 
at  will.  Revolving  the  standpipe  is  accomplished  manually.  Small 
brass  pipes  extend  from  a  control  box  at  the  bottom  of  the  stand- 
pipe  to  hydraulic  valves  on  each  floor  which  control  the  flow  through 
nozzles  attached  to  the  standpipe,  thus  permitting  any  story  to  be 
swept  at  will. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 

In  all  matters  of  fire  protection  it  is  recognized  that  if  an  ex- 
tinguishing agent  is  applied  in  the  incipient  stage  of  the  fire,  it 
will  tend  largely  towards  preventing  a  serious  fire;  this  is  par- 
ticularly true  where  a  hazardous  or  quick  burning  substance  is 
present. 

The  most  efficient  means  of  applying  the  extinguishing  agent 
during  the  early  stages  of  a  fire  is  the  automatic  sprinkler.  Be- 
cause of  cost,  such  systems  are  generally  designed  and  supplied 
on  the  basis  of  extinguishing  only  a  small  fire  and  never  one  requir- 
ing the  opening  of  more  than  the  sprinklers  in  one  fire  section  of 
any  story.  They  are,  however,  provided  with  steamer  connections, 
tnrough  which  the  fire  department  can  pump  water,  or  have  a  con- 
nection to  a  fire  pump.  By  this  means,  much  larger  flows  can 
be  obtained,  thus  making  a  sprinkler  system  of  great  aid  to  the 
fire  department  in  fighting  a  fire  which  has  reached  large  pro- 
portions. It  has,  in  this  connection,  the  great  advantage  of  placing 
the  water  directly  on  the  fire,  a  condition  which  can  not  be  obtained 
in  a  smoke-filled  room  with  hand  lines.  For  this  reason  some  fire 
protectionists  recommend  installing  sprinkler  piping  throughout  a 
city,  with  only  steamer  connections,  to  be  used  by  the  fire  depart- 
ment. In  many  cities,  the  requirement  is  made  by  ordinance  that 
cellars  and  basements  be  equipped  in  this  way. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  a  system  is  of  value,  but  it 
does  not  have  the  full  automatic  feature,  as  no  water  supply  is 
available  until  the  fire  department  connects  into  it,  and  in  many 
cities  this  would  not  be  done.  To  be  of  full  value,  it  must  come 
into  service  with  good  force  in  the  very  earliest  stages  of  a  fire. 

PRIVATE  FIRE  CONNECTIONS  FROM  CITY  MAINS. 
There  has  been  much  discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  past  few 
years,  both  as  to  the  advisability  of  making  such  connections  and 
as  to  the  necessity  of  limiting  the  sizes  of  the  connections  or 
otherwise  restricting  them.  Some  have  thought  that  no  restric- 
tions should  be  placed  by  the  city  authorities  on  the  size  and 
number  of  connections;  that  they  should  be  limited  only  by  the 
size  of  the  street  mains  and  the  desires  of  the  building  owners, 
while  others  have  gone  so  far  in  the  other  direction  as  to  contest 
any  large  connections  whatever.  It  is  evident  there  should  be  a 

535 


536  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

happy  medium,  connections  which  will  be  small  enough  for  safety 
and  yet  large  enough  for  efficiency.  In  this  connection  a  glance 
at  the  experience  of  the  Associated  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Com- 
panies will  be  of  value,  as  they  have  had  more  experience  with 
automatic  sprinklers  than  any  other  organization.  These  com- 
panies are  purely  mutual,,  and  their  efforts  are  directed  toward  the 
prevention  of  fires  and  the  development  of  appliances  designed  to 
reduce  the  fire  loss. 

In  the  '6os  and  early  '/os  the  automatic  sprinkler  had  not  been 
invented,  but  mill  buildings  were  quite  generally  equipped  with 
standpipes  and  perforated  pipe  sprinklers,  normally  empty,  with 
outside  gates  to  be  opened  in  case  of  fire.  In  those  days  the  cost 
of  mutual  insurance,  which  is  the  actual  loss  plus  a  small  amount 
for  inspection  work,  etc.,  was  about  32  cents  per  $100  of  value 
insured.  In  the  decade  1900  to  1910,  with  nearly  all  mutual  mills 
sprinklered,  the  cost  was  6^2  cents  per  $100  of  value,  or  in  other 
words,  the  fire  loss  had  been  reduced  80  per  cent.  The  mutual 
companies  are  unanimous  in  ascribing  by  far  the  larger  part  of 
this  saving  to  the  automatic  sprinkler.  In  the  'Sbs,  there  were 
still  some  doubts  as  to  the  efficiency  of  sprinklers,  so  a  table  was 
compiled  of  fires  in  mills,  between  1877  and  1887,  with  this  result: 
at  759  fires  in  sprinklered  buildings,  the  average  loss  per  fire 
(including  the  water  damage  of  course)  was  $1,080,  or  only  one- 
seventh  as  great  as  in  the  unsprinklered  mills.  This  you  will  note 
was  in  large  buildings,  mainly  with  highly  inflammable  stocks,  and 
is  a  most  remarkable  showing,  for  at  that  time  the  automatic 
sprinkler  was  far  from  its  present  perfected  state. 

Although  automatic  sprinklers  have  been  in  use  now  for  many 
years  and  have  proven  their  efficiency  and  value  over  and  over 
again,  yet  it  is  still  impossible  to  convince  the  average  business 
man  against  his  will  that  they  would  be  desirable  or  profitable  in 
his  particular  case.  In  fact,  about  the  only  way  the  average  con- 
cern can  be  induced  to  install  them  is  by  the  reduction  of  insurance 
premiums  by  50  to  75  per  cent.  The  building  ordinances  of  most 
cities  offer  no  encouragement  to  the  would-be  progressive  citizen, 
such  as  limiting  areas  or  heights  of  buildings  except  where  im- 
proved construction  or  automatic  sprinklers  are  used,  and  many 
fire  departments  are  loath  to  make  use  of  the  evident  advantage 
offered  by  the  sprinkler  connections,  of  providing  means  whereby 
water  may  be  thrown  directly  into  the  heart  of  a  fire,  in  places 
and  under  cqnditions  where  no  fireman  could  live.  As  for  the  water- 
works officials,  their  ideas  may  be  often  summed  up  as:  All  you 
care  to  pay  for  at  meter  rates,  and  what  is  left  over,  for  fires. 
Some  water  departments,  in  the  endeavor  to  make  a  good  showing 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  537 

in  the  ledger  account,  charge  extortionate  prices  for  water  supplies 
for  private  tire  protection,  thus  nullifying  the  efforts  of  the  fire 
department  and  insurance  interests  to  secure  such  installations. 

In  order  to  determine  the  general  practice  of  waterworks  officials 
with  regard  to  fire  service  connections  to  city  mains,  in  1912,  a 
National  Hoard  engineer  communicated  with  75  representative 
American  cities,  and  asked  a  series  of  questions  covering  the 
subject,  with  the  following  results:  About  four-fifths  of  the  city 
works  and  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  private  works  make  no 
charge  or  only  a  nominal  charge  for  fire  connections;  the  rest 
charge  all  tin-  way  from  $22.50  to  $120  per  annum  for  various  6-inch 
connections,  the  companies  generally  charging  the  higher  figures. 
Strch  rates  as  $105  and  $120,  which  two  western  cities  charge  for 
connections  used  only  for  lire  purposes,  together  with  the  expense 
of  installation,  interest,  etc.,  will  go  far  toward  balancing  any 
saving  in  rates  the  ordinary1  property  owner  would  make  by  in- 
-talling  standpipes  or  sprinklers,  and  in  effect  act  to  penalize  him 
for  reducing  his  hazard  and  the  exposure  to  his  neighbors.  Of 
course  the  taxpayer  must  also  pay  his  share  of  the  general  city  fire 
protection.  About  one-third  do  not  limit  size  of  connections; 
where  any  limit  is  placed  there  is  a  decided  leaning  toward  six 
inches  as  a  maximum.  As  to  measuring  devices  on  connections, 
over  half  do  not  require  meters,  one-third  require  detector  meters 
and  the  rest  other  types.  This  corresponds  well  with  the  insurance 
requirements,  that  either  no  meters  he  used  or  some  form,  such  as 
a  detector,  which  will  not  retard  heavy  flows.  As  regard  gates 
and  check  valves,  there  is  great  diversity,  but  about  half  of  the 
cities  have  no  rules  or  only  require  a  gate  at  the  street  mains; 
the  rest  require  also  one  or  more  checks,  especially  if  there  is 
another  source  of  supply  from  which  contaminated  water  might 
work  back  into  the  street  mains.  There  are  numerous  schemes  to 
prevuit  or  discover  theft  of  water;  inspection  alone  appears  un- 
satisfactory, but  in  conjunction  with  sealed  outlets  seems  to  work 
all  right;  the  detector  type  of  meter  appears  satisfactory,  but 
is  expensive.  Several  cities  state  that  meters  will  be  installed  if 
any  water  is  used  illegally.  The  experience  of  the  majority  appears 
to  be  that  illegal  use  of  water  may  be  prevented  with  a  fair  amount 
of  certainty.  Where  the  detector  meters  are  objected  to  on  account 
of  expense,  the  prohibition  of  other  connections  from  fire  lines, 
sealing  of  test  and  draw-off  valves,  hose  gates,  etc.,  and  regular 
and  careful  inspections  have  been  found  effective;  the  property 
owner  would  not  object  to  a  charge  sufficient  to  pay  for  monthly 
inspections  or  tests. 


538  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

The  usual  sources  of  supply  to  automatic  sprinklers  are: 

1.  From  a  gravity  tank  above  the  highest  line  of  sprinklers. 

2.  From  a  pressure  tank;  to  be  above  the  highest  line  of  sprink- 
lers if  possible. 

3.  From  the  public  water  supply  by  direct  connections. 

4.  From   the    public   water   supply   through    the   fire    department, 
hose  and  Siamese  connections. 

5.  From   stationary  fire   pumps,   which   may  be   supplied   from   a 
stream,  reservoir  or  cistern,  or  from  water  mains. 

For  a  standard  sprinkler  equipment,  two  sources  of  supply  are 
required.  At  least  one  of  these  should  be  automatic  and  one  should 
be  capable  of  furnishing  water  under  heavy  pressure. 

The  standard  rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
as  recommended  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association,  state 
that  the  pressure  connections  should  be  capable  of  furnishing  25 
pounds  static  pressure,  at  all  hours  of  the  day  at  the  highest  line 
of  sprinklers  and  also  able  to  maintain  10  pounds  pressure  on  the 
highest  sprinklers  with  the  water  flowing  through  the  number  of 
sprinkler  heads  liable  to  be  opened  by  fire  at  one  time.  This  num- 
ber would  probably  be  all  the  sprinklers  on  one  floor  dependent 
on  one  riser.  The  requirement  for  25  pounds  static  pressure  at 
all  hours  appears  high,  and  would  bar  out  many  cities  where  the 
public  supply  will  furnish  only  10  or  15  pounds  at  the  top  of  a 
5-story  building.  This  would  mean  25  to  40  pounds  at  the  street 
level,  which  is  a  common  figure  in  the  large  cities  and  in  parts 
of  almost  any  city.  Even  though  not  up  to  standard,  10  or  15 
pounds  will  produce  very  effective  sprinkler  streams. 

The  Committee  on  Fire  Prevention  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  has  for  a  long  time  recommended  that  automatic 
sprinkler  equipments  be  required  in  buildings  which,  by  reason  of 
size,  construction  or  occupancy,  either  singly  or  combined,  might 
act  as  conflagration  breeders.  For  such  equipments  it  recommends 
direct  connections  from  the  street  mains  where  pressures  are  high 
enough  to  be  effective,  with  controlling  valve  in  the  street. 

If  the  street  mains  are  large  enough  to  provide  ample  supply, 
even  at  low  pressure,  this  is  no  doubt  the  most  reliable  source,  next 
to  a  detached,  elevated  tank.  How  large  shall  the  connections  be 
and  how  arranged?  The  National  Fire  Protection  Association, 
which  is  the  best  authority  on  these  questions,  says  that  for  sprink- 
ler equipments  or  standpipes  in  closely  built  districts,  4-inch  con- 
nections should  be  used  where  they  will  furnish  ample  water. 
Usually  this  can  be  arranged  by  dividing  the  system  into  2  or 
more  sections  or  taking  4-inch  connections  from  well  separated 
points  on  the  street  mains  or  from  different  mains  on  separate 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  539. 

streets,  as  where  a  building  is  on  the  street  corner  or  runs  through 
the  block  to  another  street.  Where  pressures  are  low  or  the  street 
mains  small,  often  4-inch  connections  will  not  furnish  enough 
water  and  6-inch  pipes  must  be  used,  as  it  is  well-known  that  the 
friction  loss  in  4-inch  pipe  is  about  seven  times  as  great  as  in 
6-inch  pipe. 

The  original  theory  of  sprinklers  was  that  a  few  heads  would 
open  and  control  a  fire  at  the  start,  and  if  a  fire  should  gain  head- 
way, or  should  be  communicated  from  an  unsprinklered  building, 
the  sprinklers  probably  would  not  hold  it.  But  it  was  found  by 
experience  that  liberal  supply  pipes  and  ample  water  would  permit 
the  sprinklers  to  do  much  greater  work ;  thus,  they  could  protect 
the  centers  of  large  buildings  or  the  upper  floors  of  high  buildings 
or  similar  areas,  which  would  be  out  of  the  range  of  hose  streams. 

In  many  cities  where  joisted  buildings  are  being  but  slowly 
replaced  by  improved  construction,  the  sprinkler  is  the  chief  means 
by  which  sweeping  fires  can  be  prevented.  Even  in  high  fireproof 
buildings,  where  contents  are  combustible,  sprinklers  are  the  only 
means  of  preventing  severe  losses ;  they  could  have  prevented  the 
terrible  loss  of  life  at  various  factory  fires  in  recent  years. 

But  there  is  another  feature  to  be  considered.  During  a  large 
fire,  pipes  will  break,  water  leak  out  and,  if  the  leak  is  big  enough, 
thi-  whole  public  system  will  be  so  bled  as  to  make  hydrants  worth- 
less, and  cripple  the  fire  department;  such  was  the  case  in  the 
Salem  conflagration.  So  that  we  must  find  some  happy  medium, 
such  size  of  supply  pipes  as  will  not  endanger  the  public  supply 
if  broken  and  yet  will  be  large  enough  to  furnish  ample  water 
under  working  conditions.  Then  the  supply  must  be  safeguarded 
so  that  a  broken  line  can  be  shut  off  speedily  and  securely. 

Sprinkler  experts  tell  us  that  in  large  installations  the  cost  of 
two  4-inch  connections  and  risers  is  not  appreciably  greater  than 
for  one  6-inch  (except  for  meters),  and  the  arrangement  presents 
decided  advantages,  especially  the  possibility  of  maintaining  partial 
protection  during  shutdowns  due  to  repairs  or  alterations.  In  some 
cities  we  find  connections  to  sprinklers  as  large  as  8-  or  lo-inch. 
This  is  now  regarded  as  bad  practice,  except  perhaps  for  isolated 
buildings,  from  which  fires  could  not  spread  to  other  property  and 
where  broken  mains  could  be  shut  off  at  the  street  corner  without 
robbing  the  fire  engines  of  water  for  the  protection  of  neighbors. 
I;or  it  is  evident  that  a  broken  6-inch  or  larger  connection  would 
cripple  the  fire  department  in  the  immediate  vicinity  until  the 
controlling  gates  could  be  closed.  Therefore,  it  is  recommended 
that  sprinkler  and  standpipe  services  shall  have  an  outside  con- 
trolling valve  set  in  one  of  these  ways : 


54O  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

a.  At  the  curb,  with  an  indicator  post. 

b.  At  the   building  line,   with   an   indicator  post   in   a   recess    in 
the  wall. 

c.  In  a  valve  pit  in  the  street  or  at  the  curb. 

d.  In  bad  cases,  the  connection  to  be  looped  back  and  the  gate 
set  at  the  opposite  curb  across  the  street,  or  opposite  an  adjacent 
building. 

There  have  been  various  fires  where  falling  walls  or  other  wreck- 
age, snow,  or  ice,  etc.,  have  prevented  the  shutting  off  of  the  large 
sprinkler  connections,  after  the  fire  got  beyond  control  of  the 
sprinklers  and  reduced  the  pressure  in  the  mains  so  that  direct 
hydrant  streams  were  valueless  and  the  engines  could  not  obtain 
sufficient  water.  All  the  fire  department  could  do  was  to  save  the 
surrounding  property.  If  the  sprinkler  connections  had  been  at  the 
corner  of  the  building  or  a  little  beyond  the  front,  in  these  cases, 
it  would  have  been  a  simple  matter  to  close  the  gate.  Sometimes 
the  connection  can  be  gated  in  front  of  a  stair  tower  or  heavy 
division  wall,  where  there  is  less  chance  of  falling  walls  making 
it  inaccessible. 

The  fire  department  should  keep  track  of  these  connections  and 
be  sure  that  they  are  properly  marked  to  be  quickly  located  at  need. 
The  waterworks  men  are  frequently  not  available  at  such  times  and 
the  prompt  closing  of  a  broken  connection  may  make  a  vast  differ- 
ence in  the  eventual  outcome  of  a  fire.  It  is  not  always  a  falling 
wall  that  makes,  trouble ;  many  things  may  cause  a  serious  break 
inside  a  building — a  floor  or  roof  falling,  or  heavy  machinery  or 
safes  dropping  and,  when  the  break  occurs,  then  the  sprinkler 
connection  becomes  a  detriment  instead  of  a  help  to  the  firemen. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  any  main  supplying  automatic  sprinkler 
systems  or  standpipes  shall  be  properly  gated  at  each  end  of  the 
block,  so  that  in  extreme  cases  it  will  be  feasible  to  cut  a  short 
section  out  of  service  without  interfering  with  other  supplies.  In 
a  narrow  street  the  heat  of  a  fire  will  often  render  gate  valves 
inaccessible,  or  in  winter  the  snow  may  be  piled  up  so  they  can 
not  be  quickly  located. 

There  should  also  be  a  check  valve,  or  preferably  two,  in  the 
connection. between  the  indicator  gate  and  the  riser,  so  that  water 
will  not  be  drained  from  the  tank  during  shutdowns  of  the  street 
mains,  etc.,  and  also  in  case  of  systems  having  stationary  pumps, 
so  that  water,  possibly  infected -with  disease  germs,  may  not  bo 
pumped  back  into  the  street  mains. 

A  recent  suggestion  for  safeguarding  fire  connections  is  to  place 
an  electrically  operated  valve  in  a  concrete  vault  in  the  street  or 
at  the  curb.  This  can'  be  controlled  from  any  distant  point,  as 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  541 

each  end  of  the  block,  or  at  the  nearest  fire  alarm  box,  where  a 
small  locked  box  with  controlling  switch  may  be  placed,  the  key  to 
be  in  possession  of  the  fire  chief.  Then  if  for  any  reason  the  chief 
should  find  the  sprinkler  or  standpipe  connection  taking  too  much 
of  the  supply  for  his  engines,  he  could  at  once  and  with  certainty 
shut  them  off.  Of  course,  this  apparatus  must  be  properly  installed 
and  regularly  tested ;  it  would  seem  specially  valuable  where  con- 
nections are  made  to  high  pressure  systems  and  the  additional 
expense  would  not  be  a  deterrent  feature  compared  with  the  need 
of  certain  means  of  control.  As  a  substitute  for  the  electrically 
operated  valve,  there  is  the  hydraulically  operated  valve;  this  may 
be  designed  to  use  the  water  pressure  in  the  pipe  for  closing,  or 
an  arrangement  could  be  made  by  which  it  could  be  closed  by 
pumping  oil  or  water  through  a  small  pipe  from  a  tank  located  at 
some  distant  point. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  advisability  of  allowing 
connections  from  high  pressure  systems  for  private  protection ; 
either  to  yard  hydrants,  standpipes  or  sprinklers.  To  the  yard 
hydrants  there  is  little  objection,  if  they  are  made  to  withstand 
the  high  pressures  and  are  regularly  inspected  like  street  hydrants. 
The  sprinklers  and  standpipes  are  not  ordinarily  designed  for  such 
high  pressure,  and  especially  the  severe  "  hammer  "  or  shock  caused 
6y  sudden  increase  of  pressure.  One  can  imagine  what  might  happen 
to  an  automatic  sprinkler  system  if  suddenly  subjected  to  the  300 
pounds  pressure  of  the  New  York  High  Pressure  System,  or  even 
to  200  pounds.  Recent  improvement  in  design  of  regulating  valves 
has  probably  overcome  much  of  this  danger,  however.  These  valves 
may  be  attached  at  the  gate  in  the  street  and  set  to  limit  the 
pressure  to  the  sprinklers  at  any  desired  figure;  they  are  claimed 
to  be  so  reliable  that  pressures  may  be  held  within  5  pounds  of 
the  predetermined  figure,  no  matter  how  much  higher  the  pressure 
in  the  street  mains  may  rise.  But  there  is  the  danger  of  private 
connections  being  so  used  as  to  bleed  the  high  pressure  system 
and  render  it  ineffective  for  fire  department  use.  During  the  gfcat 
Dreamland  fire  at  Coney  Island,  in  May,  1911,  it  is  stated  that 
over  20  streams  were  used  by  adjacent  property  owners  who  had 
standpipe  connections,  to  wet  down  buildings  and  roofs.  As  the 
total  capacity  of  the  Coney  Island  High  Pressure  System  was  only 
4,500  gallans  per  minute,  and  one  of  the  pumps  broke  down,  leaving 
only  3,000  gallons  per  minute  during  most  of  the  fire,  it  will  readily 
be  seen  that  few  efficient  hydrant  streams  could  be  obtained  by  the 
fire  department.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  best  to  reserve  these  high 
pressure  systems  solely  for  fire  department  use  and  to  take  no 
chances  of  lost  pressure  in  an  emergency,  unless  it  shall  be  found 


542  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

safe  to'  use  some  combination  of  electrically-controlled  gate  valves 
and  pressure  reducing  valves,  as  explained  above.  Where  the 
systems  are  properly  designed,  with  multiple  outlet  hydrants  closely 
spaced,  it  is  readily  feasible  to  run  short  lines  of  hose  from  the 
nearest  hydrant  to  the  Siamese  connections  of  the  sprinklers  and 
standpipes,  thus  giving  ample  water  for  severe  fires.  Any  properly 
designed  sprinkler  outfit  should  have  sufficient  tank  capacity  to 
feed  the  system  until  the  firemen  can  attach  these  lines;  especially 
in  these  days  of  motor  apparatus  and  speedy  response. 

To  sum  up — the  experience  of  many  years  has  proven  con- 
clusively that  automatic  sprinklers  are  of  immense  value  as  fire 
extinguishers  and  conflagration  stoppers,  therefore  all  should  unite 
in  urging  and  extending  their  use.  To  secure  best  results,  a  large 
and  reliable  supply  of  water  is  needful;  this  in  most  cases  will 
mean  connections  to  the  city  water  mains.  These  connections 
should  be  large  enough  to  furnish  the  required  supply,  but  not  so 
large  as  to  hamper  the  fire  department  and  endanger  neighboring- 
buildings  in  case  of  breaks. 

Both  theory  and  practice  indicate  that  in  most  cases  one  or  more 
4-inch  connections  properly  arranged  are  sufficient  for  well  designed 
standpipe  or  sprinkler  systems,  and  that  6-inch  connections  are  the 
largest  that  can  be  safely  permitted  in  a  built-up  district.  Every 
such  installation  is  of  value  both  in  controlling  fires  originating 
in  the  protected  premises  and  in  preventing  the  spread  of  fires  in 
adjacent  buildings. 

The  waterworks  officials  should  encourage  such  installations  by 
refraining  from  prohibitive  rates  and  regulations  for  fire  connec- 
tions, and  the  fire  departments  should  keep  fully  informed  as  to 
the  location  of  gate  valves  and  Siamese  connections,  so  that  in  case 
of  fire,  water  may  be  pumped  to  the  sprinklers  so  long  as  these 
work,  and  in  case  of  accident,  gates  may  be  promptly  closed  to 
stop  leakage  of  water  and  toss  of  supply  for  the  engines. 

THE  INSTALLATION  OF  AUTOMATIC  AND  OPEN 
':!;  SPRINKLER   EQUIPMENTS* 

The  rules  contained  herein  .cover  the  general  details  of  a  sprinkler 
equipment  only.  Before  an  equipment  in  installed,  or  before  a 
present  equipment  is  remodelled,  complete  working  plans  should 
be  submitted  for  approval  to  the  Inspection  Department  having 
jurisdiction. 

These  plans  should  be  drawn  to  an  indicated  scale;  give  correct 
address  and  points  of  compass ;  show  sectional  elevations  of  the 
buildings ;  and  the  essential  features  of  the  construction,  viz.,  size, 

•Regulations  prescribed  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  543 

location  and  direction  of  joists,  timbers  or  other  structural  mem- 
bers. They  should  also  indicate  the  location  and  size  of  water 
supplies,  connecting  pipes,  feed  mains  and  risers,  gate,  check,  alarm 
and  dry-pipe  valves,  as  well  as  the  location,  spacing,  number  and 
type  of  sprinklers. 

Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  and  the  lists  pub- 
lished by  the  Underwriters  Laboratories  should  be  consulted  as  to 
standard  makes  of  automatic  and  open  sprinklers,  gate,  check, 
alarm  and  dry-pipe  valves,  indicator  posts  and  hydrants. 

Section  A — General  Information 

1.  Preparation    of    Building. — Many    buildings    require    prepara- 
tion for  sprinkler  equipment.    All  needless  ceiling  sheathing,  hollow 
siding,  tops  of   high  shelving,  needless  partitions  or  decks  should 
be    removed.      Necessary    "  stops "    to    check    draft,    necessary    new 
partitions,  closets,  decks,  etc.,  should  be  put  in  place,  or  provided 
for,  so  that  the  equipment  may  conform  to  same.    The  top  flooring 
should  be  made  thoroughly  tight.     Paper  or  similar  light   inflam- 
mable   ceiling    sheathing    is    objectionable    and    unnecessary.      (See 
Section  B,  Rule  13.) 

2.  Accessory  Construction. — Sprinkler  equipments  require  acces- 
sory   construction,    dry    pipe    valve    closets,    ladders,    anti-freezing 
boxing  for  tank  pipes,  etc.     This  work  should  be  promptly  attended 
to  if  not  let  with  sprinkler  contract. 

3.  Vertical  or  Horizontal  Drafts. — Floor  or  wall  openings  tend- 
ing to  create  vertical  or  horizontal  drafts,  or  other  structural  de- 
fects that  would  prevent  the  prompt  operation  of  automatic  sprink- 
lers by  preventing  the  banking  up  of  the  heated  air  from  the  fire, 
should  be  properly  "  stopped  "  in  order  to  permit  specific  control  by 
the  local  sprinklers. 

Satisfactory  curtain-boards  and  other  draft-stops  must  be  pro- 
vided to  overcome  such  structural  defects. 

Except  in  special  cases  the  main  feeders  to  sprinklers  are  only 
of  sufficient  size  to  supply  the  sprinklers  on  one  floor,  consequently 
it  is  absolutely  essential  that  these  requirements  for  protection  of 
vertical  shafts  should  be  carried  out  in  every  detail,  and  where 
extraordinary  conditions  exist  and  there  is  likelihood  of  fire  pass- 
ing through  unprotected  openings,  pipe  sizes  should  be  increased 
accordingly. 

4.  Clear  Space  Below  Sprinklers. — Full  effective  action  of  sprink- 
lers requires  about  24  inches  wholly  clear  space  below  the  sprink- 
lers, so  they  may  form  an  unbroken  spray  blanket  from  sprinkler 
to    sprinkler   and   sides  of   room.     Any  stock  piles,   racks  or  other 
obstructions    interfering    with     such     action     are     not     permissible. 
Sprinkler  piping  should  not  be  used  for  the  support  of  stock,  cloth- 
ing, etc. 

5.  Experienced    Workmen    Recommended.— Sprinkler    installa- 
tion is  a  trade  in  itself.     Inspectors  cannot  be  expected  to  act  as 
working  superintendents,  or  correct  errors  of  beginners.     Sprinkler 
work  should  be   entrusted   to   none   but   fully  experienced   and   re- 
sponsible parties. 


544  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Care  must  be  taken  that  after  pipes  are  cut  they  are  properly 
reamed  in  order  to  remove  all  burrs  and  fins ;  also  that  threads  are 
cut  to  standard  so  that  joints  will  be  properly  ma'de  without  obstruct- 
ing waterway.  In  applying  the  joint  compound,  care  should  be 
taken  to  place  it  on  the  pipe  and  not  the  fitting. 

All  distributing  pipes  must  be  straightened  befo're  .installation, 
in  order  to  prevent  pockets  between  hangers  which  would  interfere 
with  the  proper  drainage  of  the  system. 

6.  All    Portions    of    Buildings    to     be     Protected. — Experience 
teaches  that  sprinklers   are  often  necessary  wtiere   seemingly  least 
needed.     Their  protection  is  required  not  alone  where  a 'fire  may 
begin,  but  also  wherever  any  fire  might  extend,   including  wet  or 
damp  locations. 

7.  Degree  of  Protection. — A  maximum  protection  cannot  be  ex- 
pected where  sprinklers  are  at  more  or 'less  permanent  disadvan- 
tage, as  in  the  -case  of  stocks  very 'susceptible  to  smoke  and  water 
damage,    buildings    having   deep    piles    of    hollow   goods,    excessive 
draughts,    explosion    or    flash   fire   hazards,    or    large    amounts   of 
benzine  or  similar^fluid. 

8.  Necessary   Cut-offs. — Sprinklers   cannot  be  expected '19  keep 
out  fire  originating  in  unsprinklered  territory.     Stringent  measures 
should  be   used  to  properly   cut   off   all   unsprinklered   portions,  of 
buildings  or  exposures. 

9.  Communications.— When    a     building     fully     equipped    witih 
sprinklers  communicates  with  another  not  so  equipped,  the  openings 
must  be  protected  by  standard  fire  doors  on  both  sides  of  the  walls, 
one  of  which  must  be  automatic.' 

10.  Protection    Against    Exposures. — The:, danger    bf:  sprinkler 
protection  being  impaired  by  exposure,  fires  should  be  reduced  by 
providing    at    exposed    openings    one    or    more    df    the    following: 
Shutters,  wired  glass  or  open  sprinkler  protection.' 

Section  B — Location  of  Automatic  Sprinklers. 

11.  Position  of  Sprinkler. — Shall  be  located  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion. 

When  construction  or  occupancy  of  a  rcjom  or  enclosure  makes  it  preferable, 
permission  may  be  given,  except  on  dry-pipe  systems,  to  locate  sprinklers  in  a 
pendant  position. 

12.  Position  of  Deflectors.— Sprinkler  deflectors  shall  be  parallel 
to  ceilings,  roofs  or  the  incline  of  stairs,  but  when  installed  in  the 
peak  of  a  pitched  roof  they  shall  be  horizontal.     Distance  of  deflec- 
tors from  ceilings  of  mill  or  other, smooth  construction^  ur  Bottom 
of  joists  of  open  joist  construction-,  shall  be  not  less  than  3  inches 
nor  more  than   10  inches;  6  to  8  inches,  is  the  best  distance  with 
average  pressure  and  present  types  of  sprinklers.     Note  particularly 
that  the  rule  for  distance  refers  to  the  deflector  of  the  sprinkler. 

In  the  case  of  fireproof  buildings,  the  distance  between  deflectors 
and  ceilings  may  be  increased  where  conditions  warrant;  i.  e., 
under  panel  ceilings.  In  semi-mill,  or  other  upusual  construction, 
consult  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

13.  Detailed  Locations. — Sprinklers  shall  be  placed  throughout 
premises,  including  basement  and., lofts,  under  stairs,  inside. elevator 
wells,  in  belt,  cable,  pipe,  gear  and  pulley  boxes,  inside  small. en- 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  545 

closures,  such  as  drying  and  heating  boxes,  tenter  and  dry-room 
enclosures,  chutes,  conveyor  trunks  and  all  cupboards  and  closets 
unless  they  have  tops  entirely  open,  and  are  so  located  that  sprink- 
lers can  properly  spray  therein.  Sprinklers  are  not  to  be  omitted 
in  any  room  merely  because  it  is  damp,  wet  or  of  fireproof  con- 
struction. 

Special  instructions  should  be  obtained  from  Inspection  Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction  relative  to  placing  sprinklers  inside  show 
windows,  telephone  booths,  boxed  machines,  metal  air  ducts,  ven- 
tilators and  concealed  spaces,  and  under  large  shelves,  benches, 
tables,  overhead  storage  racks,  platforms  and  similar  water-sheds, 
and  over  electrical  generating  and  transforming  apparatus  and 
switchboards. 

14.  Protection    of    Vertical    Shafts. — In    vertical    shafts    having 
inflammable   sides,   a   sprinkler   shall   be   provided   within   shaft   for 
each   200   square    feet   of   the   inflammable   surface,   in    addition   to 
sprinklers  at  tops  of   shafts.     Such   sprinklers   should  be   installed 
at  each  floor  when  practicable,  and  always  when  shaft  is  trapped. 

Where  practicable,  sprinklers  should  be  "  staggered  "  at  the  alter- 
nate floor  levels,  particularly  when  only  one  sprinkler  is  installed 
;it  each  floor  level. 

Section  C — Spacing  of  Automatic   Sprinklers 

15.  Distance  from  Walls. — The  distance  from  wall  or  partition 
t<>  first  sprinkler  shall  not  exceed  one  half  the  allowable  distance 
between    sprinklers    in    the    same    direction.      Additional    sprinklers 
may  also  be  required  in  the  narrow  pockets  formed  by  bay  timbers 

•or   beams   and   wall. 

16.  Partitions. — A  line  of  sprinklers  should  be  run  on  each  side 
of  partition.     Cutting  holes  through  a  partition  to  allow  sprinklers 
m   one   side   thereof   to   distribute  water  to   the   other   side  is  not 
effectual.     This  rule  applies  to  both  solid  and  slatted  partitions. 

EDITOR'S    NOTE:      See    Appendix    for    Amendment    adopted    in     1916. 

17.  Mill   Construction. — Under  mill  ceiling   (smooth  solid  plank 
and  timber  construction,  5  to   12  foot  bays)   one  line  of  sprinklers 
should  be  placed  in  center  of  each  bay  and  distance  between   the 
sprinklers  on   each  line  should  not  exceed  the   following: 

8  feet   in    12    foot   bays. 

9  feet    in    1 1    foot   bays. 

10  feet   in    10    foot   bays. 

1 1  feet   in      9   foot   bays. 

12  feet   in      5   to   8   foot  bays 

Measurements  should  be  taken  from  center  to  center  of  timbers. 

Ceilings  of  modified  mill  construction  having  bays  less  than 
three  feet  should  be  treated  as  open  joist  construction  and  sprinkler 
heads  spaced  accordingly. 

Bay  timbers  spaced  three  feet  or  more  on  centers,  but  less  than 
five  feet  on  centers,  will  require  special  ruling  by  the  Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction. 

18.  Joisted    Construction. — Under   open    finish   joisted    construc- 
tion, ceilings,  floors,  decks  and  roofs,  the  lines  shall  be  run  at  right 
angles  to  the  joists  and  the  sprinklers  "  staggered  spaced,"  so  that 
heads   will    be   opposite    a    point   half    way   between    sprinklers    on 
adjacent  lines,   and   the   distance  between  sprinklers  not  exceeding 


546 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


8  feet  at  right  angles  to  the  joists  or  10  feet  parallel  with  joists; 
the  end  heads  on  alternate  lines  being  not  more  than  2  feet  from 
wall  or  partition. 
Also  see  Rule  15. 

Exception. — An  exception  may  be  made  to  this  rule  if  the  conditions  war- 
rant, viz.,  special  permission  may  be  given  to  install  but  one  line  of  sprinklers 
in  bays  10  to  11%  feet  wide  from  center  to  center  of  the  timbers  which  sup- 
port; the  joists.  Tn  all  cases  where  such  bays  are  over  ii1/^  feet  wide,  two 


o  €> 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.   80 

or  more  lines  of  sprinklers  should  be  installed  in  each  bay  as  required  by 
the  rules  for  spacing.  This  does  not  apply  where  beams  are  flush  with  the 
joists,  in  which  case  sprinklers  may  be  spaced  as  called  for  in  Rule  18.  Where 
permission  is  given,  the  sprinklers  should  be  placed  closer  together  on  a  line 
so  that  in  no  case  will  the  area  covered  by  a  single  sprinkler  exceed  80  square 
feet.  Also  see  Rule  22. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


547 


19.  Smooth  Finish,  Sheathed  or  Plastered  Ceilings.— Under 
smooth  finish,  sheathed  or  plastered  ceilings,  in  bays  6  to  12  feet 
wide  (measurement  to  be  taken  from  center  to  center  of  timber, 
girder  or  other  projection  or  support,  forming  the  bay),  one  line 
of  sprinklers  shall  be  placed  in  center  of  each  bay,  and  distance 
between  the  sprinklers  on  each  line  should  not  exceed  the  follow- 


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Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'lBd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  8 1 

ing:  8  feet  in  12  foot  bays;  9  feet  in  u  foot  bays;  10  feet  in  6 
to  10  foot  bays.  Bays  in  excess  of  12  feet  in  width  and  less  than 
23  feet  in  width  should  contain  at  least  two  lines  of  sprinklers; 
bays  23  feet  in  width  or  over  should  have  the  lines  therein  not  over 
10  feet  apart.  In  bays  in  excess  of  12  feet  in  width  not  more  than 
loo  square  feet  ceiling  area  should  be  allotted  any  one  sprinkler. 


548 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


20.  Pitched  Roofs. — Under  a  pitched  roof  sloping  more  steeply 
than  i  foot  in  3,  sprinklers  shall  be  located  in  peak  of  roof,  and 
those  on  either  side  of  peak  spaced  according  to  above  require- 
ments Distance  between  sprinklers  should  be  measured  on  a  line 


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Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  ^2 

parallel  with  roof.  Where  the  roof  meets  the  floor  line,  sprinklers 
should  be  placed  not  over  3^2  feet  from  where  roof  timbers  meet 
floor. 

Sprinklers  not  more  than  2^2  feet  distant  each  way  from  the  peak 
of  roof,  measured  on  a  line  with  the  roof,  may  be  used  in  lieu  of 
sprinklers  located  in  peak  of  roof  as  above.  Also  see  Rule  22. 

In  sawtooth  roof,  the  end  sprinklers  on  the  branch  line  shall 
be  not  over  2,^/2  feet  from  the  peak  of  the  sawtooth. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


549 


21.  Fireproof  Construction. — The  rules  for  slow-burning  con- 
struction should  apply  as  far  as  practicable.  The  rule  may  be 
modified,  however,  the  intent  being  to  arrange  the  spacing  of 
sprinklers  to  protect  the  contents  rather  than  the  ceilings ;  but  in 
no  case  shall  the  distance  of  a  sprinkler  on  a  line  exceed  12  feet 
to  a  sprinkler  on  an  adjoining  line. 


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Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.   83 


22.  Unusual  Construction. — Special  instructions  should  be  ob- 
tained from  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  relative  to 
location  of  sprinklers  under  floors  and  roofs  of  semi-mill,  panel 
or  other  unusual  construction  which  may  interfere  with  distribution 
of  water,  and  for  which  provision  is  not  hereinbefore  made. 


550  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

These  types  of  construction  are  so  varied  that  no  absolute  rules 
can  be  given  to  cover  all  cases. 

"  Semi-mill  "  is  the  term  here  applied  to  plank  and  timber  con- 
struction with  narrow  bays  generally  less  than  5  feet  in  width. 

"  Panel "  construction  is  where  the  ceiling  is  divided  by  the 
timbers  into  panels  or  pockets.  Narrow  bay  panels  come  under 
the  head  of  "  semi-mill  "  construction,  and  may  usually  be  protected 
in  the  same  way. 

Sprinkler  lines  should  usually  run  at  right  angles  to  the  timbers, 
with  heads  staggered  under  alternate  timbers,  in  alternate  bays, 
or  alternately  under  the  timbers  and  in  the  bays,  the  arrangement 
depending  on  the  width  of  the  bay,  the  size  of  the  timbers  and  the 
distance  between  supporting  girders,  as  well  as  upon  the  occupancy 
and  water  pressure. 

Ordinarily,  where  the  timbers  are  not  larger  than  6  x  10  inches, 
the  best  distribution  is  obtained  by  placing  the  heads  under  the 
timbers. 

The  distance  between  lines  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  dis- 
tance between  the  girders  suppoiting  the  timbers,  the  number  of 
lines  in  these  transverse  bays  being  governed  largely  by  the  distance 
between  the  heads  on  the  lines. 

Section  D — Pipe  Sizes 

23.  General  Schedule. — In  no  case  should  the  number  of  sprink- 
lers on  a  given  size  pipe  on  one  .floor  of  one  fire  section  exceed 
the  following : 

Size  of  Maximum  No.  of 

Pipe.  Sprinklers  Allowed. 

%-inch i   sprinkler 

. 2  sprinklers 


3% 
4 
5 
6 


3 
5 

10 

20 

36 

55 

80 

140 

200 


Where  practicable,  it  is  desirable  to  arrange  the  piping  so  that  the  number 
of  sprinklers  on  a  'branch  line  will  not  exceed  eight. 

Where  feed  mains  supply  branch  lines  of  only  two  sprinklers 
each,  the  conditions  approach  those  of  long  single  lines.  Such 
feeds  should  usually  be  centrally  supplied  where  there  are  over 
eight  or  ten  branch  lines.  Lines  up  to  fourteen  in  number  may  be 
fed  from  end,  provided  2^-inch  pipe  supplies  not  more  than  sixteen 
sprinklers. 

Buildings  having  slatted  floors,  or  large  unprotected  floor  openings 
without  approved  stops,  should  be  treated  as  one  room  with  refer- 
ence to  the  pipe  sizes,  and  the  feed  main  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  accommodate  the  number  of  sprinklers  called  for.  Larger 
pipe  sizes  than  called  for  in  the  schedule  may  be  required  wherever 
the  construction  or  conditions  introduce  unusually  long  runs  of  pipe 
or  many  angles.  Buildings  with  blind  attics  with  small  unprotected 
openings  to  floor  below,  may  be  piped  from  the  system  on  the 
ceiling  of  floor  below,  provided  pipe  size  schedule  is  not  overloaded 
on  sizes  3  inches  or  under. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  551 

Section  E — Feed  Mains  and  Risers 

24.  Location    of    Risers. — "  Center    central  "    or   "  side    central  " 
feed  to  sprinklers  is  recommended.     The  former  is  preferred,  espe- 
cially where   there  are  over   six   sprinklers  on   a  branch   line.     In 
high    buildings,    allowance    must    be   made    for    frictional    loss   and 
sizes  of  risers  increased  accordingly.     Risers  should  not  be  located 
close  to  windows,  and  should  be  properly  protected  from  mechanical 
injury  or  a  possible  freezing. 

25.  Supporting  of  Risers. — Risers  should  be  properly  supported. 
In  buildings  of  heavy  construction  and  where  riser  is  not  supported 
at    the    ground    level,  .  floor    plates    or    clamps    and    pipe    couplings 
should  be  provided  at  the  first    (ground)    floor  level,   and   also  at 
every  fourth  floor  above  same,  where  a  building  is  over  five  stories 
in  height,  except  that  in  buildings  nine  to  ten  stories  high  no  floor 
plate  nor  coupling  would  be  needed  above  the  fifth  floor. 

'This  would  call  for  such  supports  at  the  first  (ground)  and  fifth 
floors  in  a  building  seven  to  ten  stories  high,  and  floor  plates  and 
couplings  at  the  first  (ground),  fifth  and  ninth  floors  in  buildings 
eleven  to  fourteen  stories  high,  etc.  In  buildings  of  light  construc- 
tion, additional  supports  will  be  needed. 

Where  risers  are  supported  at  the  ground  level,  provide  such 
supports  at  every  fourth  floor  above  same.  (See  Appendix  for 
modification  made  in  1916.) 

Where  sprinkler  risers,  or  those  from  tanks,  are  in  vertical  shafts, 
they  should  be  supported  equivalent  to  the  above. 

Where  risers,  drains,  heating  pipes,  etc.,  pass  through  cinder  con- 
crete, a  sleeve  or  other  suitable  means  should  be  provided  to  prevent 
corrosion.  Neat  cement  or  seven  per  cent  lime  mortar  around  the 
pipe  will  protect  same. 

26.  Size  of  Risers. — There  should  be  one  or  more  separate  risers 
in  each  building  and  in  each  section  of  the  building  divided  by  fire 
walls.     Each   riser   should   be   of   sufficient   size   to   supply   all    the 
sprinklers   on    said   riser  on   any  one   floor,   as   determined   by  the 
standard  schedule  of  pipe  sizes.     If  the  conditions  warrant,  special 
permission  will  be  granted  allowing  the  sprinklers  in  a  fire  section 
of   small  area    (total  number  of   sprinklers  not   to  exceed  48  per 
floor)   to  be  fed  from  the  riser  in  another  section. 

Stair  or  other  towers  without  approved  stops  between  floors, 
if  piped  on  independent  riser,  should  be  treated  as  one  room  with 
reference  to  pipe  sizes,  i.  e.,  feed  main  should  be  of  sufficient  size 
to  accommodate  the  total  number  of  sprinklers. 

27.  Connections   to   Systems. — All   main   water   supplies   should 
connect  with  sprinkler  system  at  foot  of  riser. 

Exception. — Where  a  gravity  or  pressure  tank  or  both,  constitute  the  only 
automatic  source  of  water  supply,  special  permission  may  be  given  to  connect 
the  tank  or  tanks  with  the  sprinkler  system  at  the  top  of  the  riser,  provided 
lower  level  control  to  several  fire  sections  is  not  required. 

The  connection  between  the  wrought  iron  or  steel  and  cast  iron 
pipe  from  underground  main  should  preferably  be  flange  and  spigot 
pipe  properly  strapped  together. 

Where  bell  and  spigot  pipe  is  used,  the  wrought  iron  or  steel  and 
cast  iron  pipes  should  be  properly  strapped  together.  A  flanged 
connection  should  be  used  on  the  wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe  and 
not  simply  clamps  with  set-screws.  For  8-inch  pipes  and  smaller, 
the  rod  to  be  ^  inch,  for  larger  pipe,  ^  inch.  Straps  or  rods,  if 


552 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


to  be  buried,  should  be  protected  against  corrosion  by  painting  with 
tar,  asphaltum,  or  by  other  suitable  means.  Where  practicable, 
connections  should  run  underground  to  the  foot  of  the  riser;  but 
in  any  event,  the  cast-iron  pipe  should  extend  above  ground,  and 
no  cinders  or  other  corrosive  material  should  be  placed  against 
either  pipe.  See  Rule  28. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  84 

28.  Protection  Against  Frost. —  (See  Figure  84.)  Where  sup- 
ply pipes  or  risers  in  low  basements  or  low  spaces  under  ground 
floors  are  exposed  to  frost,  they  should  be  properly  protected.  An 
acceptable  method,  ^especially  where  the  space  is  over  18  inches  high, 
is  by  an  enclosure  properly  heated  or  filled  with  heavy  earth  or 
other  suitable  material,  such  as  mineral  wool  or  sawdust.  Enclosure 


A  i  TOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  553 

should  extend  below  bottom  of  pipe  and  through  the  top  flooring 
of  ground  floor.  In  severe  climates,  where  space  is  filled,  the 
enclosure  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  permit  of  a  filling  of  not 
less  than  four  (4)  feet,  all  sides  around  the  pipe.  Enclosure  should 
preferably  be  of  brick,  but  may  be  of  wood,  and  if  the  latter,  should 
be  at  least  double  with  tar  paper  between.  Where  the  space  is  not 
more  than  18  inches  high,  the  flooring  of  ground  floor  may  be 
cut  away  and  the  space  around  the  pipe  enclosed  according  to  either 
of  the  above  methods,  but  the  area  may  be  reduced  so  there  will 
be  not  less  than  one  (i)  foot  clear  space  all  sides  around  the  pipe, 
thus  exposing  pipe  to  the  heated  room  above.  Opening  at  floor 
level  should  not  be  covered  except  by  a  metal  grid. 

Tn  any  case  where  wood  is  used,  it  should  be  of  a  kind  that  will 
endure  underground,  and  in  addition,  should  be  treated  with  creosote 
or  other  acceptable  preservative. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  laying  the  underground  connection,  to 
extend  it  sufficiently  far  into  the  building  to  give  the  required 
spaces  called  for  above,  the  pipe  to  be  offset  if  desired,  at  or  above 
the  floor  level. 

The  laying  of  connections  in  raceways  exposed  to  frost  should 
be  avoided,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  protecting  the  pipe  near  the 
surface  and  in  the  space  between  the  surface  of  the  \vat-r  and  t  he- 
floor  of  the  building.  Such  connections,  if  they  cannot  be  avoided, 
should  go  through  the  wall  of  the  race  below  the  frost  line,  and 
enter  the  building  through  the  solid  ground,  and  far  enough  back 
from  the  side  of  the  race  to  avoid  frost. 

Section   F  —  Valves  and  Fittings 

29.  Types  of  Valves  to  be  Used.  —  All  valves  on  connections  to 
water  supplies  and  in  supply  pipes  to  sprinklers  should  be  standard 
outride  screw  and  yoke  or  other  standard  indicator  pattern. 

Underground  gate  valves  of  standard  pattern  equipped  with  stand- 
ard indicator  posts  fulfill  this  rule.. 

Drip  and/or  test  pipes  should  be  of  a  standard  type. 

Check  valves  should  be  of  a  standard  straight-way  pattern,  and 
installed  in  horizontal  pipe,  unless  suitably  designed  for  vertical 
position. 

30.  Valves    in    Connection    to    Water    Supply.  —  The    pipe    con- 
necting each  source  of  water  supply  with  the  sprinkler  system  shall 
be  provided  with  a  gate  and  a  check  valve.     The  gate  valve  should 
be  located  close  to  the  supply,  as  at  the  tank,  or  near  base  of  tank 
trestle,  pump,  or  in  the  pipe  connecting  the  riser  with  the  water- 
works   system,    and   the    check   valve   should   be   located   as    far   as 
possible   from    source   of   supply,   preferably   underground. 

Check  valves  on  public  water  connections  and  large  tanks  or 
reservoirs  should  have  a  gate  valve  on  each  side  so  that  check 
may  be  repaired  without  shutting  off  the  water  supplies. 


.  —  The    underground    waterworks    valve    on    the    waterworks    connection 
may   be   considered   satisfactory   for   one   of  these   valves. 

For  tanks  on  trestles  a  post  indicator  valve  at  foot  of  trestl*  is  recom- 
mended. Where  near  tank,  should  be  made  readily  accessible  by  permanent 
ladder  and  platform. 

31.  Check  or  Gate  Valve  on  Pump  or  Tank  Discharge.  —  When 
a  pump,  not  located  in  a  non-combustible  pump  house,  or  exposed 
to  danger  from  fire  or  falling  walls,  or  a  tank  discharges  into  a 


554  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

yard  main  fed  by  another  supply,  a  check  valve  or  post  gate  valve 
should  be  placed  in  this  discharge  pipe  at  a  safe  distance  outside 
the  building,  underground. 

Check  valves  on  tank  connections  may  be  placed  inside  buildings,  when 
located  underground  and  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  tank  riser. 

32.  Valves  in  Supply  Pipes  to  Sprinklers. — Each  system   shall 
be  provided  with  a  gate  valve  so  located  as  to  control  all  sources 
of  water  supply  except  that  from  steamer  connections.     All  gate 
valves  controlling  water  supplies   for  sprinklers  should  be  located 
where  readily  accessible. 

Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted 
regarding  floor  equipment  valves. 

Where  valves  are  not  within  easy  access  from  ground  or  floor 
level,  permanent  ladders,  clamped  treads  on  risers,  chains  and 
wheels,  or  other  means  satisfactory  to  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction,  should  be  provided. 

33.  Indicator    Posts    for    Gate    Valves. — Where    sprinklers    are 
supplied  from  yard  main,  place,  if  possible,  a  standard  outside  post 
indicator    gate    valve    in    connecting    pipe    at    safe    distance    from 
building. 

Post  indicator  valves  should,  if  possible,  be  located  not  less  than 
40  feet  from  buildings;  but  where  necessary  to  place  a  valve  close 
to  a  building,  it  should  be  located  between  windows  or  at  a  blank 
part  of  wall. 

34.  Pit  for   Underground    Check   Valves. — Where   not   in   pits, 
the  location  should  be  properly  marked  by  some  permanent  mark- 
ing.    Where  in  pits,  the  pit  should  conform  to  the   National  Fire 
Protection   Association   standard,   and   should  be   of   ample   size  to 
permit  of  easy  access  to  the  valve  for  examination  and  repairs. 

35.  Straps. — All  gate  valves  in  supply  pipes  to  automatic  sprink- 
lers, whether  or  not  of  indicator  or  post  pattern,  should  be  kept 
secured  open  with  padlocked  or  riveted  leather  straps.     An  excep- 
tion to   this   rule  may  be  made"  only  where   a   reliable   system   is 
maintained   for   permanently  sealing  all  valves  and   for   immediate 
notification  of  broken  seals. 

No  sealing  or  strapping  is  required  where  sprinkler  system  has  a 
supervisory  system  to  the  approval  of  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction. 

36.  Fittings. — Extra    heavy    fittings    should    be    employed    where 
the  normal  pressure  in  the  pipe  system  exceeds  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds. 

All  fittings  and  pipes  shall  have  threads  cut  to  standard,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  pipe  does  not  extend  into  fitting  sufficiently 
to  reduce  the  waterway. 

Long  turn  fittings  will  be  required  for  2^  inches  and  larger 
risers  and  supply  mains,  the  fittings  to  be  flanged  on  at  least  one 
end. 

Couplings. — Couplings  shall  not  be  used  except  where  it  is  prac- 
tically unavoidable. 

The  use  of  any  considerable  number  of  couplings  in  an  equip- 
ment is  considered  as  prima  facie  evidence  of  poor  workmanship. 

Reducers. — A  one-piece  reducing  fitting  of  good  design  shall  be 
used  wherever  a  change  is  made  in  the  size  of  pipe.  Bushings  shall 
not  be  used  for  reducing  the  size  of  the  openings  of  fittings. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  555 

37.  Hangers. — Hangers  shall  be  of  an  approved  type  and  either 
round  wrought-iron  "U"   (factory  made  and  bent  hot),  malleable 
cast-iron    ring   clip   or   other   adjustable   patterns. 

\\'rought-iron  hangers  are  preferable  to  cast  iron,  and  "  U ' 
hangers  are  for  this  reason  best  where  their  use  is  possible. 

Flat-iron  "  U  "  hangers  may  be  accepted,  provided  the  thickness 
of  the  metal  be  in  no  case  less  than  3/16  inch,  and  of  sufficient 
width  to  allow  plenty  of  metal  each  side  of  the  screw  holes. 

Screws  and  Rods. — Wood  screws  for  adjustable  clip  hangers 
should  not  be  smaller  than  No.  17,  and  must  penetrate  ceiling  beam 
or  joist  at  least  1^4  inches.  For  2-inch  pipes  and  smaller  two 
screws  should  be  used,  and  for  larger  pipes  four  screws  should 
be  used. 

The  size  of  rod  and  screws  for  hangers  should  be  as  given  in 
the  following  tables: 

Size  of  Size  Size  of 

Size  of  Size  of  Single   Rod  of  Drive  Coach 

1'ipe  U  Rod  if  Threaded  Screws  Screws 

:;,"    to    2"  5/i6"  %"  No.    16x2" 

-1-"  %"  W 

3"  %"  %" 

3Ms"  7/16"  Jfc" 

4"  7 /i 6" 

s"  9 /i  6"  ••;" 

6"  %"  %" 

8"  %"  %" 

Drive  screws  should  be  used  only  in  a  horizontal  position  as  in 
the  side  of  a  beam. 

Screws  in  the  side  of  a  timber  or  joist  should  not  be  less  than 
_>r<  inches  from  the  lower  edge,  when  supporting  branch  lines.  A 
greater  distance  is  desirable  for  larger  pipes. 

Position  of  Hangers. — Hangers  should  not  be  near  enough  to 
sprinklers  to  obstruct  distribution  of  water.  Ordinarily,  they  should 
not  be  nearer  than  12  inches  from  sprinkler,  except  in  the  case  of 
round  iron  hangers  where  a  space  of  not  less  than  3  inches  may  be 
permitted  under  ceilings  of  "  fire-proof  "  and  "  slow-burning  "  con- 
struction. 

The  f^-inch  pipe  at  the  end  of  all  branch  lines  when  over(  6 
feet  in  length  shall  have  two  hangers. 

For  concrete  construction :  The  cast-iron  inserts  should  be 
installed  during  the  construction  of  the  building,  or  provision  made 
for  attaching  the  hangers  to  the  beams.  If  in  buildings  already 
constructed  expansion  bolts  are  used,  they  should 'be  of  a  type 
satisfactory  to  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction  and 
if  possible  installed  in  a  horizontal  position. 

For  new  concrete  buildings,  the  location  of  sprinkler  pipes  and 
hangers  shall  be  determined  previous  to  building  operations,  in 
order  that  proper  provision  may  be  made  during  the  construction 
for  the  installation. 

Where  pipes  are  run  through  concrete  beams,  the  sleeves  should 
be  large  enough  to  accommodate  pipe  at  least  two  sizes  larger 
than  it  is  intended  to  install. 

38.  Drip  Pipes. — Drip  pipes  shall  be  provided  to  drain  all  parts 
of  the  system.     Drip  pipes  at  the  main  risers  should  be -not  smaller 
than  two  (2)   inches,  and  when  exposed  to  the  weather  to  be  fitted 
with  hood  or  down-turned  elbow  to  prevent  stoppage  with  ice. 


556  FIRE  PREVENTION  ATSTD  PROTECTION 

Drip  pipes  shall  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  expose  any  part  of  the 
sprinkler  system  to  frost,  and  so  connected,  either  by  check  valves 
or  other  means,  that  they  will  not  overflow  domestic  service  or 
other  connections  there  may  be  to. the  same  sewer  or  drain. 

Drips  for  small  sections  shut  off  in  winter  shall  be  located  in  a 
warm  room  or  below  frost,  so  as  to  drain  all  portions  of  pipe  where 
freezing  can  occur. 

Drain,  drip  or  draw-off  pipes  shall  not  terminate  in  blind  spaces 
under  the  buildings.  The  water  from  these  washes  the  soil  away, 
exposing  the  supply  pipe  and  may  undermine  the  structure  pro- 
tecting the  pipe. 

Cold  air  enters  draw-off  pipes  and  may  cause  freezing  of  the 
valves. 

All  drips  should  have  at  least  4  feet  of  pipe  exposed  in  the 
warm  room. 

See  also  Section  G,  Alarm  System. 

39.  Drainage. — All  sprinkler  pipe  and  fittings  shall  be  so  installed 
that  they   can   be   thoroughly   drained,    and,   where   practicable,    all 
piping  should  be  arranged  to  drain  at  the  main  drips.     On  wet-pipe 
systems  the  horizontal  branch  pipes  shall  be  pitched  not  less  than 
l/4  inch  in  10  feet.     (See  also  Section  H,  Rule  49.) 

In  wet  systems  24-inch  composition  plugs  may  be  allowed  where 
a  few  low  heads  are  involved,  as  under  stairways.  Limit  the  extra 
drips  to  as  small  a  number  as  possible. 

40.  Test  Pipes. — Alarm. — On  wet  systems  a  test  pipe  of  not  less 
than    24-inch    in    diameter   shall    be    connected    directly   with    each 
riser  in  upper  story  and  arranged  to  discharge,  through  a  ^4 -inch 
brass   outlet,   preferably   to   a  point  where   it  can   readily  be   seen. 
With  long  runs  or  many  angles,  size  of  test  pipe  should  be  increased 
to  i  inch  or  larger. 

Water  Flowing. — It  is  very  essential  that  either  drains  or  test 
pipes  should  be  provided  so  that  proper  flowing  tests  may  be  made 
to  determine  if  the  water  supplies  and/or  the  connections  from 
yard  mains  to  inside  of  buildings  are  in  order.  Any  such  drain 
or  test  pipe  should  be  not  less  than  2  inches  in  size,  and  so  installed 
that  the  controlling  valves  may  be  opened  wide  for  a  sufficient  time 
to  assure  a  proper  test  without  overflowing  any  service  connec- 
tions there  may  be  to  the  same  drain,  or  cause  any  water  damage. 
A  pressure  gauge  should  be  installed  in  each  case,  connection  for 
it  should  not -be  less  than  y^.  inch  in  size,  controlled  by  a  valve 
with  arrangements  for  draining,  and,  located  on  the  main  pipe  and 
not  on  the  drain  or  test  pipe.  On  a  wet  system,  where  the  con- 
trolling valves  and  drains  may  be  located  in  a  detached  pit  or  valve 
house,  test  pipes  should  be  provided  inside  of  the  buildings  on  the 
various  connections  to  the  sprinkler  system.  The  Inspection  De- 
partment having  jurisdiction  should  determine  the  method  to  be 
used  in  each  case.  See  illustrations  for  various  types  of  test  pipes, 
and  also  Rule  41. 

Dry-pipe  Systems. — See  Section  H,  Rule  50. 

41.  Pressure    Gauges.— A    standard    make,    5-inch    dial,    spring, 
pressure  gauge  should  be  connected  with  the  discharge  pipe  from 
each    water    supply,    including    each    connecting    pipe    from    public 
waterworks,  and  also  as  follows: 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


557 


In   each   sprinkler  system   above   and  below  the   alarm   check  or 
dry-pipe  valve. 

At  the  air  pump  supplying  the  pressure  tank. 

At  the  pressure  tank. 

In   each  independent  pipe   from   air  supply  to   dry-pipe  systems. 

At  test  pipes  as  above,  Rule  40. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und'a. 
FIG.  85 

Gauges  shall  have  a  maximum  limit  equivalent  to  twice  the  nor- 
mal working  pressure  where  installed.  Should  also  be  connected 
direct  with  riser,  but  with  sufficient  clearance  to  permit  of  easy 
removal,  connection  being  tapped  into  drain  tee,  preferably  opposite 


558 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


the  drainpipe,  but  not  on  drainpipe.  Gauges  should  be  located  in 
a  suitable  place  and  where  water  will  not  freeze.  Each  should 
be  controlled  by  a  valve  with  arrangement  to  drain.  A  plugged 
outlet  should  be  located  between  each  valve  and  gauge,  for  the 
purpose  of  installing  the  inspector's  gauge,  size  to  be  not  less 
than  as  noted  in  Rule  40. 

Section  G — Alarm  System 

42.  Gongs  and  Connections. — Every  automatic  sprinkler  system 
should  contain  an  alarm  apparatus  so  constructed  that  a  flow  of 
water  through  same  will  operate  an  electric  gong,  a  mechanical 


Cast  Iron  coupling  *itb 
aide  bolt 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  86 


gong,  or  both,  as  the  character  of  the  property  and  circumstances 
may  require.  On  wet-pipe  systems,  or  partially  so,  this  apparatus 
should  consist  of  an  alarm  valve  and  attachments ;  on  dry-pipe 
systems,  attachments  to  dry-pipe  valve  (see  Section  H),  except 
that  where  there  is  an  approved  supervisory  system  to  a  central 
station,  one  of  the  local  alarms  may  be  omitted  at  the  discretion 
of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction.  In  other  places, 
especially  in  small  towns,  alarm  valve  or  dry-pipe  valve  may  be 
connected  with  public  fire  department  house,  or  some  other  suitable 
place. 

The  use  of  both  electric  and  mechanical  gongs  is  strongly  recom- 
mended. The  gong  of  the  latter  type  can  be  located  on  the  outside 
of  building  or  any  other  desirable  place  on  the  premises.  When 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


559 


located  on  the  outside,  all  gongs  shall  be  protected  from  the  weather. 
Electric  bells  shall  be  of  standard  type.  . 

Rotary  gong  should  be  located  as  near  alarm  valve  or  dry-pipe 
valve  as  possible.  Attention  is  called  to  the  necessity  of  avoiding 
lung  runs  or  many  angles  in  pipe  to  rotary  gong.  The  total  length 
<>f  pipe  horizontally  should  not  exceed  75  feet,  and  vertically  20  feet. 

All   pipe   between    alarm   valve,   dry-pipe   valve   and   rotary  gong 


fksture  Gauge  h>  bt 

Sbndsrd  j/je  If  mfAe 


T&sfpipe  ivherr  there  is  outside  confrol. 
Also  applicable-  fo  any  other  Infer /or  r/ser. 

Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  87 

should  be  galvanized  or  brass  of  a  size  not  less  than  34  inch,  and 
larger  for  long  runs  of  piping  or  Where  pressures  are  low;  and 
arranged  to  drain  properly  through  not  larger  than  a  ^-inch  orifice, 
brass  bushed. 

Water  motor  and  gong  should  be  properly  aligned  and  so  in- 
stalled as  not  to  be  liable  to  get  out  of  adjustment. 

The  drain  from  the  water  motor  should  be  properly  connected. 
See  Rules  38,  40  and  47. 

43.  Alarm  Apparatus. — Shall  be  so  located  that  the  passing  of 
water  through  any  of  the  automatic  sources  of  supply  to  any  of 
the  sprinklers  will  cause  its  action. 


560  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

44.  Approval. — Alarm  valve  or  other  alarm  apparatus  should  be 
approved  by  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

45.  Wiring  and   Energy   for   Electric   Alarms. — Should   be  in- 
stalled in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters.     (See  Signaling  Systems.) 

46.  Alarm  Valve  Installation. — The  alarm  valve,  retarding  cham- 
ber and  circuit  closer  shall  be  so  located  that  all  parts  will  be  readily 
accessible  for  inspection,  repair  or  removal,  and  all  shall  be  sub- 
stantially supported.     Suitable  valves  shall  be  provided  in  the  con- 
nections  to   the    retarding   chamber   to    permit   repair   or   removal 
without    shutting   off    sprinkler    system.      These    valves    should    be 
arranged  to  be  readily  secured  open. 

47.  Drains. — A  vent  should  be  provided  for  circuit  closer.    Where 
used,  should  be  properly  piped  to  a  drain. 

Drains  at  alarm  valve  and  at  the  variable  pressure  chamber, 
circuit  closer  and  rotary  gong  connected  with  valve,  shall  be  so 
arranged  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  freezing,  and  also  so 
protected,  by  checks  or  otherwise,  that  there  will  be  no  overflowing 
at  the  alarm  apparatus  or'  of  domestic  connections  that  may  be  on 
the  same  drain,  with  the  sprinkler  drains  wide  open.  Where  checks 
are  used,  they  should  have  the  equivalent  of  at  least  a  four  foot 
head,  and  not  installed  in  a  vertical  position  "  looking  down." 

Drains  from  retarding  chamber  and  circuit  closer  should  dis- 
charge either  to  open  cones  connected  as  above,  or  the  drain  from 
alarm  valve  run  separate  from  the  other  drains  to  the  sewer  or 
ground  drain,  a  union  or  plug  being  inserted  in  each  drain  to 
permit  of  inspection. 

Where  drains  are  connected  with  a  sewer,  proper  trap  shall  be 
provided. 

Cold  air  has  been  known  to  enter  drainpipes  from  retarding 
chambers  of  alarm  valves  sufficiently  to  cause  trouble  by  freezing 
in  the  alarm  check  valve.  Where  exposed  to  frost  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  drain  alarm  valves  outside  the  wall,  an  open  discharge 
cone  should  be  provided  inside  to  break  the  pipe  line  so  cold  will 
not  be  conducted  directly  into  the  retarding  chamber.  (See  Sec- 
tion F,  Rule  38.) 

Section  H — Dry-Pipe  System  and  Fittings 

'  48.  Where  Necessary. — A  dry-pipe  system  should  be  required 
only  where  a  wet-pipe  system  is  impracticable,  as  in  rooms  or  build- 
ings which  cannot  be  properly  heated  by  the  exercise  of  reasonable 
precaution.  The  use  of  an  approved  dry-pipe  system  is,  however, 
far  preferable  to  entirely  shutting  off  the  water  supply  during  cold 
weather. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  have  but  twenty-five  (25)  per  cent  or 
less  of  the  total  number  of  sprinklers  on  an  air  system,  only  such 
sprinklers  should  be  thus  piped ;  the  remainder  to  be  placed  on 
wet  system. 

This  rule  requires  small  dry-pipe  systems  for  show  windows, 
blind  attics  or  other  minor  portions  exposed  to  freezing. 

Air  pressure  should  be  maintained  on  dry-pipe  systems  through- 
out the  year,  unless  changed  by  consent  of  the  Inspection  Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction. 

(See  also  Section  K,  Rule  77.) 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  561 

49.  Drainage. — Sprinklers  shall  be  located  in  an  upright  position. 
All  sprinkler  pipes  and  fittings  shall  be  so  installed  that  they  can 
be  thoroughly  drained  and,  wKere  practicable,  all  pipes  should  be 
arranged  to  drain  at  the  main  drip,  ordinarily  located  at  the  dry- 
pipe  valve.     The  tops  of  branch  lines  should  pitch  at  least  y2  inch 
in  10  feet,  and  more  where  settling  may  occur.    A  pitch  of  ^  inch 
to  i  inch  is  usually  not  impracticable  with  short  branch  lines,  and 
should  be  provided  where  there  is  a  chance  of  settling. 

Where  settling  may  occur  and  deprive  a  dry-pipe  system  of  its 
drainage,  the  ends  of  lines  should  not  be  raised  to  violate  Section 
B,  Rule  13.  The  drainage  should  be  restored  by  shortening  the 
vertical  piping. 

Extra  Drips/ — When  conditions  are  such  that  additional  drip 
valves  are  necessary,  such  as  under  stairs,  low  platforms,  etc., 
these  should  be  conveniently  located,  so  that  they  may  be  accessible 
for  inspection  and  test.  Drip  valves  should  have  soft  metal  seats 
and  composition  plugs. 

Connection  from  Top  of  Pipe. — Where  the  supply  for  these  low 
sprinklers  is  taken  from  a  large  pipe,  such  as  a  trunk  main,  the 
connection  should  be  made  from  or  near  the  top  of  the  large 
pipe,  so  as  to  prevent  condensation  in  same  entering  the  small 
pipe.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  looping  back  the  connection. 

Where  feasible,  the  drains  for  these  low  portions  should  be 
carried  back  into  warm  rooms,  and  the  drip  valves  located  there. 

^> -inch  Test  Pipe. — In  cold  climates,  where  there  may  be  a  con- 
siderable number  of  sprinklers  or  a  low  point  in  large  pipe  drained 
by  a  separate  drip,  requiring  a  drain  valve  1%  inch  or  more  in 
size,  it  is  advisable  to  provide  either  a  condensation  drip  or  a  */>- 
inch  drip  valve  back  of  and  below  the  larger  drain  valve.  This 
latter  arrangement  will  permit  the  blowing  out  of  these  low  pipes 
through  the  y^-inch  valve,  when  there  might  be  danger  of  upsetting 
the  system  by  opening  the  larger  drain. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  support  the  piping  in  a  secure  manner, 
and  to  see  that  the  sprinklers  do  not  violate  the  rules  for  position. 
(See  Section  B,  Rule  12.) 

50.  Supply  and  Test  Pipe. — All  water  supplies  to  sprinklers  shall 
enter  the   system  below  the  dry-pipe  valve,   shall  be  properly  pro- 
tected  from  freezing,  and  provided  with  a  2-inch  test  pipe  placed 
directly  under  the   dry-pipe  valve.     Test  pipe   should   be  provided 
with  a  standard  valve  and  be  properly  connected  to  a  drain,  so  as 
to   permit   of    the   valve   being   opened    wide    for    a   water   flowing 
test.     Pressure   gauges    should   also   be   provided   as   called   for    in 
Section  F,  Rule  41. 

51.  Size  of  Dry  System. — The  number  of  sprinklers   dependent 
upon  one  dry-pipe  valve  should  preferably  not  exceed  300,  and  400 
heads  should  be  the  maximum  allowed,  except  in  very  special  cases. 

If  there  is  a  considerable  length  of  pipe  between  the  dry-pipe 
valve  and  the  sprinklers,  thus  materially  increasing  the  air  capacity 
of  the  system,  the  number  of  heads  equivalent  to  this  additional 
capacity,  based  on  one  head  per  gallon  contents  of  this  pipe,  should 
be  considered  when  estimating  the  total  number  of  sprinklers. 

Where  more  than  400  sprinklers  are  necessary  in  buildings  con- 
taining two  or  more  floors,  the  system  preferably  should  be  divided 
horizontally  by  consecutive  floors  and  supplied  through  two  or  more 
dry-pipe  valves.  It  will  be  allowable,  however,  where  this  rule 


562       .        FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

would  necessitate  increase  in  the  number  or  size  of  the  dry-pipe 
valves,  or  involve  a  complication  of  the  piping  to  provide  for  ver- 
tical sub-division. 

Sub-division  of  System.- — A  dry-pipe  system  may  be  still  further 
sub-divided  by  the  insertion  of  check  valves  in  the  different  branches 
of  the  system,  thus  quickening  the  operation  of  the  dry-pipe  valve. 
Holes  %  inch  in  diameter  should  be  bored  in  the  clappers  of  the 
checks  to  equalize  the  air  pressure  under  normal  conditions,  and  a 
drain,  properly  connected,  should  be  provided  in  front  of  each 
check  valve. 

The  dry-pipe  valve  should  be  located  in  an  accessible  place  and 
as  near  as  practicable  to  the  sprinkler  system  it  supplies. 

Dry-pipe  Underground. — When  it  is  necessary  to  place  pipe  which 
will  be  under  air  pressure  underground,  it  is  desirable  that  it  be 
buried  below  frost,  so  as  to  prevent  any  trouble  from  the  heaving 
action  of  frozen  ground.  This  pipe  should  be  wrought  iron  or 
steel,  and  have  at  least  two  coats  of  some  good  rust-proof  paint, 
such  as  asphaltum,  tar,  etc.,  one  coat  to  be  applied  before  the  pipe 
is  laid,  and  'the  other  after  all  joints  are  made  up,  final  turn. 

No  lead-jointed,  cast-iron  pipe  shall  be  used  under  air  pressure, 
and  all  pipe  liable  to  corrosion,  where  underground  or  exposed  to 
chemical  fumes,  for  example,  shall  be  painted  or  otherwise  so 
treated  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  this  deterioration,  which,  with 
the  pipes  unprotected,  might  soon  cripple  the  system.  To  further 
safeguard  the  piping  against  corrosion,  it  is  advised  that  after 
the  joints  are  made  up  and  before  the  second  coat  of  paint  is 
applied,  the  pipe  should  be  wrapped  tightly  with  burlap  and  burlap 
painted  on  outside;  also  that  the'  pipe  should  be  laid  in  a  box  or 
split  tile  conduit  for  still  additional  protection. 

Pressure  to  be  Carried. — High  air  pressure  in  dry-pipe  systems 
is  undesirable,  and  35  pounds  has  been  found  to  be  the  maximum 
which  it  is  necessary  to  carry  in  most  cases.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, .to  avoid  pumping  oftener  than  once  a  week,  the  system 
should  not  lose  more  than  about  10  pounds  air  pressure  per  week, 
and  an  equipment  which  leaks  more  than  this  cannot  be  considered 
acceptable.  (See  also  Section  K,  Rule  77.) 

52.  Alarm  Attachments. — Where  a  dry-pipe  valve  is  not  located 
on  the  system  side  of  an  alarm  valve,  it  should  be  provided  with 
both  mechanical  and  electrical  alarms,  installed  in  accordance  with 
the   requirements   for  alarm   valves    (Section   G).     Dry-pipe   valve 
should  be  fitted  with  an.  approved  alarm-testing  device,  this  to  be 
connected  with  water  supply  so  that  alarms  can  be  tested  without 
disturbing  main  gates  or  air  system. 

Pressure  gauges  should  be  provided  as  called  for  in  Section  -F, 
Rule  41. 

53.  Protection  of  Dry-pipe  Valve. — Dry-pipe  valve  in  any  loca- 
tion should  be  properly  protected  from  mechanical  injury. 

Where  exposed  to  cold,  the  dry-pipe  valve  should  be  located  in 
an  approved  underground  pit,  or  in  a  valve  room  or  closet.  Room 
should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  give  at  least  2^2  feet  free  space  on 
all  sides  of,  and  above  or  below  dry-pipe  valve  or  valves,  and  this 
room,  if  feasible,  should  not-  be  built  until  the  valve  is  in  position. 
Valve  room  should  be  well-  lighted,  preferably  by  electric  light,  and 
properly  heated  by  steam,  electric  heater  (installation  to  comply 
with  the  National  Electric  Code),  gas  or  lard  oil  lantern.  If  fire 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  563 

heat  is  used,  some  ventilation  will  be  necessary  to  supply  the  air 
for  combustion. 

Valve  room  should  preferably  be  of  fireproof  construction,  and 
in  exposed  locations  the  walls  should  be  double  with  2-inch  air 
space.  If  the  valve  room  is  of  wood,  it  should  have  double  walled 
top,  sides  and  bottom,  with  4-inch  hollow  space.  Space  may  be 
filled  with  tan-bark,  mineral  wool,  etc.,  as  desired.  Where  lantern 
or  other  fire  heat  is  used  in  wooden  valve  rooms,  all  inside  wood- 
work should  be  thoroughly  tinned.  The  room  should  also  be  con- 
structed so  that  it  can  be  kept  reasonably  dry.  This  will  call  for 
a  means  of  ventilation  to  prevent  condensation  where  the  climatic 
conditions  are  severe.  One  or  more  sprinklers,  depending  upon 
size  of  room,  should  be  installed,  wet  pipe,  and  controlled  by  a 
valve. 

54.  Independent  Air  Filling  Connection. — The  connection  from 
the  air  pump  should  enter  the  system  in  the  main  riser  above  the 
dry-pipe  valve,   and   on  this   supply  at  this   point  a  shut-off  valve 
with  soft  metal  seat  should  be  placed,  and  immediately  back  of  it 
a  check   valve. 

See   Appendix    for    rule    on    Anti-Columning    pipes. 

55.  Air  Compressor. — Pump  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
increase  air  pressure  at  an  average  rate  of  not  less  than  one  pound 
per  two  minutes  pumping    (preferably   faster). 

A  relief  valve  should  be  provided  on  every  system. 

A  direct  steam  or  electrically  driven  air  purrip  is  preferred  to  a 
power  pump.  The  air  supply  should  be  taken  from  outside  or 
from  a  room  having  dry  air,  in  order  to  avoid  carrying  moisture 
into  the  system.  The  intake  should  be  protected  by  a  screen. 

In  extensive  systems  subject  to  extreme  cold,  the  air  supply 
should  be  taken  from  the  room  where  the  lowest  temperature  and 
driest  air  prevail,  and  drawn  through  a  reservoir  or  tank  of  about 
thirty  gallons'  capacity  containing  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of 
granulated  calcium  chloride. 

56.  Flanged    Dummy. — A    flanged    section    of    pipe,    with    drain 
outlet  same  size  as  on  dry-pipe  valve,  to  take  the  place  of  dry-pipe 
valve,  in  case  of  repairs,  should  be  provided  for  each  type  and  size 
installed,  and  kept  at  the  valve. 

Section  I — Water  Supplies 

57.  Double  Supply. — For  a  standard  equipment  two  independent 
supplies  are  required.     At  least  one  of  the  supplies  should  be  auto- 
matic and  one. capable  of  furnishing  water  under  heavy  pressure. 
The  choice  of  water  supplies  for  each  equipment  should  be  deter- 
mined  by  the   Inspection   Department   having  jurisdiction. 

58.  Public  Water  (except  high  pressure  systems;  also  applicable 
to   private   reservoir    and   standpipe   systems). — One   or  more   con- 
nections from  a  reliable  public  water  system  of  good  pressure  and 
adequate   capacity    furnishes    an    ideal    "  primary   supply."     A  high 
static  water  pressure  should  not,  however,  be  a  criterion  by  which 
the  efficiency  of  the  supply  is  determined.     The  supply  should  give 
not   less   than   25   pounds    static   pressure   at   all   hours  of   the   day 
at  highest  line  of  sprinklers,  and  also  be  satisfactory  to  the  Inspec- 
tion   Department   having  jurisdiction   in   its   ability   to   maintain    10 
pounds    pressure    at    highest    sprinklers,    with    the    water    flowing 


564  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

through  the  number  of  sprinklers  judged  liable  to  be  opened  by 
a  fire  at  any  one  time.  Street  mains  should  be  of  ample  size,  in 
no  case  smaller  than  6  inches.  Dead  end  mains  should  be  avoided 
if  possible  by  arranging  main  to  be  fed  both  ways.  No  pressure 
regulating  valve  should  be  used  in  water  supply  for  sprinklers, 
except  by  special  permission  of  Inspection  Department  having  jur- 
isdiction, and  where  meters  are  used  they  should  be  of  a  standard 
type, 

Where  connections  are  made  from  public  waterworks  systems, 
it  is  often  desirable  to  have  double  check  valves.  Only  check  valves 
of  special  design  and  standardized  for  this  purpose  should  be  used. 

See  also  Section  E,  Rule  27. 

Connections  to  public  waterworks  systems  should,  where  feasible, 
be  controlled  by  post  indicator  valves  of  a  standard  type  and  located 
not  less  than  40  feet  from  the  buildings  protected ;  or,  if  this  can- 
not be  done,  placed  where  they  will  be  readily  accessible  in  case 
of  fire  and  not  liable  to  injury.:  See  Rules  27,  28,  30,  32,  33,  97 
and  98.  Where  post  indicator  valves  cannot  readily  be  used,  as 
in  a  city  block,  underground  gates  should  conform  to  the  above 
as  far  as  possible  and  their  locations  and  direction  to  open  be  plainly 
marked  on  the  buildings. 

Connections  for  domestic  or  standpipe  use  over  2  inches  in  size 
should  conform  to  the  above. 

All  post  indicator  valves  should  be  plainly  marked  with  the 
service  they  control. 

For  the  construction  and  installation  of  the  following  devices, 
see  elsewhere  in  this  book,  or  the  special  pamphlets  issued  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters : — 

Steam    Fire    Pumps. 

Rotary  Fire  Pumps. 

Centrifugal  Fire  Pumps. 

Gravity  and  Pressure  Tanks. 

59.  Pumps. — A  well-located  fire  pump  is,  under  most  conditions, 
the  most   satisfactory   source   of   the   "  secondary   supply,"   as   with 
ample  water  supply  it  is   capable   of   maintaining   a  high   pressure 
over  a  long  period  of  time. 

The  capacity  of  the  pumping  plant,  the  kind  of  pump  and  its 
source  of  water  supply,  should  be  determined  by  conditions,  and 
should  be  the  subject  of  special  consideration  in  each  case  by  the 
Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction.  The  capacity  of  pump 
should  never  be  less  than  500  gallons  per  minute  when  it  supplies 
sprinklers  only,  and  not  less  than  750  gallons  when  it  supplies 
hydrants  also. 

60.  Tanks.     Gravity. — The  capacity  arid  elevation  should  be  de- 
termined   by   the    Inspection    Department   having   jurisdiction;    but 
where  a  tank  is  also  drawn  upon   for  hose  streams  it  should  riot 
be  of  less  than  30,000  gallons  capacity,   and  should  preferably  be 
installed  with  the  bottom  not  less  than  75  feet  above  the  yard  level. 
In   any   case  the  bottom   of   the   tank   should   be   at  least  20   feet 
above  the  highest  sprinklers. 

Tanks.  Pressure. — Capacity  of  tank  should  be  specified  by  the 
Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  but  should  be  not  less 
than  4,500  gallons  total  capacity,  except  by  special  permission,  and 
tank  should  not  be  located  below  the  upper  story  of  building,  and 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  565 

be  used  as  a  supply  to  automatic  sprinklers  and  hand  hose  only. 
(See  Section  K,  Rule  75  ) 

5i.  Penstocks  or  Flumes. — Where  connections  are  made  from 
these,  either  as  a  direct  supply  to  automatic  sprinklers  or  as  a  suc- 
tion for  fire  pumps,  they  should  be  arranged  to  avoid  mud  and 
sediment.  Connections  should  also  be  provided  with  removable 
screens  installed  to  the  requirements  of  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction.  Where  connections  are  made  from  rivers  or 
lakes  they  should  be  provided  with  removable  screens  similar  to 
those  for  pump  suction. 

62.  Size  of  Connection. — Connection  from  water  suppjy  or  main 
pipe  system  to  sprinkler  riser  should  be  equal  to  or  larger  in  size 
than  the  riser.     Connections  for  domestic  use  should  not  be  taken 
from  the  fire   system.     See   also   Section   E,   Rule  27,   and  Under- 
ground Pipes,  Section  M. 

Section  J — Steamer  Connections 

63.  Recommendations. — In  addition  to  the  above  required  double 
supply,  it  is  recommended  that  a  hose  inlet  pipe  to  sprinkler  system 
be   provided   for   connection    from   hose   or   steamer   of   public   fire 
department. 

64.  Pipe    Size. — Should    be    not    less    than    four    inches    in    size 
except  by  special   consent  of   Inspection   Department  having  juris- 
diction,  and  fitted  with  a  straightway  check  valve,  but  not  with  a 
gate    valve.      Siamese    connections   should   be   provided   with   check 
valves  in  the  "  Y." 

Connections  should  be  so  located  as  to  provide  for  prompt  and 
easy  attachment  of  hose. 

65.  Drain  and  Dirt  Pocket. — Each  connection  should  be  arranged 
to  properly  drain  the  piping  between  the  check  valve  and  the  out- 
side  hose   coupling,   and   also  to   prevent  entry  of   foreign   matter, 
by  installing  a   refuse   collector  or   dirt  pocket,   and   a    i-inch  ball 
type  of   drip. 

66.  Where    Attached. — To    equipments    having   a    single    riser 
attach  on  the  system  side  of  the  gate  valve  in  the  riser  if  a  wet 
system,  but  on  the  supply  side  of  the  dry  valve  if  a  dry  system. 

To  equipments  having  two  or  more  risers  attach  on  the  supply 
side  of  the  gate  valves,  so  that  with  any  one  riser  shut  off  the 
supply  will  feed  all  the  remaining  sprinklers. 

Any  underground  pipe  used  to  attach  steamer  connections  to 
system  should  be  cast  iron,  and  the  wrought  and  cast  iron  pipes 
should  be  properly  strapped  together. 

All  steamer  connections  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  have 
proper  support. 

67.  Threads. — Each    hose    connection    should   be   made    of     good 
brass,    having    thread    to    fit    coupling    of    public    fire    department. 
Standard  cast  iron,  malleable  iron  or  brass  caps,  properly  secured, 
and  arranged  for  easy  removal  by  public  fire  department,  should  be 
provided  in  each  connection. 

Each  hose  connection  should  be  designated  by  raised  letters  at 
least  i  inch  in  size,  cast  in  the  fitting  in  a  clear  and  prominent 
manner  and  reading:  "Auto,  spkr." 

68.  Number  of  Connections. — Should  be  specified  by  the  Inspec- 
tion Department  having  jurisdiction  in  each  case. 


566  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Section   K — Miscellaneous  Rules 

69.  Circulation  in  Pipes. — Circulation  of  water  in  sprinkler  pipes 
is  very  objectionable,  owing  to  greatly  increased  corrosion,  deposit 
of  sediment  and  condensation  drip  from  pipes;  sprinkler  pipes  not 
to  be  used  in  any  way  for  domestic  service. 

70.  Painting,    Whitewashing    or    Bronzing. — Where    pipes    are 
painted,  whitewashed  or  bronzed  for  appearance,  the  moving  parts 
of   sprinkler  heads  should  not  be   so   coated. 

71.  Protection  of  Pipes  and   Sprinklers  Against  Corrosion. — 
In    places    where    chemical    fumes    or    much    moisture     is     present, 
sprinkler  pipes,  hangers  and  heads  should  be  protected  against  cor- 
rosion, method  to  be  determined  by  the  Inspection  Department  hav- 
ing jurisdiction;   but  the  following  are  recommended: 

Protection  of  Pipes. — Where  subject  to  corrosive  influences, 
sprinkler  piping  and  fittings  should  be  thoroughly  protected. 

In  some  places  it  will  be  satisfactory  to  paint  annually  with  red 
lead  and  linseed  oil  paint,  this  usually  giving  sufficient  protection 
when  exposed  to  moisture  only. 

When  chemical  fumes  are  present,  the  piping  should  be  coated 
with  some  good  chemical-resistive  paint  which  should  be  in  itself 
chemically  inert  and  at  the  same  time  form  a  good  bond  with  the 
exterior  of  the  pipe.  Extra  care  should  be  used  in  applying  such 
paint ;  it  should  not  be  applied  on  a  damp  day,  nor  upon  damp  or 
cold  surfaces;  the  piping  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  scale 
and  dirt  (the  use  of  a  stiff  wire  bristle  brush  is  good  for  this), 
grease  and  oil;  the  paint  should  be  kept  thoroughly  stirred  and 
well  applied,  and  after  drying  thoroughly  a  second  coat  should  be 
applied.  Two  coats  are  usually  better  than  more. 

In  some  extremely  exposed  cases  the  piping  has  been  protected 
by  painting  it  with  graphite  paint  and  wrapping  it  with  rubberized 
tape  (such  as  the  trimmings  from  rubber  and  canvas  belts),  after 
which  the  whole  is  given  another  coating  of  graphite  paint.  Cases 
have  been  known  of  piping  protected  in  this  way  showing  absolutely 
no  sign  of  corrosion  after  six  years  of  extremely  severe  exposure. 

The  use  of  galvanized  piping  is  not  very  satisfactory;  the  cutting 
of  the  threads  on  the  pipe  removes  the  protective  coating  near  the 
fittings  where  the  pipe  is  of  course  the  weakest,  and  further,  the 
zinc  forming  the  protective  coating  furnishes  little  protection  against 
a  great  many  corrosive  vapors  found  in  commercial  practice. 

Protection  of  Sprinklers. — The  manufacturers  of  standardized 
sprinklers  can  furnish  heads  specially  protected  against  corrosion, 
and  these  should  be  used  wherever  sprinklers  are  exposed  to  cor- 
rosion. At  the  present  time  two  types  of  sprinklers  are  available, 
one  being  a  sprinkler  with  a  glass  cover,  hermetically  sealed,  and 
the  other  being  a  head  coated  with  a  corrosion-resisting  compound. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  screwing  the  sprinkler  into  the  fitting  not 
to  injure  this  protection,  otherwise  its  effectiveness  is  destroyed. 

72.  Alterations. — It  is  not  permitted  to  change,  plug  up  or  remove 
the    fittings    pertaining   to    dry-pipe    valve,    pressure    tanks,    pumps, 
gauges,    etc.     If   such   fittings   leak   or  become   deranged,   they   are 
to  be  put  in  order. 

73.  Extra  Sprinklers. — There  should  be  maintained  on  the  prem- 
ises a  supply  of  extra  sprinklers  (never  less  than  six),  to  promptly 
replace  any  fused  or  in  any  way  injured. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  567 

Sprinklers  should  be  of  the  various  degrees  that  may  be  used 
in  the  risk. 

74.  Use    of    High    Degree    or    Hard    Sprinklers. — High    degree 
sprinklers  should  be  used  only  when  absolutely  necessary  and  In- 
spection   Department    having    jurisdiction    should    be    consulted    in 
each  instance.     When  used,  the  following  table  should  be  referred 
to: 

For  ceiling  temperature  exceeding  100  degrees  but  not  150 
degrees,  install  212  degree  heads. 

For  ceiling  temperatures  exceeding  150  degrees  but  not  225 
degrees,  install  286  degree  heads. 

For  ceiling  temperatures  in  excess  of  225  degrees,  install  360 
degree  heads. 

Ordinary  degree  sprinklers  should  be  substituted  for  high  degree 
sprinklers  where  the  latter  are  made  unnecessary  by  change  in 
occupancy. 

75.  Hand   Hose   Connections. — Hand  hose,  to  be  used   for  fire 
purposes  only,   may  be   attached  to   sprinkler  pipes  within   a  room 
under  the   following  restrictions: 

Pipe  nipple  and  hose  valve  should  be  i   inch. 
Hose  to  be  \l/2  inches  or  il/4   inches. 
Nozzle  should  not  be  larger  than   l/2  inch. 

Hose  should  not  be  connected  to  any  sprinkler  pipe  smaller  than 
jr'j  inches  and  never  attached  to  a  dry-pipe  system. 

76.  Concealed    Pipe    Systems. — Concealed    piping    is    prohibited 
except   when   the   Inspection   Department  having  jurisdiction   gives 
consent.     When  installation  is  permitted,  it  should  be  in  accordance 
with  the  following : 

(a)  Pipe  should  be  of  standard  weight  wrought  iron  or  steel, 
painted  with  two  coats  of  good  protective  paint,  one  before  and 
one  after  installation. 

(1))  Should  be  placed  in  properly  constructed  ducts  or  thoroughly 
encased  in  Portland  cement  or  equivalent.  In  no  case  shall  the 
pipe  system  be  installed  so  as  to  form  a  part  of  the  floor  arch 
reinforcement. 

(c)  When  installed  in  the  concealed  space  between  the  floor  arch 
and  ceiling,  pipe  should  be  supported  by  standard  hangers,  and  all 
pipe,  fittings  and  hangers  should  be  given  two  coats  of  good  pro- 
tective paint. 

77.  Tests   After   Installation. — All    systems   should   be   tested   at 
not  less  than   150  pounds  pressure  for  2  hours,  and  at  50  pounds 
in  excess  of  the  normal  pressure  when  the  normal  pressure  is  in 
excess  of  100  pounds.     Emergency  tests  of  dry-pipe  systems,  under 
at  least  60  pounds  air  pressure,  should  be  made  at  seasons  of  the 
year  which  will  not  permit  testing  out  under  water  pressure. 

Brine  or  other  corrosive  chemicals  should  not  be  used  for  testing 
systems. 

To  prevent  the  possibility  of  serious  water  damage  in  case  of  a 
break,  pressure  should  be  maintained  by  a  small  pump,  the  main 
controlling  gate  being  meanwhile  kept  shut. 

In  the  case  of  dry  systems  with  differential  type  of  dry-pipe 
valve,  the  valve  should  be  held  off  its  seat  during  the  test  to  prevent 
injuring  the  valve. 


568  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

In  dry  systems  an  air  pressure  of  40  pounds  should  be  pumped 
up,  allowed  to  stand  24  hours,  and  all  leaks  stopped  which  allow  a 
loss  of  pressure  of  over  \y2  pounds  for  the  24  hours. 

A  working  test  of  dry-pipe  valve  should  be  made,  if  possible, 
before  acceptance. 

All  tests  should  be  made  by  contractor  in  presence  of  inspector 
of  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

78.  Relief   Valves    or   Air    Chambers. — Where    connections    are 
made   from  public  mains,   subject  to   severe  water  hammer    (espe- 
.cially  where  pressure  is  in  excess  of   TOO  pounds),  it  is  advisable 
to  provide  a  relief  valve,  properly  connected  to  a  drain ;  or  an  air 
chamber  in  thes  connection.    If  an  air  chamber  is  used,  it  should  be 
located  close  to  where  the  pipe  comes  through  wall,   and  back  of 
all  other  valves,  and  at  right  angle  to  other  valves,  so  as  to  take 
the  full  force  of  water  hammer.    Air  chamber  shall  have  a  capacity 
of   not   less   than  4  cubic   feet,   shall   be   controlled   by   a   standard 
O.   S.  &  Y.  gate  valve,  and  shall  be  provided  with  a  drain  at  the 
bottom.    If  an  air  vent  is  deemed  desirable  by  the  inspection  depart- 
ment, it  shall  consist  only  of  a  plugged  outlet. 

79.  Preliminary  Inspection   of  Sprinkler  Equipments. — Before 
asking  final  approval  of  an  automatic  sprinkler  equipment  by  the 
Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,   the  installing  company 
should  furnish  a  written  statement,  countersigned  by  the  assured, 
to  the  effect  that  the  work  has  been  completed  in  accordance  with 
the   approved  specifications  and  plans.     The  object  is  to   secure  a 
reasonable  amount  of  supervision  of  the  equipment  by  the  assured 
as  the  work  progresses,   a  larger  knowledge   on  their  part   of   its 
functions    and   proper   maintenance,    and   also   to   prevent    needless 
waste  of  time  of  the   Inspection   Department.     Inspection   Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction  should   furnish  the  necessary  blanks   for 
the  above  purpose. 

Section   L — Open  Sprinklers 

{For  Protection  Against  Exposure} 
Window  Sprinklers 

80.  Discharge   Orifice. — Where  there  is  but  one  horizontal   line 
of  window  sprinklers,  each  head  should  have  a  smooth  bore  taper- 
ing outlet  with  an  unobstructed  orifice  %  inch  in  diameter.     Where 
the  conditions  call  for  more  than  one  line  the  following  size  orifices 
should  be  used: 

2  lines.         3  lines.         4  lines.          5  lines.         6  lines. 
Top  line.  %-in.  %-in. 

Next   low.      s/i6-in.          5/i6-in. 


Next  low. 
Next  low. 


in.  %-in 

n.  %-in 

5/i6-in 
5/i6-in 


Next  low.  %-in.  %-in 

Next  low.  %-in 

Where  there  are  over  six  horizontal  lines  of  windows  it  may 
be  preferable  to  omit  sprinklers  on  the  first  story  or  possibly  even 
on  the  second  story,  but  if  over  six  lines  are  used  the  system  should 
be  divided  horizontally  with  independent  risers,  and  in  some  cases 
this  may  be  desirable  even  where  six  lines  or  less  are  used.  Thus 
where  eight  lines  would  be  required,  the  four  upp«r  lines  should 
be  on  one  riser  according  to  the  above  table  and  the  four  lower 
lines  similarly  arranged  on  another  riser.  Where  over  six  lines 
are  used,  size  of  orifice  should  be  left  to  the  Inspection  Depart- 
ment having  jurisdiction. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  569 

Each  open  sprinkler  head  should  be  clearly  marked  on  the  out- 
side as  to  whether  it  is  f^-inch,  5/i6-inch  or  ^-inch  orifice. 

Where  windows  are  3  feet  or  less  in  width  a  size  smaller  orifice  than  required 
by  this  rule  may  be  used,  except  that  in  no  case  should  a  size  smaller  than 
*4  inch  be  used. 

Si.  Pipe  Sizes. — No  branch  line  should  have  over  six  sprinklers 
where  central  riser  system  is  used.  Where  gridiron  system  (i.  e.. 
a  ri^er  at  each  side  with  sprinklers  located  on  the  connected  pipes) 
is  used,  the  lines  between  side  risers  should  not  have  over  twelve 
heads.  Branch  line  pipe  sizes  should  be  as  follows,  this  applying 
with  either  central  riser  or  gridiron  system.  With  the  gridiron 
system  the  end  head  is  considered  as  being  the  one  directly  in 
the  center  (or  on  either  side  of  center  if  the  number  on  line  be 
even). 

(a)  For  -)^-inch  orifice:    one  head  on  a  ^-inch  pipe;  two  heads 
on  a  i-inch  pipe;   four  heads  on  a  1^4-inch  pipe;   six  heads  on  a 
i  ^2-inch  pipe. 

(b)  For   5/i6-inch   orifice:     one   head   on   a    ^-inch    pipe;    three 
heads  on  a  i-inch  pipe;  six  heads  on  a  i^-inch  pipe.  . 

(c)  For  l/4 -inch  orifice:     one  head  on  a  %-incn  pipe;  five  heads 
on  a  i-inch  pipe;  six  heads  on  a  i^-inch  pipe. 

\Vhere  heads  are  over  twelve  feet  apart  special  pipe  sizes  in  excess  of  the 
requirements  given  below  should  be  used. 

8.2.  Risers  and   Feed  Mains. — Central   feed  risers. 

1  i •<>  inch.   Not  over  6  heads. 

2  inch.  Not  over  10  heads. 
2%  inch.  Not  over  20  heads. 

3  inch.  Not  over  36  heads. 
3!^  inch.  Not  over  55  heads. 

4  inch.  Not  over  72  heads. 

For  gridiron  side  feed  risers,  use  the  same  sizes  counting  to  the 
center  of  each  line.  If  number  on  line  is  odd  the  center  head  may 
lie  neglected  in  figuring  size  of  side  risers,  except  that  pipe  feeding 
both  risers  must  take  into  account  all  sprinklers  which  it  feeds. 
Where  feed  main  (including  risers  to  the  first  branch  line)  is  ovrr 
twenty-five  feet  in  length,  feed  main  should  be  at  least  a  size  larger 
than  the  tables  require.  Where  there  is  more  than  one  riser,  size 
of  feed  mains  should  be  determined  by  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction  but  should  never  be  less  than  the  full  equiva- 
lent of  the  two  largest  risers. 

At  all  dead  ends  a  tee  instead  of  an  elbow  should  be  used  and 
a  piece  of  pipe  6  inches  long  with  brass  plug  in  end  should  be 
screwed  into  tee  to  form  a  pocket  for  collecting  dirt. 

Where  sprinklers  run  on  two  adjoining  sides  of  a  building  with 
separate  controlling  valve  for  each  side,  the  end  lines  should  be 
connected  together  with  check  valves  so  located  that  one  head 
around  the  corner  will  operate  when  valve  is  opened. 

Strainers  of  a  standard  type  should  be  installed  at  base  of  risers, 
or  in  connection  to  same.  Strainers  should  be  so  located  as  to  be 
easily  accessible  for  cleaning. 

83.  Pipe. — Galvanized  wrought  iron  (or  other  standard)  pipe 
should  be  used  for  the  equipment  as  far  hack  as  the  cast  iron  pipe. 
All  galvanizing  of  pipe  should  be  done  in  a  careful  and  thoroughly 
workmanlike  manner. 

Pipe  should  be  securely  supported  in  a  manner  fully  equal  to 
that  required  for  automatic  sprinklers. 


570  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

All  pipe  should  be  carefully  inspected  before  being  installed. 

84.  Valves. — Where  central  feed  risers  are  used  each  should  have 
a  controlling  valve.     Where  side  feed  risers  are  used  they  are  to 
be   connected   together  at  bottom   and   one  valve   so   located   as   to 
control  the  two  risers.     Valves  should  be  of  standard  type  as  re- 
quired for  automatic  sprinkler  systems.     Distinct  marking  of  each 
valve  by  letters  not  less  than  one-half  inch  high  is  required.     Riser 
valves   should  be   so   located   as  to  be  easily  accessible,   preferably 
in  first  story. 

85.  Drainage. — All  pipes  and  fittings  should  be  carefully  arranged 
and  pitched  so  as  to  thoroughly  drain  the  entire  system  as  far  back 
as  the  inside  riser  controlling  valve.     Drip  pipes  should  be  not  less 
than  i  inch  in  size. 

86.  Location    and    Number    of    Sprinklers. — For    windows    not 
exceeding  five 'feet  wide- one  sprinkler  should  be  placed  at  center 
near  top,  so  located  that  the  water  discharge  therefrom  will  thor- 
oughly wet  the  upper  part  of  the  window,  and  by  running  down 
over  the  sash  and  glass  wet  to  the  greatest  extent  the  entire  window. 
Where  windows  are  over  five  feet  wide,  or  where  mullions  inter- 
fere, two  or  more  heads  should  be  used ;   this,  together  with   size 
of    orifice,    should    be    determined   by   the     Inspection     Department 
having  jurisdiction,  it  being  understood  that  two  ^-inch  heads  are 
approximately  the  equivalent  of   one   ^-inch. 

For  windows  five  to  six  feet  wide  one  sprinkler  may  be  used  by  special 
consent  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 

87.  Water    Supply    and    Control. — Supply     to     open     sprinklers 
should  be  town   waterworks,   standpipe,   pump   or  steamer   connec- 
tion, but  never  pressure  or  gravity  tank  used  to  supply  automatic 
sprinklers,  except  that  such  gravity  tank  may  be  used  in  case  addi- 
tional capacity  is  provided. 

Where  water  supplies  feed  other  fire  protective  appliances,  such 
as  automatic  sprinklers  or  hydrants,  system  should  be  so  arranged 
that  there  is  no  danger  of  impairing  the  efficiency  of  such  other 
devices,  and  water  supply  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  ade- 
quately feed  such  appliances  even  with  the  open  sprinklers  in  opera- 
tion. Supply  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  feed  all  sprinklers 
designed  to  be  operated  at  one  time  and  maintain  not  less  than  10 
pounds  pressure  at  top  of  riser  for  a  length  of  time  depending  on 
conditions,  but  not  less  than  60  minutes.  Where  steamer  connec- 
tions are  used  they  shall  be  locate'd  so  as  to  be  safe  from  the  ex- 
posing fire,  as  in  the  rear  of  building  if  exposure  is  on  the  front. 
Where  other  water  supplies  are  used  and  it  is  desirable  or  neces- 
sary to  save  such  supplies  for  other  service  in  case  the  open  sprink- 
lers are  ineffectual,  locate  a  controlling  valve  or  valves  outside 
the  building  itself  and  accessible  as  regards  the  exposure  fire.  Such 
valves  may  be  located  in  properly  cut  off  valve  rooms  or  pits  by 
special  consent  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction. 
Underground  controlling  valves  should  be  in  approved  pits  with 
manhole  or  be  fitted  with  standard  post  indicators. 

88.  Sprinklers. — Only  such  types   of   window,   cornice,   side  wall 
or  ridge  pole  sprinklers  should  be  installed. as  have  been  standard- 
ized for  such  use. 

89.  Gauge  Connections.— Plugged  outlets  for  gauge  connections 
should  be  provided  at  the  top  of  each  riser  and  just  below  the  con- 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  571 

trolling  valve  of  each  riser.  Such  outlets  should  be  piped  into  the 
building  for  the  purpose  of  conveniently  attaching  a  test  pressure 
gauge. 

Cornice,  Side  Wall  or  Ridge  Pole  Sprinklers 

(For  use  in  protecting  frame  buildings,  mansard  roofs,  etc.) 

90.  Location,  Size  of  Orifice  and  Number. — Where  one  line  only 
is  required,  as   for  the  mansard  roofs  of  a  brick  building  or   for 
low    frame   buildings,    the   heads   should   not   be   less   than    ^-inch 
ciritice  and  not  over  eight  feet  apart  on  the  line.     Pipe  sizes  and 
arrangement  should  be  the  same  as  for  window  sprinklers.     Where 
the    number    of    sprinklers    and    water    supplies    admit,    it    may    be 
desirable  to  use  a  7/16-  or  ^-inch  orifice  with  pipe  sizes  not  less 
than  the  following:    i  on  i-inch;  3  on  i^-inches,  5  on  154-inches, 
8  on  2-inches.     Where  frame  buildings  are  over  two   stories  high 
it  will  be  generally  necessary  to  have  two  or  more  horizontal  lines, 
preferably  one  line  at  each   of  the  upper  stories  beginning  at  the 
eaves   line,   the  heads  located  over  each  vertical   row  of   windows 
where    windows    are    not   over    eight    feet    center   to    center.      Size 
of  orifice  and  pipe  sizes  should  be  same  as  for  window  sprinklers 
except    by    special    consent    of    the    Inspection    Department    having 
jurisdiction.     The  value  of  open  sprinklers  for  frame  buildings  is 
much  enhanced  by  the  use  of  wood  shutters  at  all  window  openings. 

Section  M — Underground  Pipes  and  Fittings 

91.  Weights. — Should  not  be  less  than  those  specified  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  where  the  normal  pressures  do  not  exceed  125  pounds. 
Where-  the  normal  pressures  are  in  excess  of   125  pounds  heavier 
piping  should  be  used : 

Weight  per  ft. 
Pipe  Including  Sockets 

4  inches.  .  .  .' 23.0  pounds 

6  inches 35.8  pounds 

8   inches 52.1   pounds 

i  o  inches 70.8  pounds 

12  inches 91.7  pounds 

14  inches 116.7  pounds 

1 6  inches 143-8  pounds 

Pipe  should  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  essential  features  of  the 
"  Standard  Specifications  for  Cast-Iron  Pipe  and  Special  Castings,"  adopted 
by  the  American  Water  Works  Association,  May  12,  1908.  The  inspector 
referred  to  in  the  Specifications  should  preferably  be  a  representative  of  an 
independent  inspection  bureau  making  a  business  of  examinations  and  tests 
»f  pipe  of  this  character.  In  cases  where  the  amount  of  pipe  to  be  installed 
does  not  warrant  the  expense  involved  in  a  social  examination,  a  certificate 
from  the  manufacturer,  stating  that  the  pipe  has  been  made  and  tested  as 
required,  may  be  accepted  by  Inspection  Department  having  jurisdiction,  to 
whom  the  matter  should  be  referred  in  advance  of  closing  the  contract. 

92.  Hydrant  Main. — No  4-inch  pipe  shall  be  used. 

93.  For  Pipes  Extending  to  a  Dead  End: — 

(a)  Allow  200  feet  6-inch  pipe  with  one  3-way  hydrant. 

(b)  Allow  500  feet  6-inch  pipe  with  one  2-way  hydrant. 
This   might  be   extended   in   special   cases. 

(c)  Allow  1,000  feet  8-inch  pipe  with  one  3-way  hydrant. 

(d)  Allow  500  feet  8-inch  pipe  with  one   4-way  hydrant  or  its 
equivalent  in  hose  streams. 

(e)  Allow  300  feet  8-inch  pipe  to  first  hydrant,  where  there  is  a 
hydrant  equivalent  of  6  streams. 


572  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(f)  Limit   for   Four   Streams. — Whereas  the   above   limitations 
for  8-inch  pipe  are  low,  it  is  deemed  undesirable  to  have  over  4 
streams  on  a  dead  end,  and  the  loop  system  would  ordinarily  be 
employed  where  it  is  intended  to  concentrate  over  4  streams  at  one 
point. 

(g)  Limit  for  Three   Streams. — Never  allow   more   than  three 
(3)    streams  on  6-inch  branch  pipe. 

94.  For  Loop  Systems: — 

(a)  For  Two  3-Way  Hydrants. — With  two  3-way  hydrants,  say 
250  feet  apart,  allow  250  feet  6-inch  pipe  from  each  hydrant  toward 
source  (preferably  use  8-inch  pipe  with  3-way  hydrant  systems). 

(b)  For  Two  2- Way  Hydrants. — With  two  2-way  hydrants,  say 
250  feet  apart,  allow  500  feet  pipe  from  each  hydrant  toward  source. 

(c)  For  Three  2-Way  Hydrants. — With  three  2-way  hydrants, 
250  feet  apart,  allow  250  feet  6-inch  pipe  from  end  hydrants  toward 
source. 

(d)  For  Four  2-Way  Hydrants. — To  feed  four  2-way  hydrants, 
or  their  equivalent,  use  8-inch  main  feed  pipes  and  allow  500  feet 
of  8-inch  pipe  each  way  from   end  hydrant  to  water   supply,   rest 
of  pipe  6-inch,  if  desired. 

(e)  For  Five  2-Way  Hydrants. — To  feed  five  2-way  hydrants 
or  their  equivalent,  use  8-inch  main  feed  and  allow  250  feet  from 
end   hydrants   to   water  (supply. 

(f)  For  Over  Four  Streams. — Where  water  supplies  are  such 
that  over  four  streams  can  be  obtained,  loop,  pipes  should  never  be 
less  than  8-inch.  |          i  i  i     '   '  I 

(g)  For  Over  Six  Streams. — In  laying  out  a  loop  system  where 
it  is  intended  to  concentrate  4  to  6  streams  at  any  one  point,  an 
8-inch  loop  should  be  amply  sufficient  even 'if  it  is 'as  much  as  1,000 
feet  from  supply  to  point  of  concentration. 

(h)  For  Large  Number  of  Streams. — Under  conditions  where 
a  large  number  of  streams  can  be  concentrated  at  one  point,  it 
would  sometimes  be  desirable  to  use  lo-inch  or  12-inch  pipe. 

95.  Rules  for  Laying  Cast-iron  Mains. — Depth  of  Earth  Cover. 
— The  depth  of  covering  should  be  determined  by  the   Inspection 
Department    having   jurisdiction,    but   will   vary    from   2.y2    feet   in 
the   Southern    States   to    10   feet  in   the   northern   part  of   Canada. 
Depth  of  covering  should  be  measured  from  top  of  pipe  to  ground 
level.     In  a  loose,   gravelly  soil,   or  in   rock,   the   depth   should  be 
greater  than  in  compact,  clayey  soil.     A  safe  rule  to  follow  is  to 
bury  the  top  of  the  pipe  not  less  than  one  foot  below  the  lowest 
frost  line  for  the  locality.     As  there  is  normally  no  circulation  of 
water  in  private  fire  mains,   they  require  a  greater  covering  than 
the  public  mains. 

Placing  pipes  over  raceways  or  near  embankment  walls  should 
be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  special  attention  given  to  pro- 
tection against  frost  where  it  is  necessary  to  so  locate  them. 

Where  mains  are  laid  in  raceways  or  shallow  streams,  care  should 
be  taken  that  there  will  be  a  sufficient  depth  of  running  water 
between  the  pipe  and  the  frost  line  during  all  seasons  of  frost, 
and  a  safer  method  is  to  bury  the  main  under  the  bed  of  the  water- 
way not  less  than  one  foot.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  keep 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  573 

the  mains  back  from  the  hanks  a  sufficient  distance  to  avoid  any 
danger  of  freezing  through  the  side  of  the  bank  above  the  water 
line,  and  with  low  banks  mains  should  be  buried  below  the  frost 
line  where  entering  the  water. 

96.  Care  in  Laying. — Pipes  should  be  clean  inside  when  put  in 
trenches,  and  open  ends  plugged  when  work  is  stopped,  to  prevent 
stones  rolling  inside. 

Pipes  should  bear  throughout  their  length,  and  not  be  supported 
by  the  bell  ends  only. 

Specials. — Specials  should  be  used  for  making  offsets  and  bends, 
and  reducers  for  changing  size  of  pipes,  as  thick  lead  joints  or 
joints  with  lead  mostly  on  one  side  are  liable  to  leak. 

Back  Filling. — Back  filling  should  be  well  tamped  under  and 
around  pipes  to  prevent  settlement  or  lateral  movement,  and  should 
contain  no  ashes,  cinders  or  other  corrosive  materials. 

Rocks  should  not  be  rolled  into  trenches  and  allowed  to  drop 
on  pipes. 

All  plugs  at  blanked  openings  and  all  bends  in  soft  ground 
should  either  be  strapped  or  secured  by  masses  of  concrete  against 
the  ends  or  sides  of  trenches  to  avoid  any  possibility  of  joints 
blowing  apart. 

In  trenches  cut  through  rock,  back  filling  should  preferably  be 
entirely  of  earth,  but  earth  shall  be  used  under  and  around  pipe, 
and  for  at  least  2  feet  above  same.  If  soil  is  of  quicksand  it  may 
be  necessary  to  suoport  piping  on  piers.  Under  railroad  tracks, 
pipe  should  be  provided  with  special  supports  and  reinforcement 
at  joints.  Underground,  through  buildings,  flanged  cast-iron  pipe 
with  metallic  gaskets  or  other  standard  pipe  should  be  used. 

Mains  should  not  be  laid  under  piles  of  coal  or  other  material 
liable  to  make  the  ground  settle  and  cause  leaks. 

Steep  Inclines. — Down  steep  hills  mains  should  be  properly  an- 
chored. A  general  rule  is  to  anchor  the  pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hill,  at  any  turns,  and  otherwise  on  straight  runs  about  every  forty- 
eight  feet.  The  anchoring  should  be  done  either  to  natural  rock 
or  by  means  of  brick  or  concrete  piers.  The  piers  should  be  built 
around  the  pipe,  or  an  iron  rod  not  less  than  s/\  inch  in  diameter 
placed  around  the  pipe  and  the  ends  anchored  in  the  piers.  Bell 
ends  should  be  uphill. 

Blow-off. — Where  feasible,  blow-off  should  be  provided  at  low 
point  of  underground  main,  and  it  is  also  advisable  where  an  under- 
ground main  crosses  water. 

Clamps. — 'Clamp  rods  where  used  for  strapping  pipe  should  pref- 
ably  run  from  the  bell  to  the  next  bell  or  fitting,  but  may  be  run 
to  clamps  on  pipe,  provided  clamps  are  not  less  than  \\A  inches 
wide  and  not  less  than  ^  inch  thick.  For  8-inch  pipe  and  smaller, 
clamp  rods  should  not  be  less  than  ^  inch  in  diameter;  for  larger 
pipe  not  less  than  fy  inch.  Clamps,  straps  or  rods  should  be  pro- 
tected against  corrosion  by  painting  with  tar,  asphaltum  or  by  other 
suitable  means. 

Leading  Joints. — Joints  should  be  carefully  leaded,  and  packing 
should  be  in  the  smallest  quantity  necessary  to  stop  the  lead.  Rings 
should  be  shrunk  on  ends  of  short  length  of  pipe  to  form  beads. 
These  are  very  essential  in  order  to  prevent  yarn  and  lead  from 
passing  into  pipe,  and  also  to  make  joint  hold.  Socket  joints  should 
not  be  located  in,  or  close  to,  foundations. 


574  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

97.  Locating,  and  Setting  Hydrants. — Hydrants  should  be  of  a 
standard    type    (see   special    pamphlet    on   Valves,    Indicator    Posts 
and   Hydrants),  and  wherever  possible  placed  about  50  feet  from 
the  buildings  protected.     Where  it  is  impossible  to  place  them  at 
this   distance,   they   may  be   put   nearer,   provided   they   are   set   in 
locations  where  the  chance  of  injury  by  falling  walls  is  small,  and 
from   which   men   are   not   likely  to   be   driven  by   smoke   or  heat. 
Usually  in  crowded  mill  yards  they  can  be  placed  beside  low  build- 
ings,  near  brick   stair  towers,   or   at  angles   formed  by  substantial 
brick   w-alls  which  are   not  likely  to   fall.     Hydrant   should  be   set 
on  flat  stone  and  about  half  a  barrel  of  small  stones  placed  about 
the  bottom  to  insure  quick  drainage  from  the  drip.     They  should 
not  be  placed  near  retaining  walls  where  there  is  danger  of  frost 
through  the  wall. 

Hydrants  should  be  fastened  to  pipe  by  strap  from  lugs  cast  on 
hydrant  or  other  means  acceptable  to  the  Inspection  Department 
having  jurisdiction. 

Where  soil  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  hydrants  will  not  drain 
properly  under  the  above  arrangement,  the  hydrant  drain  should 
be  connected  to  a  sewer  or  ground  drain  by  not  less  than  a  2-inch 
cast-iron  pipe ;  or  some  other  means  acceptable  to  the  Inspection 
Department  having  jurisdiction  should  be  provided  to  keep  the 
hydrant  barrels  clear  of  water. 

For  hose  house  and  equipment,  see  page  661. 

98.  Valves. — Every   connection   from  a  yard  main  to   a  building 
should  be  provided  with  a  post  indicator  valve  of  a  standard  type, 
and  the  name  of  the  service  controlled  should  be  clearly  stencilled 
on  the  valve. 

When  surroundings  are  such  that  the  indicator  post  will  interfere 
wiith  the  passing  of  teams  or  cars,  the  best  practice  is  to  use  a 
valve  of  the  outside  screw  and  yoke  pattern  placed  in  a  pit  built 
in  accordance  with  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters'  Regu- 
lations. (See  special  pamphlet  on  Tanks.)  A  wrench  or  crow- 
foot with  long  handle  should  be  provided  for  each  valve,  and  kept 
in  the  pit  where  it  can  be  reached  from  the  yard  level.  The  location 
of  the  valve  should  be  clearly  marked  on  neighboring  buildings, 
and  the  cover  of  the  pit  should  be  kept  at  all  times  free  from  dirt 
and  snow. 

Large  yard  systems  should  have  sectional  controlling  valves,  and 
a  valve  should  be  provided  on  each  bank  where  a  main  crosses 
water. 

99.  Testing. — All  piping  when  completed  should  be  tested  for  not 
less  than  two  hours  at  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  150  pounds,  and 
if  the  normal  pressure  exceeds   100  pounds,   for  not  less  than   50 
pounds  in  excess  of  that  pressure. 

Where  feasible,  test  should  be  made  with  fire  pumps  running, 
and  every  hydrant  should  be  opened  and  closed  so  as  to  test  it,  and 
at  the  same  time  produce  some  water  hammer  on  the  piping,  as 
in  the  case  of  actual  fire.  The  system  should  also  be  thoroughly 
flushed  out  by  opening  the  various  hydrants  wide,  thus  drawing 
large  quantities  of  water  and  cleaning  out  small  stones,  sand  and 
other  obstructions  which  will  plug  play  pipes  and  sprinklers  if 
allowed  to  remain  until  the  time  of  fire. 


ATTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS  575 

Branches  to  the  inside  sprinkler  equipment  should  also  be  flushed 
out  before  connecting  the  sprinkler  riser. 

If  fire  pumps  are  not  available,  underground  piping  may  be  tested 
out  by  means  of  a  hand  pump. 

In  any  event,  the  system  should  be  tested  under  water  pressure 
to  detect  leaks  which,  even  if  small,  when  running  continuously, 
cause  large  waste  of  water,  and  if  possible  pressure  should  be  put 
on  the  pipes  before  the  joints  are  covered,  in  order  that  any  leaks 
may  be  readily  located.  Tests  should  be  made  by  contractor  in 
presence  of  inspector  of  the  Inspection  Department  having  juris- 
diction. 

EDITOR'S  NOTE. — See  Appendix  for  section  N,  rules  100  to  103, 
inclusive. 

FRICTION  LOSS  IN  PIPE  AND  FITTINGS 

Kind  and  Age  of  Pipe. — On  the  tables  on  pages  578  and  579  are 
given  the  friction  loss,  as  calculated  on  the  Hazen-William's  hydrau- 
lic slide  rule,  in  cast-iron  pipe  15  to  20  years  old  and  ordinary 
vvrought-iron  pipe.  The  discharge  is  approximately  80  per  cent, 
of  these  figures  for  cast-iron  pipe  30  to  40  years  old  ancl  old 
vvrought-iron  pipe.  For  cast-iron  pipe  about  5  years  old,  smooth  new 
wrought-iron  and  ordinary  wood-stave  pipe  and  cement-lined  pipe, 
the  carrying  capacity  is  about  20  per  cent,  greater  than  the  table  for 
the  same  friction  loss.  Ordinary  straight  brass,  lead,  glctes  and  tin 
pipe  has  a  capacity  about  30  per  cent,  greater  than  the  figures  given. 

Bends  and  Other  Fittings. — The  loss  of  head  at  bends  and  at 
enlargement  and  contraction  of  pipe  sizes  is  usually  figured  as  a 
function  of  the  velocity  head.  For  any  flow,  the  velocity  head  can 
be  obtained  by  the  formula — 


Where  v.  h.  equals  the  velocity  head  in  pounds,  q  equals  the 
quantity  in  gallons  per  minute,  and  d  equals  the  diameter  of  the 
pipe  in  inches. 

From  tests  made  by  Inspection  Department  of  the  Associated 
Factory  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies: 

Long-turn  ells  give  a  loss  equal  to  about  0.3  velocity  head  or  the 
same  friction  loss  as  4  feet  of  straight  pipe  of  the  same  size,  while 
short-turn  ells  have  a  loss  equivalent  to  i.o  velocity  head  or  9  feet 
of  pipe. 

Long-turn  tees  have  a  loss  equal  to  i.o  velocity  head  or  are  the 
equivalent  of  -g  feet  of  straight  pipe,  while  short-turn  tees  have  a 
loss  of  1.5  velocity  head  or  are  the  equivalent  of  17  feet. 

Six-inch  straight  way  check  valve  (Pratt  &  Cady  pattern)  is  the 
equivalent  of  50  feet  of  6-inch  pipe. 

Four-inch  Pratt  &  Cady  check  valve  is  the  equivalent  of  25  feet 
of  4-inch  pipe. 


576 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Six-inch  Grinnell  dry  pipe  valve  (old  style  differential)  is  the 
equivalent  of  80  feet  of  6-inch  pipe. 

Six-inch  English  alarm  check  is  the  equivalent  of  100  feet  of 
6-inch  pipe. 

Four-inch  Grinnell  dry  pipe  valve  (old  style  differential)  and 
4-inch  English  alarm  check  are  each  the  equivalent  of  47  feet  of 
4-inch  pipe. 

Tests  made  by. the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  indicate 
a  loss  as  follows : 

Pressure  regulators  have  a  loss  of  about  10.  velocity  head  or  about 
that  due  to  150  feet  of  pipe. 

Globe  valves  show  about  the  s;ime  loss  as  regulators. 

Angle  valves  have  a  loss  of  about  2  velocity  heads,  or  the  equiva- 
lent of  20  feet  of  pipe. 


APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  LAYING  CAST  IRON  PIPE 

Based  on  $30.00  per  ton  for  pipe,  macadam  at  $0.60  per  sq.  yd. 
and  block,  brick,  wood,  etc.,  at  $2.00  per  sq.  yd.  Paving  figured 
2  feet  wider  than  trench. 

These  figures  will  not  pay  for  large  gates,  but  some  allowance  is 
made  for  specials. 

Hydrants  set,  including  connection,  $40.00. 


Diameter 
of  pipe, 
inches 

Wice 
per  foot, 
laid 

Repaying 
at  $0.60  per 
square  yard 

Repaying 
at  $2.00  per 
square  yard 

Cost  per  foot, 
macadam 
pavement 

Cost  per  foot, 
block,  brick 
or  asphalt 
pavement 

6 

8 

$0.80 
1.10 

$0.26 
0.26 

$0.88 
0.88 

$1.06 
1.36 

n.68 

1.98 

10      . 
12 

1.40 
1.75 

0.26 
0.26 

0.88 
0.88 

1.66 
2.01 

2.28 
2.63 

16 
20 

2.50 
3.50 

0.29 
0.31 

0.96 
1.02 

2.79 
3.81 

3.46 
4.52 

24 
30 

4.50 
6.00 

0.33 
0.36 

1.10 
.1.22 

4.83 
6.36 

5.60 
7.22 

36 
42 

7.50 
9.50 

0.40 
0.43 

1.34 
1.44 

7.90 
9.93 

8.84 
10.94 

48 

12.00 

0.47 

1.56 

12.47 

13.56 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


577 


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r^  •—  r;  ^?  tc 


i 

24 

m 

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CO 

3 

in  co 

3' 

CM 

2" 

£ 

OCM 

•8 

.- 

8 

in 

8 

CO 

•g 

CO 

fi 

fcCN 

[8 

cow 

:s 

Or- 

s 

t* 

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S 

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578 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


FRICTION  LOSS  IN  ORDINARY  WROUGHT  IRON  AND 
CAST  IRON  PIPE 


GALLONS 

Loss  IN  POUNDS  PER  100  FEET  OF  PIPE 

Per 
minute 

Per  day 

r 

r 

1* 

u* 

ir 

2* 

2J* 

3" 

4" 

5' 

5 

7,200 

18 

4.5 

1.4 

0.4 

0.2 

0.1 



10 

14,400 

64 

16 

5.0 

1.3 

0.6 

0.2 

0.1 

15 

21,600 

135 

34 

11 

2.7 

1.3 

0.5 

0.2 

20 

28,800 

59. 

18. 

4.7 

2.2 

0.8 

0.3 

0.1 

25 

36,000 

89. 
125. 

27. 

,7.1 

3.4 

1.2 

0.4 

30 

43,200 

39. 

10. 

4.7 

1.7 

0.6 

0.2 

35 

50,400 

165. 

51. 

13. 

6.3 

2.2 

0.7 

0.3 

.     40 

57,600 

66. 

17. 

8.0 

2.9 

0.9 

0.4 

0.1 

45 

64,800 

82. 

21. 

10. 

3.6 

1.2 

0.5 

50 

72,000 

99. 

26. 

12. 

4.3 

1.4 

0.6 

60 

86,400 

140. 

38. 

17. 

6.1 

2.0 

0.8 

0.2 

70 

100,800 



49. 

23. 

8.0 

2.7 

1.1 

0.3 

80 

115,200 

63. 

29. 

10.3 

3.4 

1.5 

0.1 

90 

129,600 

78. 

36. 

13. 

4.3 

1.8 

0.4 

100 
125 

144,000 

' 

96. 

44. 

15. 

5.1 

2.2 

0.5 

0.2 
0.3 
0.4 

180,000 

144. 

66. 

24. 

7.8 

3.3 

0.8 

150 

216,000 

200. 

93. 

33. 

11. 

4.6 

1.1 

175 

252,000 

125. 

44. 

15. 

6.1 

1.5 

0.5 

200 

288,000 

158. 

56. 

19. 

7.8 

1.9 

0.6 

250 

360,000 

84. 

28. 

12. 

2.9 

1.0 

300 

432,000 

114. 

40. 
53. 

16. 

4.0 

1.3 

350 

504,000 

151. 

22. 

5.4 

1.8 

400 

576,000 

68. 

28. 

6.9 

2.3 
2.9 
3.5 

450 

648,000 

—  



84. 

35. 

8.6 

500 

720,000 

102. 

42. 

10. 

1,000 

1,440,000 



154. 

37. 

13. 

2,000 

2,160,000 

135. 

,44. 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


579 


FRICTION  LOSS  IN  ORDINARY  WROUGHT  IRON  AND 
CAST  IRON  PIPE— Continued 


GALLONS 

Loss  IN  POUNDS  PER  1,000  FEET  OF  PIPE 

Per 

minute 

Per  day 

6' 

8' 

10' 

12* 

14' 

16' 

18' 

20' 

24' 

25 

36,000 

0.1 



50 

72,000 

0.2 

0.1 

100 

144,000 

0.8 

0.2 

0.1 

200 

288,000 

2.7 

0.7 

0.2 

0.1 

300 

432,000 

5.8 

1.4 

0.4 

0.2 

0.1 

400 

576,000 

9.9 

2.4 

0.7 

.03 

0.1 

500 

720,000 

15. 

3.6 

1.2 

0.5 

0.2 

0.2 

0.1 

1,000 

1,440,000 

52. 

13. 

4.3 

1.8 

0.8 

0.5 

0.2 

0.1 

1,500 

2,160,000 

111. 

27. 

9.1 

3.8 

1.7 

0.9 
1.6 

0.5 

0.3 

0.1 

2,000 

2,880,000 

190. 

47. 

16. 

6.5 

2.9 

0.9 

0.5 

0.2 

2,500 

3,600,000 

287. 

71. 

24. 

10. 

4.4 

2.4 

1.4 

0.8 

0.3 

3.000 

4,320,000 

99. 

33. 

14. 

6.6 

3.4 

1.9 

1.1 

0.5 

3,500 

5,040,000 

132. 

44. 

18. 

8.2 

4.5 

2.5 

1.5 

0.6 

4,000 

5,760,000 

166. 

56. 

23. 

11. 

5.8 

3.3 

1.9 

0.8 

4,500 

6,480,000 

208. 

70. 

29. 

14. 

7-.  2 

4.1 

2.4 

1.0 

5,000 

7,200,000 

252. 

86. 

35. 

17. 

8.8 

4.9 

2.9 

1.2 

Table  6ho«,n«,  ^..volant  valu 


S3 

|l 

3-  10    C=IOO 

Diameter   of  Pipe    in     Inches 

£ 

Quantify 

VH 

4 

6 

fl 

10 

1? 

14 

16 

20 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

b4 

<oO 

bo 

3  87 

592 

550 

257 

88-w 

591 

415 

23l 

14.  J 

795 

494 

328 

231 

170 

129 

6C 
54 

46^ooxx» 

364 
341 

1239 
938 

428 
324 

20o 

51  S 

li  I  2 

844 

69  o 
52  3 

459 

323 
245 

I8.o 

11.12 
844 

6.19 
469 

3.84 
29l 

255 
194 

1.80 
1  36 

132 

1 

bo 
54 

46 

25,70qooo 

3.17 

689 

238 

ill  2 

619 

3S4 

256 

I8o 

100 

6  i9 

344 

2  *4 

142 

1 

48 

42 

18.100,000 

291 

4S6 

784 

43t, 

27.0 

\S-o 

127 

704 

43<. 

242 

ISO 

1 

-42 

3b 

12  o3c(ooo 

264 

323 

IU.2 

S22 

29  J 

ISO 

12  0 

842 

4.64 

290 

I  bi 

1 

36 

30 

7470,000 

23S 

2oo 

691 

324 

iS  o 

11.13 

743 

J-22 

2.91 

1  <e 

1 

30 

24 

4,150,000 

2  04 

HI.  2 

3f4 

IS.O 

'00 

619 

4  13 

290 

161 

I. 

24 

20 

2.570,ooo 

182 

6S9 

238 

11.12 

€19 

384 

256 

180 

I 

£0 

16 

1,430000 

158 

334 

133 

6.19 

34S 

214 

I  42 

1 

16 

14 

l,OOS,ooo 

145 

269 

93) 

435 

2*Z 

1-50 

1 

'14 

12 

67oooo 

132 

ISO 

6.2J 

290 

»• 

1 

12 

3*4 

1-90 

. 

10 

8 

231,000 

102 

619 

1 

8 

c 

1  of.  ooo 

AS 

290 

1 

5 

4 

37OOO 

U 

1 

4 

580 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


113MS  jo 


IFMS  jo      "3 
ssaujpiqx    £ 


188 


aad 


1PMS  jo      -g 
ssauipiqx    £ 


q 
aad 


8   2 


IPMS  J°     u 

ssauipiqx    £ 


LO        LO 


t>        CO        O5 


t>       I"-       00 


aad 


o     o     o     o 


S   8 


IPMS  J°       u 
ssau>piqx    £ 


O        CD       CM       CO       O 
00        00       C7l       O       CM 


J3d 


o     o 

CO        00 


00       O 

in     CD 


qi 
aad  i 


|    g    2 

CM     co     in 


ssau^otqx    £ 


in     CD 


CM        00        CO 


IPHS  JO 


SCO       CD 
CD       CD 


a 

9d!d 


2    g 


•*       00 
CO       CO 


CM'  •  O  !.,O> 


co     in     i>     o 
in     m     m     CD 


Tf       CD1       00.      O 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


o 


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££ 


i 


s  s  %  % 

in     t^-     as     w 


^-1     co     r-     co     M     N     in     o     in     «     co     -r 

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1  »S 

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582  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

AUTOMATIC    SPRINKLER    ILLUSTRATIONS 

On  the  following  pages  will  be  found  illustrations  of  more  than  100  auto- 
matic sprinkler  heads  of  different  varieties.  Many  of  these  are  of  obsolete 
designs,  and ,  are  not  now  manufactured,  and  for  that  reason  are  likely  to 
puzzle  the  average  inspector  when  he  meets  them  in  his  rounds.  These  illus- 
trations should  aid  in  the  identification  of  practically  all  sprinkler  heads 
which  are  in  use,  whether  installed  recently  or  in  the  earlier  years  of  this 
form  of  protection,  and  will  doubtless  render  valuable  assistance  to  inspectors 
and  surveyors,  and  also  to  property  owners  desirous  of  describing  the  equip- 
ment of  their  premises. 

The  index  presented  below  will  enable  the  render  to  readily  find  the  picture 
of  any  desired  type  of  sprinkler,  while  the  titles  (referred  to  by  number) 
given  at  the  bottoms  of  pages,  will  identify  by  name  any  selected  illustration. 

•I          * 
INDEX  TO  SPRINKLER  ILLUSTRATIONS 

"No. 

Babcock;     1900 75 

Barnes ;  perforated   . '. '. .' 58 

Barnes;   lever  and   link;    1880 59 

Bishop;  old    water    joint;    1881 , 6 

Bishop;     1885     80 

Bishop;     1888     78 

Bishop;   old  water  joint;   open 7 

Bishop;    later   water   joint .  8 

Brown;   No.    i;    1881    20 

Brown ;    No.    i ;   open 21 

Brown;  No.  2;    1883 22 

Buell ;    old -54 

Buell;     1873 .  .  .  ; 82 

Buell;   later;    1882 55 

Buell;    1884 83 

Buell;    1884 ..  76 

Buell;    1885    79 

Buell ;    1892 77 

Burritt;    perforated;    1877    i 

Burritt;    water   joint   deflector;    1881 3 

Burritt;    1883 84 

Burritt;    water    joint ' 2 

Clapp;     1887     : 86 

Clapp ;    1891 70 

Draper '. \  .  .  . .  60 

Draper    Differential     ....'. 85 

Esty ;    older     73 

Esty ;    1 896    74 

Evans;    1902     no 

Gleason    , 62 

Gray ;    old ;    long   nipple    1 6 

Gray ;   old ;   long  nipple ;   open    ' 17 

Gray;    old;    short  nipple    ; 18 

Gray;    new;    1891 19 

Grinnell;    old;    pendant;    wide    seat    rings;    lead    discs;    1882;  to    1884;    tin; 
1884  to  1886;  narrow  seat  rings,  tin;   1886  to  1888;  babbitt  metal,  from 

April,    1888 23 

Grinnell ;    old ;    pendant ;    open    24 

Grinnell;    old;    upright;    1883 25 

Grinnell;    new;    Oct.    2,    1890    26 

Grinnell ;    open ;   eaves    27 

Gunn 63 

Harkness;    old;    1885 56 

Harkness;    later;    1891 57 

Harris;    1883    1 !.. 15 

Hibbard ;     1894     .- .  69 

Hill;   older;    1883 71 

Hill;    later;    1887 72 

Hopedale     33 

Independent 1 09 

Jahn;     1891 88 

John    Kane;    1881 89 

John    Kane;    1900 91 

Kane    Eclipse     41 

Kane    Eclipse ;    open    '. 42 

Kane;    old    43 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


Kane  °    new    

No. 
44 

45 

Kersteter'   older*    1887 

64 

:    6s 

:    87 

Kersteter'    1898 

90 

McLauthlin'    1894 

101 

Mackev:     1881     . 

.      99 

Mackey;    box;    1884    46 

Mackey;    disc    47 

Mackey;    later    pendant;    1888    48 

Manufacturers;    flat    screw;    pendant;    1892 49 

round   screw;    pendant;    1894   5° 

mutual     51 

yoke;    upright;    1894    . 52 

duck    bill ;    upright    -. 53 

....  61 


Manufacturers; 
Manufacturers; 
Manufacturers; 
Manufacturers; 
Xagle;  1886  . 

Nagle;    1891     92 

Naylor;    1895     93 

Xeracher;    lawn;    1882    28 

Neracher;    yoke   link;    1883 29 

Xeracher;   side   links;    1884 30 

Xeracher;    regular;    older;    1888    „  1 31 

Xeracher;    regular;    later    32 

Xe  wton ;      1 892      f. 68 

Xew  York  &   New  Haven;   thimble;    1883 
link    . 


9 

10 

'.  .  .  .  ii 

1888      12 

later ;   elbow    1 3 

I:::::::::::::::::::::  X 

vertical    107 

4 


New  York  &  New  Haven 

New  York  &  New  Haven;  link;  open 

New  York  &   New  Haven;   older;   elbow; 

New  York  &  New   Haven 

New  York  &  New  Haven;  later;  elbow;  open 

New   York  &   New   Haven ;    elbow    

New  York  &  New  Haven 

Parmalee;    1878    

Parmalee ;    open    

Pierce ;    older    66 

Pierce;    later;    1892 67 

Ruthenburg;     1885     '.  .". 98 

Shaffer    Mascot;    1887    102 

Star;    1886 108 

Swan;    1895 94 

Talcott;     1882     96 


Up  to   Date;    1899    
Wai  Worth;    old;    pendant;    1883    

97 

:  34 

Walworth  ; 
Walworth  ; 

old  ;   pendant  ;   open    
old;    upright    

35 
36 

Walworth; 

old  ;   upright  ;   open    

37 

Walworth; 

new;    upright;    turbine    

38 

Walworth  ; 
Walworth; 

new;  upright;   turbine;   open    
new  ;    disc    

39 
4° 

Walworth; 

with    soldered   arm   

95 

Walworth; 

1898     

IuO 

Walworth; 

upright  ;   closed    

103 

Walworth  ; 

upright;    open    

104 

Walworth; 

pendant  ;    closed    

105 

Walworth  ; 

pendant  ;    open    

106 

FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


i — Burritt;  perforated,  1877.  2 — Burritt;  water  joint.  3 — Bur- 
ritt;  water  joint;  deflector;  1881.  4 — Parmalee;  1878.  5 — Parma- 
lee;  open.  6 — Bishop;  old  water  joint;  1881.  7 — Bishop;  old  water 
joint;  open.  8 — Bishop;  later  water  joint.  9 — New  York  &  New 
Haven;  thimble;  1883.  10 — New  York  &  New  Haven;  link,  n — 
New  York  &  New  Haven;  link;  open. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


12— New  York  &  Xew  Haven;  older;  elbow;  1888.  13— New  York 
&  New  Haven;  later;  elbow.  14 — New  York  &  New  Haven;  later; 
elbow;  open.  15 — Harris;  1883.  16 — Gray;  old;  long  nipple;  1886. 
17 — Gray;  old;  long  nipple;  open.  18 — Gray;  old;  short  nipple.  19 — 
Gray;  new;  1891.  20 — Brown;  No.  i;  1881. 


586  '  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


29 


•  21- — Brown;  No.  i;  open.  22 — Brown;  No.  2;  1883.  23 — Grinnell; 
old;  pendant;  wide  seat  rings;  lead  discs,  1882  to  1884;  tin,  1884  to 
1886;  narrow  seat  rings,  tin,  1886  to  1888;  babbitt  metal,  from  April, 
1888.  24— Grinnell;  old;  pendant;  open.  25— Grinnell;  old;  upright; 
1883.  26 — Grinnell;  new;  Oct.  2,  1890.  27 — Grinnell;  open;  eaves. 
28 — Neracher;  lawn;  1882.  29 — Neracher,  yoke  link;  1883. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


587 


35 


30 — Neracher;  side  links;  1884.  31 — Neracher;  regular;  older; 
1888.  32 — Neracher;  regular;  later.  33— Hopedale.  34— Walworth; 
old;  pendant;  1883.  35 — Walworth;  old;  pendant;  open.  36 — Wal- 
worth; old;  upright.  37 — Walworth;  old;  upright;  open.  38 — WraJ- 
worth;  new;  upright;  turbine. 


S88 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


^.'391 — Walworth;  new;  Upright;  turbine;  open.     40 — Walworth;  new; 
di^c.     41- — Kane   Eclipse.     42— Kane   Eclipse;   open.     43— Kane;    old. 
,       44 — Kane;     ne\^.      45 — ICane;    universal.      46 — Mackey;    box;     1884. 
47 — Mackey;   disc. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


50 


53 


48 — Mackey;  later  pendant;  1888.  49 — Manufacturers;  flat  screw; 
pendant;  1892.  50 — Manufacturers-  round  screw;  pendant;  1894. 
51 — Manufacturers;  mutual.  52 — Manufacturers;  yoke;  upright; 
1894.  53 — Manufacturers;  duck  hill;  upright.  54 — Buell;  old.  55 — 
Buell;  later;  1882.  56— Harkness;  old;  1885. 


590 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


65 


57 — Harkness;  later;  1891.  58 — Barnes;  perforated.  5,9 — Barnes; 
lever  and  link;  1880.  60 — Draper.  61 — Nagle;  1886.  62 — Gleason. 
63 — Gunn.  64 — Kersteter;  older;  1887.  65 — Kersteter;  later. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


1  591 


66 — Pierce;  older.  67 — Pierce;  later;  1892.  68 — Newton;  1892. 
69 — Hibbard;  1894.  70 — Clapp;  1891.  71— Hill;  older;  1883.  72 — 
Hill;  later;  1887.  73 — Esty;  older.  74— Esty;  1896. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROJECTION 


75— Rabcock;  1900.  .  76 — Buell;  1884.,  77— Buell;  1892.  78— 
Bishop;  1888.  79— Buell;  18:85.  80— Bishop;  1885.  81— New  York 
&  New  Haven;  elhow.  82— Buell;  1873.  83— Buell;  1884. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


593 


85 


91 


84 — Burritt;  1883.  85 — Draper  Differential.  86 — Clapp;  1887. 
87 — Kersteter;  1888.  88 — Jahn;  1891.  89 — John  Kane;  1881.  90 
—Kersteter;  1898.  91 — John  Kane;  1900.  92 — Nagle;  1891. 


594 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


99 


100 


101 


93 — Naylor;  1895.  94 — Swan;  1895.  95 — Walworth,  with  soldered 
arm.  96 — Talcott;  1882.  97 — Up  to  Date;  1899.  98 — Ruthenburg; 
1885.  99 — Mackey;  1883.  100 — Walworth;  1898.  101 — McLauth- 
lin;  1894.  l 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


595 


102 


103 


104 


105 


(07 


106 


109 


110 


ioj — Shaffer  Mascot;  1887.  103 — Walworth;  upright;  closed.  104 
-Walworth;  upright;  open.  105 — Walworth;  pendant;  closed.  106 
— \Val worth;  pendant;  open.  107 — New  York  &  New  Haven;  verti- 
cal. 108 — Star;  1886.  109 — Independent.  110 — Evans;  1902. 


596 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Grinnell   Improved    1903    Sprinklers     , 

(Glass  'Sealed) 
General    Fire    Extinguisher    Co. 


o» 


Evans,  Issue  B. 
Merchants  and   Evans  Co. 


Crowder,  Issue  A. 
Crowder    Bros. 


AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS 


597 


Manufacturers,    Issue   C. 
Automatic    Sprinkler   Co.   of   America 


Associated,   Issue    B. 
Associated  Automatic   Sprinkler   Co. 


Niagara,   Issue  B. 
Automatic   Sprinkler  Co.   of  America 


International,    Issue   ]'>. 
International    Sprinkler    Co. 


FIRE  PUMPS 


Uniform  specifications  for  Fire  Pumps  are  now  used  throughout 
the  whole  country,  having  been  agreed  upon  ifi  joint  conference 
by  representatives  of  the  different  organizations  interested  in  this 
class  of  work.  They  are  known  as  "  The  National  Standard  "  and 
have  been,  up  to  this  time,  adopted  by  the  following  Associations : 

Associated   Factory   Mutual  Fire   Ins.   Go's. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

National  Fire  Protection  Association. 

These  specifications  are  followed  by  all  the  leading  manufac- 
turers ;  a  few  makes  of  pumps  have  been  examined  and  listed  by 
the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  as  complying  with  the  specifica- 
tions, but  in  general,  manufacturers  have  not  submitted  their 
products  for  examination  and  underwriting  organizations  are 
accepting  of  any  reliable  maker  the  pump  catalogued  as  an  "  Un- 
derwriters' Fire  Pump." 

The  principal  points  of  difference  between  a  fire  pump  and  the 
ordinary  commercial  pump  are: 


ROTARY   FIRE  PUMP 

(a)  The  water  passages  are  made  larger  than  in  most  pumps  hitherto  built, 
so  that  there  is  less  loss  of  pressure  in  getting  water  to  and  from  the  pump. 

(b)  The  pump  is  "  rust-proofed  "  so  that  it  may  start  instantly  after  disuse, 


5  Bucket  Cam.  T  ducket  Cam. 

Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.   88. — Rotary   Pumps 

>1  !;>•:.'    -I'/  I  ,.'!       W-'r.\ 

598 


FIRE  PUMPS 


599 


by  making  its  working  cams   and   water  casing  of   solid   composition   instead   of 
cast   iron. 

(c)  The   shafts  are  made  heavier  and  the  bearings  more  liberal,  with  special 
arrangements  for  keeping  these  bearings  oiled  and  in  readiness  for  instant  use. 

(d)  A  single  pair  of  forged  steel  gears  is  supported  on  each  side.     These  are 
accurately  cut  and  run  in  oil. 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Uud's. 
FIG.   89 


(e)  A  special  discharge  casting  and  air  chamber  with  certain  fittings  is  fur- 
nished with  each  pump.  These  fittings  include  a  pressure  gauge,  a  relief  valve 
and  cone,  a  priming  pipe  and  valve,  a  starting  valve,  two  to  six  hose  valves, 
and  a  capacity  plate. 


6oo 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


STEAM  DUPLEX  FIRE  PUMP 

1.  Its    steam    ports    and    water    passages    and    air    chamber    are    made    much 
larger  than   in   common   trade   pumps,   so  that    a   larger   volume   of   wafer  can 
be   delivered  in  an   emergency   without   water   hammer. 

2.  It  is  "rust  proofed  "  that  it  may  start  instantly  after  disuse,  by  making 
its   piston    rods   and   valve   rods   of   Tobin   bronze,    instead  'of   steel;    its    water 
pistons,   stuffing   boxes   and   rock-shaft   bearings   of   brass,   instead   of   cast-iron. 
Its    valve    levers    are    made    of    steel    or    wrought-iron    forgings,    or    of    steel 
castings. 

3.  The  following  necessary  attachments  are  all  included  in  the  price  of  the 
"National   Standard    Pump,"   viz. :— a  vacuum   chamber,    two' pressure   gauges, 
a    relief   valve,    a    set    of    brass    priming    pipes,    2    to    6,  hose    valves,    a    stroke 
gauge,   a  capacity  plate,   an   oil   pump,  a  sight   feed  lubricator;  and   a   casti-iron 
relief-valve   discharge-cone. 

By  reason  of  th0  larger  p6rts,  passageways  and  pipes  its  larger  number 
of  valves,  and  the  •  added  attachments,  and  general  superior  construction  a 
"  National  Standard  "  pump  costs  more  than  a  common  trade  fire  pump,  but 
the  cost  per  gallon  which  these  pumps  can  deliver  in  an  emergency  by  reason 
of  their  large  passageways,  etc.,  ,is  no  greater  than  for  the  old  style  of  fire 
pump  and  is  well  worth  this  extra  cost. 

NATIONAL  STANDARD  PUMP  SIZES 
Steam  Duplex  Pumps 


Pump  Sizes 

Ratio  of 
Piston 

Areas 

Capacity  at  100  Lbs., 
at  Pump 

Boiler 
Power 
Required 

Full  Speed 

B 
1 

C/3 

|4| 

8 

$ 

(U 
JaA 
O 
Z 
V) 

Number  of 
1  i-in-i-  Streams- 

Nominal  Gals, 
per  Minute 

•  •""""  {  '7TTC1 

Actual  Gals, 
per  Minute 

<u 

L 

E 

"Steam  Pressure 
at  Pump,  Lbs. 

Revolutions 
per  Minute 

Piston  Travel, 
Feet  per  Minute 

About 

14    x 
12    x 

7    x  12 
7J  x  12 

4  to  1 

Two 

500 

483, 
520 

100 

40 

70 

140 

16    x 

9    x  12 

3  to  1 

Three 

750 

!  _ 

1     .1: 
806', 

115 

45 

70 

.    140 

18    x 
18*  x 

10    x  12 
10i  x  12 

3  to  1 

Four 

1000 

m 

1050 

150 

'•45 
SO 

70 

140 
160 

20    x 

12    x  16 

21  to  1 

Six 

1500 

1655 

200 

60 

ROTARY  FIRE  PUMPS  " 


Nominal' 
Gallons  per 
Minute 

Approximate 
Width  of 
Buckets 

Approximate 
Distance 
Between 

Centers 

Approximate 
Speed, 
Revolutions 
per  Minute 

Number  of 
1  i-inch 
Streams 

Approximate 
Horse  Power 
Required 
for  100  Lbs. 
Pressure* 

500 
750 
1000 
1500 

Inches 
'8 
9  or  10 
10 
12 

Inches 
7  or    8 
8  or    9 
9  or  10 
10  or  12 

"275 
•'•.•u    275 
250 
250 

2 
3 
4 
6 

60 
90 

120 

180 

*  Somewhat  less  horse  power  will  drive  the  pump  when  spur  gears  are  used 
and  conditions  are  favorable. 


FTRE  PUMPS 
CENTRIFUGAL  FIRE  PUMPS 


601 


Centrifugal  pumps  are  those  in  which  the  water  is  given  a  high  velocity 
by  revolving  imjiellers.  The  velocity  of  the  water  on  leaving  the  .impeller 
is  reduced  by  suitably  arranged  passages  and  appears  as  pressure.  Higher 


Reproduced  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.   90 

pressures  may  be  secured  by  increasing  the  speed  or  by  arranging  two  or 
more  impellers  in  series.  To  avoid  excessively  high  speeds  the  latter  method 
is  usually  employed,  forming  the  multi-stage  pump. 

It    is    the    intent    of    these    specifications    to    prescribe    limits    within    which 
manufacturers    may    work    to    secure    a    pump,  comparable    in    reliability    and 


602  ,  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

efficiency  with  the  present  steam  or  rotary  pump.  High  efficiencies,  however 
desirable,  should  not  be  secured  at  the  expense  of  simplicity  and  reliability 
under  average  fire-service  conditions. 

Although  by  these  specifications  it  is  expected  to  secure  centrifugal 
pumps  satisfactory  for  fire  purposes,  it  is  recognized  that  the  art  is  in  a 
progressive  state,  and  experience  may  subsequently  show  some  modifications 
from  these  requirements  to  be  desirable.  In  the  meantime,  however,  it  is 
expected  that  manufacturers  will  conform  to  the  specifications  as  herein 
printed. 

Centrifugal  pumps  should  not  be  accepted  until  the  conditions  in  each 
case  have  been  examined  and  the  suitability  of  such  a  pump  has  been 
determined. 

The  centrifugal  pump  ,  is  well  adapted  for  driving  by  an  electric  motor 
or  by  a  steam  turbine,  as  the  speed  of  the  pump  and  the  prime  mover  may 
readily  be  made  the  same,  thus  permitting  direct  connection.  Whether  or 
not  the  motor  drive  may  be  accepted  in  any  case  is  largely  a  question  of  the 
reliability  of  the  electric  current  driving  the  motor  in  the  event  of  a  fire  in 
the  property  itself,  or  in  adjoining  buildings  which  might  threaten  the 
property.  To  make  a  motor-driven  pump  acceptable,  the  electric  power 
supply  should  be  as  reliable  as  the  steam  supply  in  the  average  property  for 
the  ordinary  steam  fire  pump.  Each  case  must,  therefore,  be  specially  con- 
sidered and  decided  upon  its  merits.  Other  methods  of  driving,  where  reliable, 
will  be  acceptable. 

TYPE. — (a)   Either  the  horizontal-shaft  or  the  vertical-shaft  type  may  be  used. 

(b)  If  the  vertical-shaft  type  be  used,  some  form  of  thrust  bearing  must 
be  provided  to  take  the  weight  of  the  impeller  and  its  shaft,  and  a  separate 
thrust  bearing  provided  for  taking  the  weight  of  the  driving  shaft.  Means 
must  be  provided  to  adjust  each  thrust  bearing  independently  of  the  other. 

It  is  probable  that  the  horizontal  type  will  be  the  less  expensive  and  for 
many  situations,  will  be  preferable.  There  are  likely  to  be,  however,  situa- 
tions for  which  the  vertical-shaft  type  will  be  better  suited,  such  as  a  very 
high  suction  lift,  or  where  it  is  not  expedient,  by  reason  of  dirt  and  damp- 
ness, to  place  the  moj:or  or  other  prime  mover  at  the  same  level  as  the 
pump.  In  such  cases,  by  placing  the  pump  down  within  easy  reach  of  the 
water  and  extending  the  shaft  to  a  higher  level  where  the  motor  can  be 
connected  and  better  cared  for,  the  outfit  can  then  be  made  comparable  in 
reliability  to  the  horizontal  type  at  low  lifts.  Such  an  arrangement  would 
call  for  the  two  thrust  bearings  above  mentioned,  independently  adjustable 
to  take  the  weight  of '  the  revolving  parts. 

STAGES. — The  pump  must  be  of  not  less  than  two  stages  and  not  more  than 
four. 

To  obtain  a  fire  pressure  of  100  pounds  two  stages  at  least  appear  to  be 
necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  very  large  impellers  and  to  secure  a  reasonably 
good  efficiency. 

It  is  also  recognized  that  there  are  advantages  in  the  four-stage  pump, 
permitting  of  lower  speeds;  and  in  some  makes  they  admit  of  a  more  perfect 
balancing  of  end  thrusts  without  the  added  complication  of  balancing -pistons 
and  thrust  bearings.  The  four-stage  pump  being  of  smaller  diameter,  also 
permits  of  a  stronger  design  of  casting.  One  stage  pump  may  be  satis- 
factory when  driven  by  steam  turbines. 

Whether  one,  two,  three,  or  four  stages  are  adopted,  the  utmost  simplicity 
and  ruggedness  of  design,  together  with  the  avoidance  of  all  dispensable  com- 
plications, will  be  required. 

CAPACITY  AND  SPEED. —  (a)  The  four  standard  sizes  for  centrifugal  pumps 
will  be  as  follows: 

SIZE  OF  PUMP 

Gals,  per  Min.  No.  1J*  Streams 

500  2 

750  3 

1,000  4 

1,500  >r>  ,>\i$  fi 


FIRE  PUMPS  603 

(b)   The  speed  of  pump  must  not  exceed   1,800   revolutions  per  minute. 

Centrifugal  pumps  will  be  most  frequently  driven  by  electric  motors,  and 
it  is  desirable  to  bring  their  speeds  into  conformity  with  the  larger  number 
of  standard  motors  now  being  built. 

Somewhat  higher  speeds,  not  to  exceed  2,500  r.  p.  m.,  may  be  allowed 
for  pumps  driven  by  steam  turbines.  But  in  such  cases  permission  should 
be  obtained  from  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

Steam  turbines  must  be  capable  of  driving  pump  at  rated  speed  and 
pressure,  with  steam  pressures  varying  from  75  to  150  pounds. 

EFFICIENCY  AND  POWER. — The  pump  must  be  able  to  discharge  its  full 
rated  capacity  at  its  rated  speed  against  100  Ibs.  pressure,  with  substantially 
a  zero  suction  lift,  and  at  an  efficiency  not  less  than  as  given  in  the  table 
following: 

Size  of  Pump  Per  Cent  Efficiency 
500  gallons  per  minute  50  to  55 

750        55  to  60 

1,000        "          "         "  60  to  65 

1,500  65  to  70 

The  efficiency  of  centrifugal  pumps  falls  away  rapidly  on  the  small  sizes. 
These  efficiencies  are  required,  not  because  the  cost  of  the  power  used 
during  the  fire  is  of  importance,  but  because  a  much  lower  efficiency  would 
mean  a  larger  motor,  consequently  more  first  cost,  and,  when  running,  a 
larger  tax  on  transmission  lines  and  power  stations. 

The  power  required  to  drive  these  four  different  sizes  of  pumps  at  their 
full  rated  capacity,  based  on  the  required  efficiencies,  will  be  about  as  follows: 


Size  of  Pump 

Efficiencies      Horse  Power  Required 

500  gallons  per  minute 
750        " 
1,000        " 
1,500 

50  to  55                      64  to    60 
55  to  60                       88  to    80 
60  to  65                    107  to  100 
65  to  70                    148  to  138 

The    theoretical    power    required    to 
pressure   of    100   Ibs.    and    with   a   zero 

discharge    250    gallons    a    minute    at    a 
suction   lift,   is    14.6   horse   power.      For 

a  pump  of  60  per  cent  efficiency  this  would  mean  that  an  input  to  pump 
of  about  25  horse  power  would  be  needed  per  250  gallons  per  minute  delivery 
at  100  Ibs.  pressure.  For  efficiencies  other  than  this  or  for  any  material 
suction  lift  or  head,  some  modification  in  horse  power  required  will  be 
demanded.  In  anv  event  the  power  provided  should  be  sufficient  to  guard 
against  any  appreciable  overload  of  the  motor  at  the  rated  discharge  in 
pressure. 

CHARACTERISTIC  CURVES. —  (a)  The  design  of  the  impeller  blades  must  be 
such  that  it  will  not  be  possible  to  overload  the  driving  motor  more  than 
25  per  cent. 

Electric  motors  ordinarily  will  be  used  for  driving  pumps  of  this  type. 
It  is  important  to  have  the  pump  so  designed  that  the  motor  could  not 
be  burned  out,  either  by  shutting  off  streams  or  by  connecting  more  streams 
than  the  rated  capacity  of  the  pump.  Motor  builders  are  ready  to  guarantee 
their  motors  against  overload  of  25  per  cent  for  2  hours.  A  greater  over- 
load than  this  should  not  be  maintained  except  momentarily. 

(b)  For   'pumps    driven    by    a    constant    speed    motor    a    steep    characteristic 
curve  should  ordinarily  be  adopted  as  shown  in   Figure  91. 

The  wide  range  of  pressures  and  capacities  obtainable  from  a  steam  fire 
pump  are  not  possible  with  a  centrifugal  pump  driven  by  a  constant  speed 
motor.  Some  compromise,  however,  is  feasible  by  the  adoption  of  a  steep 
characteristic,  whereby  a  much  high  pressure  than  the  rating  is  possible 
at  the  smaller  flows,  as  indicated  in  Figure  91.  This  higher  pressure  is  very 
desirable  where  long  lines  of  hose  are  required,  or  in  the  event  of  a  fire 
in  a  very  high  or  wide  building. 

In  those  instances  where  pumps  take  their  water  supply  under  a  consid- 
eiable  head,  the  steep  characteristics  should  not  be  adopted;  or,  in  any  event, 
one  so  steep  as  to  result  in  excessive  pressures  on  the  yard  system. 

(c)  For    pumps    driven    by    an    adjustable    speed    motor    or    prime    mover,    a 
flat  characteristic  curve  should  ordinarily  be  adopted  as  shown  in  Figure  92. 

The  higher  cost  of  such  adjustable  speed  pumping  units  have  usually  pre- 
vented their  adoption.  But  their  obvious  advantage  in  many  instances  makes 
their  tt'citicn  well  worth  while. 


6o4 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(d)  For  pumps  taking  their  water  under  considerable  head,  the  flat  char- 
acteristic curve 'should  ordinarily  be  adopted,  or  one  which  will  not  in  con- 
junction with  the  inlet  pressure  result  in  unduly  high  pressures  on  the 
fire  system. 


If. 

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Gallon* 

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XI    1100      i.-OO    1X0     MO    bOO    WOO    110 
er       Mmute  .,.,.,. 

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Of 

0    W 

FIG.  91 


Centrifugal  pumps  are  being  extensively  used  in  cities  as  "  booster  "  pumps, 
taking  their  water  supply  from  the  street  mains  at  pressures  from  20  to 
50  pounds. 

With  the  steep  characteristic  curve  shown  in  Figure  91,  there  might  result 
undue  pressures  on  the  fire  system  at  the  smaller  flows. 


no 
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oo'uoouooiujowoiTCioaooBcojw 

nuta 

FIG.  92 


If  the  inlet  pressure  is  to  remain  nearly  constant,  pump  impellers  can  be 
designed  to  suit,  and  high  pressures  avoided.  However,  as  these  pressures 
are  sometimes  reduced  materially  under  large  flows,  no  allowances  for  this 
suction  head  should  be  made,  unless  assured  that  it  is  of  a  constant  character. 

For   these    reasons   the    flat   characteristic   curve   will    ordinarily    better    safe- 


FIRE  PUMPS  605 

guard  the  fire  systems,  and  if  the  situation  demands  higher  pressures,  the 
adjustable  speed  motor  or  steam  turbine  should  then  be  adopted. 

In  any  installation  where  unduly  high  pressures  result,  and  the  above 
suggestion  cannot  be  adopted,  the  relief  valve  should  be  set  at  some  reason- 
able safe  pressure,  say  125  Ibs.,  and  allowed  to  discharge  the  excess  capacity 
at  the  smaller  flows. 

There  have  been  a  few  pumps  built  of  the  3  stage  type,  operated  by  a 
constant  speed  motor,  that  permit  variable  pressures.  Ordinarily  only  two 
of  the  impellers  are  running,  giving  pressures  of  90  to  100  Ibs.  But  by 
throwing  into  commission  the  third  impeller,  pressures  35  per  cent  to  40 
per  cent  higher  are  available.  In  some  cases,  such  equipments  would  satis- 
factorily meet  the  conditions  mentioned  in  e. 

(e)  For  a  constant   speed  the  characteristic   curve   of  pressure   and  capacity 
must  be  one  constantly  rising  as  th6  discharge   decreases. 

At  no  point  in  this  curve  should  the  pressure  be  higher  than  at  the  shut- 
off  point. 

As  the  pressure  gauge  is  the  only  indicator  of  the  pump  discharge,  it  is 
important  that  this  gauge  should  indicate  only  one  discharge  capacity  for  any 
given  pressure  and  speed. 

(f)  For    a    constant    speed    and    a    steep    characteristic    curve,    the    pressure 
at    shut-off   point   should   be   not   less    than    30    per   cent    higher    than    pressure 
at    rated    capacity,    and    the    discharge    capacity    should   be    50   per   cent    higher 
than  rated  discharge  at-  a  pressure  not  less  than  70  per  cent  of  that  at  rated 
discharge. 

INSTALLATION   OF   PUMPS 

LOCATION. — Pumps   must   be   so   located   as   to   secure   the   following   features. 

(a)  They    must    be    safe    from    damage    from    falling    floors    or    machinery, 
and    by    suitable    cut-offs    be    safeguarded    from    any    influence    such    as    smoke, 
fire   ,or    flood    that    might    drive    away    the    operator.       A    one-story    building 
isolated    from    the    main    group    is    to    be    preferred. 

Where  brick  or  reinforced  concrete  is  not  feasible,  expanded  metal  and 
cement  is  recommended  as  an  inexpensive  and  desirable  construction  for 
such  a  room. 

The  practice  of  locating  centrifugal  pumps  in  basements  not  cut  off  but 
with  pump  arranged  to  s'tart  from  outside  of  building  is  not  desirable,  and 
if  used  care  must  be  taken  that  all  starting  devices,  priming  valve  and  all 
other  similar  valves  be  arranged  to  be  operated  from  the  same  point. 

Where  there  are  several  pumps  in  different  buildings  not  all  subject  to 
one  fire,  the  requirement  concerning  cutting  off  of  pump  may  sometimes  be 
waived. 

(b)  The    pump    room    must   be   of   ample    size    to    afford    access   at   all    times 
for    operating    and    overhauling.       It    should    not    be    used    for    miscellaneous 
storage. 

(c)  Its    location    must    permit    of    practicable    pipe    connections,    the    suction 
pipe    receiving    first    consideration. 

(d)  Some    means    must    be    provided    for    maintaining    the    temperature    of 
pump    room    above   the    freezing   point. 

Artificial  light  must  be  provided,  and  provision  made  for  drainage  and 
ventilation. 

A  lantern,  preferably  two,  with  safety  matches  sh'ould  be  kept  in  pump 
room. 

FOUNDATION  AND  SETTING. —  (a)  Fire  pumps  must,  be  placed  upon  solid 
foundations,  preferably  built  of  concrete  or,  if  desired,  of  brick  laid  in 
strong  hydraulic  cement. 

It  is  desirable  to  give  these  foundations  a  batter  fore  and  aft  of  about  i 
to  4  in  order  to  secure  ampfe  bearing  upon  the  sub-foundation.  This  will 
insure  stability  during  the  fast  running  demanded  of  fire  pumps.  Where 
foundation  is  built  of  bricks,  a  capping  of  stone  or  cast  iron  under  bed 
plate  is  an  advantage  in  tying  together  the  upper  part  of  the  foundation. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  support  the  pump  on  I-beams  or  a 
framework  of  structural  iron.  The  bed  plate  should  then  be  bolted  securely 
fo  the  beams. 


6o6 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(b)  Pumps    must    be    set    level,    with     foundation    bolts    in    position,     and 
the    joint   between    the    foundation    and    the   bedplate    must   be    made    solid    by 
grouting    with    thin,    pure    cement.      When    thoroughly    set,    the    bolts    should 
then    be    tightened    up. 

(c)  Care    should    be    taken    not    to    spring    bedplate,    thereby    throwing    out 
of    line    the    respective    shafts    of    motor    and    pump.      The    interposed    flexible 
coupling    will    take    care    of    only    slight    inaccuracies    in    alignment. 

SUCTION  SUPPLY. — An  inexhaustible  supply  of  water  is  to  be  preferred. 
Where  a  stored  supply  only  is  available,  it  should  be  large  enough  to  supply 
the  pump  for  two  hours,  more  or  less,  depending  upon  local  conditions. 
Some  reliable  means  should  be  provided  for  filling  such  reservoir  through 
a  4-inch  or  6-inch  pipe. 

SUCTION  PIPE. — (a)  Where  the  pump  takes  its  water  under  a  head,  suction 
pipe  may  be  of  the  same  size  as  opening  in  pump;  but  with  a  suction  lift 
of  10  feet  or  more,  and  a  length  of  pipe  exceeding  20  feet,  or  with  more 
than  two  elbows,  suction  pipe  two  inches  larger  must  be  used,  and  a  special 
reducing  casting  must  be  provided  to  connect  this  pipe  with  the  pump. 

(b)  A  short  suction  pipe,  if  well  supported,  should  preferably  be  of  flanged 
pipe   with   rubber   gaskets.      If   of   some    length   and   in   yielding   soil,    bell-and- 
spigot  pipe  should  be  used,  and  the  joints  filled  with -lead  and  tightly   calked. 
Yarn  "and    similar    materials    should    not   be    used    as    a    substitute    for   lead    in 
suction  pipe  joints. 

(c)  Great  care  should  be  taken   in  laying  the   suction   pipe,  so   that  it  shall 
have  a  constantly  ascending  grade  from  the  water  supply  to  the  pump. 

If  high  places  or  summits  are  permitted,  they  are  likely  to  give  constant 
trouble  by  the  accumulation  of  air,  thereby  cutting  down  the  area  of  the 
pipe  and  reducing  the  amount  of  water  possible  to  be  delivered  at  the  pump. 

(d)  Extremely    long    suction    pipes    should    be    avoided    wherever    possible. 
When    exceeding    100    feet,    effort   should    be    made   to   provide    an    intake   well 
as  near  as  practicable  to  pump  and  supply  the  well  through  a  large  tile  pipe 
laid    on    a    down    grade    from    the    source    of    water    supply.      This    inlet    pipe 
should   be   provided  with  a  gate  valve. 

FOOT  VALVE. — Except  with  duplex  pumps,  with  less  than  18  feet  lift,  all 
situations  involving  a  lift  require  a  foot  valve  Any  foot  valve  that  may 
be  installed  should  have  bronze  seats  and  be  faced  with  some  suitable  yield- 
ing material,  such  as  leather,  and  should  be  of  a  design  and  construction 
that  will  not  unduly  restrict  the  flow  of  water  toward  the  pump.  The  foot 
valve  should  be  so  located  as  to  be  readily  accessible  and  be  provided  with 
handholes. 


FIG.  93. — A  Foot  valve  of  Good  Design 


(f)  Wherever  a  strainer  is  advisable,  it  should  be  so  constructed  and 
arranged  that  it  can  be  cleaned  or  repaired  without  disturbing  the  suction 
pipe  itself.  A  brass  or  copper  wire  screen  of  about  one-half  inch  mesh 


FIRE  PUMPS 


607 


and  No.  10  B.  &  S.  wire,  secured  to  a  frame  sliding  vertically  at  the  entrance 
to  the  intake,  makes  a  serviceable  arrangement,  and  permits  of  ready  clean- 
ing and  overhauling.  The  screen  should  have  an  effective  area  of  one 
square  inch  for  every  rated  gallon  per  minute  size  of  pump.  Double  screens 
are  advised,  so  arranged  that  either  can  be  removed  for  cleaning  while  the 
other  remains  in  service.  The  ordinary  combination  foot  valve  and  strainer 
should  be  avoided. 

(g)  Where  the  pump  takes  its  water  under  a  lift,  the  suction  pipe  must 
not  be  used  to  supply  any  other  pump. 

DISCHARGE  PIPE. — An  approved  indicating  flanged  gate  valve  should  be 
placed  in  the  discharge  pipe  and  located  next  to  the  pump.  There  should 
also  be  in  this  same  pipe  a  check  valve  located  preferably  outside  of  the  pump 
house  in  the  ground.  If  the  valve  is  located  inside  the  pump  room  it  should 
be  as  near  the  building  wall  as  possible,  and,  in  any  event,  the  valve  and 
the  pipe  from  it  to  the  outside  system  should  be  thoroughly  protected 
against  injury. 

By  placing  the  discharge  valve  at  the  pump,.,  any  accident  to  the  discharge 
piping,  either  in  the  pump  room  or  outside,  will  not  cripple  the  pump,  for 
by  closing  the  valve  the  pump  will  still  be  available  for  service  through  hose 
lines  connected  to  the  hose  valves  on  the  pump. 

Unless  the  check  valve  in  the  discharge  pipe  is  well  protected  against 
breakage,  an  accident  to  the  pump  or  piping  in  the  pump  room  may  also 
damage  the  check  valve,  in  which  case  the  water  from  the  other  supplies 
may  be  seriously  wasted. 


1 


rViwn$  Valve  at 

convenient  location         Check  Valve 

nearRimp 

oitzi  j 


Discharge  Casting 

Discharge  Ge?e  or  Hose  Connection  piece 
can  be  .;onnected  to  any  one  of  the  side 
openings  in  Discharge  " 


j'l}M   Discharge  Vafve 

i ;»  t !  •'.  • 


Suction  Valve  should     \  ~< 
be  provided  when  PWp 
takes  water  under  head 


Relief  Vafve 


Note  Full  lines  show 
parts  furnished 
by  ftjmp  Manu- 
facturers- 


Reproducd  by  permission  Nat'l  Bd.  of  Fire  Und's. 
FIG.  94 


RELIEF  VALVE  WASTE  PIPE. — The  relief  valve  waste  pipe  should  preferably 
pass  directly  from  its  discharge  cone  to  the  atmosphere.  If  connected  to  any 
underground  drain,  care  should  be  taken  that  no  steam  drains  enter  near 
enough  to  work  back  through  the  cone  and  into  the  pump  room.  The  waste 


608  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

pipe  should  be  run  the  full  .size  called  for  by  the  outlet  of  cone,  and  if 
more  than  one  elbow  is  employed  the  next  size  larger  pipe  should  be  used 
to  complete  the  connection.  This  waste  pipe  may  at  times  be  called  upon 
to  carry  the  entire  discharge  of  pump  at  full  speed. 

When  the  supply  of  water  is  limited,  as  from  a  special  suction  reservoir 
or  cistern,  the  waste  pipe  must  drain  into  such  reservoir  or  cistern,  entering 
as  far  from  the  pump  suction  as  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  pump  from 
draughting  air  which  may  be  carried  down  into  the  cistern  by  the  discharge 
from  the  waste  pipe. 

Size  of  waste  pipes  to  be  as  follows: 

Size  of  Pump  Size  of  Waste  Pipe 

500-gallon  5" 

750-gallon  6' 

1,000-gallon  7' 

1, 500-gallon  8' 

PRIMING. — Pumps  should  preferably  take  their  suction  supply  under  a 
slight  head;  centrifugal  pumps  have  no  lifting  ability  until  primed," 'and 
rotary  pumps  may  get  in  this  condition.  Where  this  is  not  practicable,  some 
kind  of  priming  equipment  must  be  provided.  For  this  purpose  one  of  the 
following  methods  is  recommended:  ,  '.! 

(a)  Provide    a    priming    tank    of   capacity    at    least    three    times    the    volume 
of   the  pump   and  suction   pipe    (in   no   case   less   than    250   gallons).      Connect 
tank   to   the    discharge    side    of   pump   at   such    a   point    as   will   insure   that   all 
priming  water  enters  the  pump,  and  is  not  wasted  in   the   pipes  leading  "from 
the    pump.      This    connection    should    include    a    straightway    outside-screw-and- 
yoke   valve   and   a   swing  check  valve   with  pipe  sizes   as    follows: 

Size  of  pump  (gals,  per  min.) 500  750          1,000        1,500 

Size   of   priming    pipe    for   suction 

pipe  not  over  25  feet  long 2 ^  inch      3  inch       3  }  inch      4  inch 

For    longer   suction   pipes,    larger   priming   connections    may   be    advised. 

The  bottom  of  this  tank  should  be  at  least  2  feet  above  the  top  of  the 
pump  to  insure  a  good  working  head.  Means  for  keeping  tank  filled  must 
be  provided,  either  by  an  auxiliary  pump,  or  a  connection  to  a  public  supply 
through  a  good  sized  ball  and  cock  arrangement.  A  connection  between 
fire  pump  and  tank  is  also  advised  to  permit  of  filling  same  at  close  of 
any  test. 

Where  an'  ample  public  water  supply  is  available,  arid  the  liability  of 
freezing  is  not  present,  it  will  be  well  to  connect  this  supply  direct  to  dis- 
charge side  of  pump  with  a  swing  check  and  valve,  thereby  maintaining  a 
filled  system  ready  for  instant  starting.  This,  of  course,  is  in  addition  to 
the  tank  above  specified. 

The  liberal  priming  tank  and  large  connecting  pipe  is.  necessary  so  that 
the  pump  could  be  primed,  and  primed  quickly,  even  if  there  were  considerable 
leakage  at  the  foot  valye.  As  the  priming  arrangement  is  so  vital  a  feature 
to  the  successful  starting  of  the  pump,  a  considerable  factor  of  safety  is 
needed. 

(b)  Where    the    .conditions    warrant,    such     as    an    unusually    long"  suction 
pipe,    a   small    centrifugal   pump    driven    by    a    separate   motor    or   other    power 
may    be    installed,    preferably    with    the    pump    submerged,    and    its    discharge 
connected   between   the   main    fire   pump    and   its   discharge   check   valve.      This 
will    enable    the    entire    main    suction    pipe,   :including    the    pump,    to    be    com- 
pletely   filled    prior,  to    the    starting    of    the    main    pump.    ,  For    such    an    outfit, 
in  case  it  is  not  practicable  to  submerge  the  priming,  pump,   a  moderate-sized 
tank   must   be  provided    for  priming  it,   arranged  as    outlined   in   paragraph   a. 


FIRE  PUMPS  609 

Such  an  arrangement  would  not  be  advised  for  short  suction  pipes  and 
low  lifts,  as  the  method  described  in  "A"  would  be  better  suited  for  such  places. 

(c)  Where    a    reliable    steam    supply    or    separate    water    supply    under    good 
pressure     is    available,     a    liberal-sized     exhauster    or    siphon     ejector    may    be 
connected    up    between    the    pump    and    discharge    check    valve. 

Such  an  arrangement  has  been  successfully  employed  in  exhausting  the  air 
from  pump  and  suction  pipe  and  permitting  a  prompt  starting  up  of  the 
main  pump. 

(d)  Some  type  of  mechanically  operated  exhauster   may   be  provided,   driven 
by    a    sparate    motor    so    designed    as    to    quickly    pump    the    air    out    of    the 
suction   pipe   and   pump. 

The  exhauster  should  be  connected  between  pump  and  discharge  check 
valve,  so  as  to  completely  fill  suction  pipe  and  pump.  A  gate  valve  should 
be  placed  in  this  exhauster  connection,  of  approved  indicating  type,  to  be 
closed  as  soon  as  pump  is  primed. 

Driving    Connections 

The  best  method  of  driving  a  rotary  pump  will  depend  upon  the  conditions 
present  at  a  given  situation.  The  following  methods  may  be  used,  and  the 
conditions  governing  their  adoption  are  indicated. 

PUMP  SHAFT  CONNECTED  TO  AN  INDEPENDENT  SOURCE  OF  POWER. — (a)  This 
involves  a  separate  water  wheel  motor  or  other  prime  mover  of  ample 
power  running  at  the  same  rated  speed  of  pump..  No  clutch  is  necessary, 
but  some  form  of  coupling,  to  allow  for  slight  end  play  of  shaft  is  needed, 
thereby  preventing  end  thrust  of  cams  on  pump  casing  and  a  resultant  wear. 
This  makes  the  preferred  arrangement. 

(b)  If  speed  of  prime  mover  is  not  the  same  as  the  rated  speed  of  pump, 
cut  spur  gears,  or  a  silent  chain  drive  may  be  employed  to  secure  the  desired 
speed.  Such  gears  should  be  kept  in  mesh  at  all  times.  No  clutch  or  coupling 
is  necessary. 

Co)  If  an  electric  motor  is  the  source  of  power,  the  motor  and  pump 
should  be  bolted  rigidly  to  the  same  bed  plate. 

PUMP  CONNECTED  THROUGH  SPUR  GEARING  TO  THE  MAIN  SHAFT  OF  THE 
MILL  WATER  WHEEL. —  (a)  In  this  case  some  form  of  clutch  of  the  rim 
friction  type  should  be  used  between  the  driving  gear  and  the  wheel  shaft. 
A  silent  chain  drive  can  also  be  used  in  place  of  the  gears,  being  specially 
useful  in  cases  where  the  pump  cannot  be  located  near  enough  to  main 
shaft  to  permit  spur  gears  of  reasonable  diameter.  The  chain  drive  should 
not  be  used  in  wet  places. 

Under  some  conditions  the  plain  square  jawed  clutch  may  be  used  in  place 
of  the  rim  friction  clutch,  where  other  reliable  and  independent  pumps  are 
available  on  the  same  system. 

The  old  type  of  sliding  spur  gears,  formerly  used  to  some  extent,  is  not 
advised,  as  there  is  always  the  danger  in  the  excitement  of  a  fire  of  throw- 
ing the  gears  into  mesh  while  power  is  running,  and  stripping  the  teeth. 

PUMP  CONNECTED  THROUGH  A  PAIR  OF  FRICTION  GEARS  TO  THE  MAIN  SHAFT 
OF  THE  MILL  WATER  WHEEL. — (a)  This  method  is  probably  the  most  com- 
mon in  use.  The  gears  are  simple  and  inexpensive,  and  when  properly 
fitted  up  will  give  fairly  good  service.  They  have  the  advantage  over  spur 
gears  in  that  they  can  be  thrown  into  mesh  while  power  is  running.  They 
are  nor  so  efficient,  however,  being  liable  to  slip,  and  consume  power  by 
being  pressed  tightly  together.  There  is  a  tendency  for  such  gears  to'  get 
out  of  line  due  to  axial  movement  of  wheel  shaft.  Flat  places  are  sometimes 
worn  on  their  periphery,  decreasing  their  efficiency.  To  be  acceptable  careful 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  following  features: 


6io  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(b)  The  gear  on  main  shaft  should  be  truly  centered  by  giving,  when 
possible,  its  finishing  cut  after  being  keyed  on  to  a  shaft. 

CENTRIFUGAL  PUMPS  will  probably  be  driven  by  electric  motors  in  most 
cases,  though  any  reliable  form  of  prime  mover  may  be  adapted  to  the 
service.  The  preference  will  naturally  be  for  such  driving  methods  as  permit 
of  a  direct  connection  without  speed-changing  devices.  With  motor  driving 
the  main  question  will  be  the  reliability  of  the  current  supply,  and  this 
can  be  determined  only  by  a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  in  each  case. 

Where  the  speed  of  motor  or  prime  mover  is  not  the  same  as  pump  speed, 
the  transmission  may  be  either  by  a  single  pair  of  cut  spur  gears,  preferably 
of  the  herring  bone  type,  or  a  silent  chain  drive  of  approved  construction. 

TESTS  FOR  ACCEPTANCE 
Steam  Duplex  Pumps 

TEST  FOR  SMOOTHNESS  OF  ACTION. — a.  Provide  outlets  for  the  water;  start 
the  pump  slowly,  gradually  open  steam-throttle  to  bring  the  pump  to  full 
speed.  The  pump  should  run  smoothly  at  the  rated  full  speed  of  70  revolu- 
tions per  minute  (or  60  revolutions  if  a  i,soo-gallon  pump)  with  full  length 
of  stroke,  and  meanwhile  maintain  a  water  pressure  of  100  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

If  the  hose  lines  are  short,  or  discharge  is  too  free,  partly  close  'the 
water  outlet  valves,  thus  throwing  an  extra  back  pressure  on  the  pump 
equivalent  to  that  which  would  be  produced  through  a  greater  length  of  hose. 

During  this  trial  it  is  preferable  to  discharge  the  water  through  lines  of 
-?%-inch  cotton  rubber-lined  hose,  preferably  each  150  feet  long,  each  con- 
nected directly  to  the  hose  outlets  on  the  pump,  and  each  line  having  a  i^-inch 
smooth  nozzle  at  its  outer  end.  Two  lines  should  be  connected  for  a  500- 
gallon  pump,  three  for  a  750,  and  so  on,  having  as  many  lines  as  rating 
of  pump  requires. 

A  hose  line  i.=;o  feet  long,  with  an  inside  surface  of  average  smoothness, 
and  with  a  i^-inch  nozzle  attached,  will  require  about  So  pounds  pressure 
at  the  pump  to  discharge  250  gallons  per  minute,  and  the  nozzle  pressure  will 
be  about  45  pounds.  Therefore,  with  lines  attached  as  above,  a  pressure  at 
the  pump  of  about  80  pounds  should  represent  a  discharge  about  equal  to 
the  rated  capacity  of  the  pump,  and  would  ordinarily  correspond  with  the 
rated  full  speed  revolutions. 

If  the  pump  runs  smoothly  under  these  conditions,  it  is  well  to  open 
the  throttle  somewhat  further,  and  bring  the  pressure  at  the  pump  up  to 
100  pounds.  This  will  give  a  discharge  of  about  280  gallons  per  stream, 
or  about  12  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  rated  capacity.  The  revolutions  will, 
of  course,  correspondingly  increase,  and  under  all  ordinary  conditions  a  pump 
should  run  smoothly  at  this  higher  capacity,  though  a  little  more  vibration 
and  pounding  would  be  expected  than  when  running  simply  at  its  rated 
sneed. 

After  cushion  valves  are  adjusted  there  should  be  no  noteworthy  water 
hammer  or  valve-slatn.  Sometimes  valve-slam  is  not  the  fault  of  the  pump, 
but  arises  from  an  obstructed  suction  pipe.  It  is  objectionable  to  doctor 
water  hammer  in  a  pump  by  snifting  air  into  the  suction,  as  this  cuts 
down  the  efficiency  and  is  a  poor  expedient. 

The  quietness  of  that  part  of  the  hose  near  the  pump,  or  its  freedom 
from  rubbing  back  and  forth  crosswise  an  inch  or  more  with  each  pulsation 
of  the  pump,  is  a  good  index  of  the  pump  maker'*  skill  in  securing  uniform 
delivery.  Bad  pulsation  quickly  wears  holes  in  the  hose,  and  to  reveal  this 
is  the  object  of  testing  with  hose  connected  directly  to  the  pump. 

TEST  OF  THE  INTERNAL  FRICTION. — a.  This  is  shown  by  the  reading  of 
steam  chest  gauge  compared  with  water  pressure  gauge  at  air  chamber. 

Tests  have  generally  run  about  as  follows,  for  pumps  running  at  full 
rated  speed: 


FIRE  PUMPS 


611 


Excess  of 

Actual 

Size, 

Ratio  of 

Steam 

Steam 

Steam 

Gallon? 

Steam  Piston 

Water 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

per 
Minute 
Capacity 

Area  to 
Water  Piston 
Area   • 

Pressure, 
Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Theoretically 
Necessary, 
Disregarding 
Friction 

Needed  to 
Overcome 
Friction, 
Back 

Found 
Necessary 
at  the 
Pump 

Pressure,  etc. 

500 

4    times 

100 

25 

15 

40 

750 

3 

100 

33 

12 

45 

1,000 

3 

100 

33 

12 

•       45, 

1,500 

2|      " 

100 

36.5 

13.5 

50 

b.  The  steam  pressure  needed  will  vary  slightly  with  the  freedom  of  the 
exhaust  pipe  and  with  the  tightness  of  the  packings,  etc.,  but  a  steam  pressure 
of  45  pounds  at  the  steam  chest  should  suffice  for  100  pounds  water  pressure 
on  pump  in  proper  adjustment. 

TEST  OF  STRENGTH  AND  TIGHTNESS. — a.  First,  shut  the  main  valve  between 
the  pump  and  the  fire  system  to  avoid  possible  injury  to  joints  or  fittings, 
thus  shut  all  water  outlets  nearly,  but  not  quite  tight,  so  pump  will  move 
very  slowly.  Screw  safety  valve  down  hard.  Slowly  and  carefully  admit 
steam  pressure  sufficient  to  give  240  pounds  per  square  inch  water  pressure. 

b.  With   this   extreme   pressure   all  joints   should   remain   substantially   tight, 
and  the   slow   motion    of   the   pump   should   be    tolerably   smooth   and   uniform. 
(The    leakage    of    a    few    drops    here    and    there    and    a    little    unsteadiness    of 
motion  are  to  be  expected.) 

c.  If  boiler  pressure  is  above  85   pounds,   the   safety  valve  on  pump  should 
be    attached    and    screwed    down    only   enough    to    hold    the    required    pressure. 
For  with    100   pounds  or  more  of  steam  the   water  pressure  might   he   carried 
too    high. 

After  completing  the  above  test  slack  off  on  safety  valve,  setting  it  so 
that  it  will  begin  to  open  at  about  100  pounds  pressure. 

TEST  OF  CAPACITY  OF  RELIEF  VALVE. — a.  The  relief  valve  may  next  be 
tested  by  first  adjusting  it  to  pop  at  100  pounds,  then  shut  the  main  outlet 
to  pump,  and  then  shut  the  hose  gates  one  by  one,  and  thus  force  all  the 
discharge  through  the  relief  valve,  meanwhile  opening  steam  throttle,  so  as 
to  run  pump  first  at  two-thirds  speed  or  about  fifty  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  finally  at  full  speed  (seventy  revolutions).  The  safety  valve  (relief 
valve)  should  carry  all  this  and  not  let  the  pressure  rise  above  125  pounds. 

The  pressure  in  a  quick-moving  fire-pump  necessarily  fluctuates  5  to  15 
pounds  at  different  points  in  stroke,  and  an  air  chamber  of  reasonable  size 
cannot  wholly  remove  this.  Therefore  the  safety  valve  must  be  set  at  about 
15  pounds  higher  than  the  intended  average  working  pressure;  otherwise  it 
will  get  to  jumping  with  almost  every  stroke. 

TEST  OF  INTERNAL  LEAKAGE  OR  SLIP.— a.  Set  safety  valves  at  115  pounds, 
shut  all  water  outlets,  admit  steam  enough  to  give  100  pounds  water  pressure, 
then  pump  will  move  very  slowly  under  the  influence  of  the  leakage  past 
plungers;  about  one  revolution  of  pump  per  minute  shows  a  proper  accuracy 
of  fit.  Anywhere  from  one-third  to  two  revolutions  per  minute  is  satisfactory. 

Too  tight  a  fit  is  bad,  as  if  not  exceedingly  uniform  it  induces  scoring 
or  fretting  of  the  metals.  Moreover,  should  pump  happen  to  be  run  dry 
for  a  few  minutes  before  catching  its  suction  a  slight  warming  and  expansion 
of  the  plunger  may  cause  it  to  stick  and  fret. 

TEST  WITH  MAXIMUM  WORKING  PRESSURE. — a.  For  this,  alternately  shut 
down  the  main  outlet  gate  and  adjust  the  hand-wheel  of  the  safety  valve, 
and  open  up  on  the  throttle  as  may  be  required,  running  pump  at  say  one- 


612  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

half  speed  (or,  in  experienced  hands,  at  full  rated  speed),  and  note  the 
greatest  water  pressure  which  the  full  boiler  pressure  (unless  boiler  pressure 
is  aboye  85  pounds)  will  yield  with  pump  at  full  speed. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to  force  water  through  very  long  lines  of 
hose,  or  to  an  unusual  height. 

Steam  fire  engines  are  not  infrequently  called  on  to  give  200  pounds  per 
square  inch  water  pressure. 

To  test  short  hose  lines  with  anywhere  near  so  high  a  pump-pressure  is 
dangerous,  lest  the  nozzle  kick  and  pull  itself  away  from  the  man  holding 
it  and  thresh  around;  but  the  ability  of  the  pump  may  be  tested  by  putting 
this  high-pressure  delivery  mainly  through  the  safety  valve,  or  in  part  through 
the  partially  closed  main  outlet  gate. 

It  Us  not  advisable  to  carry  this  water  pressure  above  200  pounds  in  the 
field  test,  although  in  the  shop  test  the  water  pressure  is  carried  to  240 
pounds,  and  engine  driver  should  stand  with  his  hand  on  the  throttle. 

TEST  FOR  MAXIMUM  DELIVERY. — a.  This  can  best  be  tried  by  adding  one  or, 
in  some  cases,  two  more  streams  than  the  pump  is  rated  to  deliver  by  attaching 
the  extra  lines  of  hose  to  some  hydrant  near,  and  then  speed  up  the  pump 
gradually,  to  see  how  fast  it  may  be  run  before  violent  pounding  or  slam- 
ming of  valves  begins.  • 

Sometimes  the  increased  delivery  .can  be  drawn  off  through  an  open  hydrant- 
butt  meanwhile  holding  sufficient  back  pressure  to  show  100  pounds  on  the 
water  gauge  by  partly  closing  the  discharge  valve. 

The  engine  driver  should  stand  with  his  hand  on  or  near  the  throttle 
when  thus  speeding  the  pump. 

It  is  all  right  to  run  a  fire-pump  up  to  the  utmost  speed  possible  before 
water  hammer  begins,  and  very  often  a  pump,  while  new  and  if  favorably 
set  up.  can  deliver  25  to  50  per  cent  more  than  rated  capacity;  nevertheless, 
although  expert  treatment  can  force  1,000  gallons  from  a  16x9x12  pump  we 
can  rate  it  r>s  only  a  75o-gallon  pump.  There  must  be  some  margin  to  allow 
for  wear  and  for  the  possible  absence  of  the  expert  at  time  of  fire. 

Rotary  Pumps 

Tests  similar  to  those  for  duplex  pumps  should  be  run  for:  Smoothness 
of  action;  maximum  working  pressure;  maximum  delivery,  and  capacity  of 
relief  valve. 

Centrifugal  Pumps 

(a)  The    pump    must    be    able    to    discharge    its    full    rated    capacity    at    100 
Ibs.    pressure    at    the    pump,    assuming   a    zero    suction    lift,    and    maintain    this 
condition    indefinitely    without    objectionable    heating    of    bearings    or    at    motor, 
or   exceeding   the    rated    power    of    the    motor    and    with    an   efficiency    not    less 
than  specified. 

The  efficiency  of  pump  for  any  delivery  is  to  be  based  on  the  electrical 
H.  P.  output  of  motor  and  the  hydraulic  H.  P.  output  of  pump.  For  a  D.  C. 
motor  this  power  output  is  to  be  computed  from  the  readings  of  voltmeter 
and  ammeter,  allowance  being  made  for  motor  efficiency. 

For  an  A.  C.  motor  this  computation  will  of  course  involve  the  considera- 
tion of  the  power  factor  of  the  circuit. 

(b)  Shut    off   one   stream    after    another    until    all   are    closed,    and    note    the 
quantity    delivered,    and    the    pressure    at    the    pump    under    the    different    con- 
ditions.     Also    note    the    power    required    and    compute    the    efficiency    for    the 
several    points. 

(c)  Put    on    one    or    more    streams    in    addition    to    the    number    for    which 
the    pump    is    rated,    and    note    the    quantity    delivered    and    the    pressure,    also 
the  power  required  under  this  excessive  discharge,   and   compute   the  efficiency. 
Under    this    test    the    nump    should     work     with    entire    smoothness,    and    the 
motor   should   not   be   overloaded   more   than    provided    for   by   Article    No.    433. 

(d)  If    provision    is    made    for    varying    the    speed    of    the    motor,    try    the 
motor    at    different    speeds    under    conditions    which    would    be    likely    to    be 


FIRE  PUMPS  613 

met  with  in  case  of  fire,  noting  quantities  and  pressures,  and  compute 
efficiencies.  Under  all  conditions  the  motor  and  pump  should  run  smoothly 
and  without  trouble  in  any  part  which  would  prevent  continuous  running, 
should  occasion  require  it. 

(e)  Let  all  water  out  of  the  suction  pipe,  note  the  lift,  and  make  several 
tests  to  determine  how  long  it  takes  the  priming  apparatus  to  get  the  pump 
again  into  service.  Especially  note  whether  the  pump  shows  any  sign  of 
heating  or  other  distress  where  the  priming  equipment  requires  it  to  be 
run  a  short  time  before  it  is  flooded  with  water. 

The  pump  to  be  acceptable  must  meet  all  these  tests  satisfactorily  and 
in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  specifications. 

REQUIREMENTS   FOR   ELECTRICAL   DRIVING  AND 
CONTROL  OF  FIRE  PUMPS 

I'efore.  installing  an  electrically  driven  pump  the  matter  should  be  taken 
up  with  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction  in  order  that  an  inves- 
tigation may  be  made  to  determine  whether  the  reliability  of  the  current 
supply  is  such  as  to  make  the  electric  service  dependable.  The  question  of 
reliability  of  the  service  depends  on  so  many  factors  that  in  many  cases 
it  can  only  be  settled  on  the  ground. 

All  -details  of  construction,  materials  and  apparatus  pertaining  to  the  elec- 
trical equipment,  except  as  modified  or  provided  for  by  these  requirements, 
must  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical  Code. 

POWER  STATION. —  (a)  When  current  is  taken  from  a  single  power  station 
the  station  must  be  of  non-combustible  construction,  so  located  or  protected 
as  to  be  free  from  chances  of  serious  damage  by  exposure  from  fire,  and 
the  design  and  arrangement  of  apparatus  within  it  such  that  there  will  be 
but  little  chance  of  interruption  of  service. 

(b)  Where    current    is    taken     through    a    substation,     this    substation    must 
also    meet    the    requirement    of    Section    a,    and    in    addition    the    number    and 
arrangement    of   cables    between    the    station    and    the    substation    must    be    such 
as    to    practically    guarantee    continuous    power    at    the    substation. 

(c)  Where   service   cannot    be    obtained    from    a   power   station    or   Euhstation 
meeting   these    requirements,    it    must    be    obtained    from    two   or    more    stations 
or    substations    so    located    and   equipi>ed    that    an    accident    or    fire    at    one    will 
not   cause   an   interruption   of   the   service   supplied   by  the   others. 

A  private  generating  plant  located  on  the  premises  served  by  the  fire 
pump,  if  in  a  separate  power  house  or  cut  off  from  main  buildings,  will 
be  considered  as  a  power  station,  and  may  be  used  as  one  source  of  current 
supply. 

TRANSMISSION  LINES. —  (a)  The  lines  between  the  power  plants  and  the 
pump  room  must  be  of  such  number,  so  arranged  and  so  located  that  there 
will  be  small  chance  of  an  interruption  of  service  to  the  motor,  due  to 
accident  to  the  lines.  All  wiring  in  the  pump  room  must  be  in  approved 
conduit. 

Where  the  values  involved  are  large  and  the  crippling  of  this  pump  service 
would  seriously  affect  the  protection  of  the  property,  at  least  two  separate 
lines  from  the  power  plant  or  plants  to  the  pump  installation  must  be  pro- 
vicVd.  The  lines  must  be  run  by  separate  routes  or  in  such  manner  that  a 
failure  of  both  at  the  same  time  will  be  only  a  remote  possibility. 

Where  current  is  taken  from  an  underground  Edison  3-wire  system  it  will 
be  considered  that  two  independent  lines  have  been  provided  if  connections 
are  brought  into  the  pump  room  from  two  street  mains  or  feeders  not 
terminating  directly  in  the  same  junction  box. 

A  complete  underground  circuit  from  generating  station  to  pump  is  strongly 
recommended  and  should  be  obtained  when  practicable.  When  such  con- 


614 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


struction  is  not  available,  an  overhead  circuit  may  be  allowed,  but  that  part 
of  the  circuit  adjacent  to  the  plant  or  exposing  plants  must  be  run  with 
special  reference  to  damage  in  case  of  fire.  Where  the  pump  room  is  a 
part  of,  or  in  close  proximity  to,  the  plant  which  the  pump  is  designed  to 
protect,  the  wires  for  some  distance  from  the  pump  room  must  be  under- 
ground. 

(b)  Each    line   between   the   power   plant   and   pump    room   must   be   of   such 
size    that    its    safe    carrying    capacity,    as    given    by    Rule    18    of    the    National 
Electrical    Code,    will    not    be    exceeded    by    the    load    carried. 

Where  direct  current  motors  are  used,  the  voltage  at  the  motors  must 
not  drop  more  than  5  per  cent  below  the  voltage  rating  of  the  motors  when 
the  pumps  are  being  driven  at  rated  output,  pressure  and  speed,  and  the 
lines  between  motors  and  power  stations  are  carrying  their  peak  loads. 

When  alternating  current  motors  are  used,  the  voltage  at  the  motors 
under  these  same  conditions,  must  not  drop  more  than  8  per  cent  below 
the  voltage  rating  of  the  motors. 

(c)  The    overload    protective    devices    at    the    power    plants,    and    where    pro- 
vided   at    various    points    on    the    lines,    must    be    of    such    rating    and    so    set 
that   they   will   open   the  circuit  only  under  short   circuit   conditions. 

Approved  fuses  may  be  used,  if  desired,  except  for  the  protection  of  the 
pump  motor  where  circuit  breakers  are  required.  The  fuses,  however,  must 
be  of  such  size  that  an  overload  or  short  circuit  at  the  motor  or  its  control 
apparatus  will  not  cause  them  to  open  the  circuit,  but  instead,  the  circuit 
breaker  protecting  the  motor. 

TRANSFORMERS. — (a)  Must  be  located  in  a  separate  non-combustible,  well- 
ventilated  building  or  room  thoroughly  cut  off  from  other  buildings  or  rooms. 
Access  to  room  must  be  from  the  outside  of  the  building.  Transformers 
may  be  located  outdoors  by  special  permission  where  conditions  are  favorable. 

(b)  Transformers   supplying   current   to   the   lights   and   motors   in   the   build- 
ings   served    by    the    fire    pump    may    also    supply    the    pump    motor,    provided 
all   load   except   the   pump   motor   load   can   be   quickly   cut   off   when   necessary. 
Switches   for  doing  this  must  be   in  the  pump   room   unless  transformer   room 
is    near    pump    room,    in    which    case    they    may    be    in    transformer    room. 

(c)  Room     containing     transformers     installed     solely     for     the     purpose     of 
supplying  current  to  a   pump  motor  must   be   dry   and   heated   in   cold   weather, 
or  else  the  transformers  must  be  normally  left  connected  to  the  supply  lines. 

MOTOR. — (a)    Direct  current  motors  must   be  of   the  shunt  wound   type. 

Alternating  current  motors  must  be  of  the  wound  motor  or  squirrel  cage 
induction  types.  The  squirrel  cage  motor  must  be  used  only  when  the 
conditions  are  such  that  it  will  surely  start  and  attain  full  speed. 

This  will  prevent  the  use  of  the  squirrel  cage  motor  with  pumps  of  the 
positive  displacement  types  such  as  rotary  and  plunger  pumps,  and  will 
require  that  the  electric  service  be  such  that  the  heavy  starting  current 
will  not  cause  the  voltage  to  drop  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  motor  starting. 

(b)  Motor   must   be    of    such    capacity   and    design    that   at    rated   voltage    its 
full    load    ampere    rating    will    not    be   exceeded    when    the    pump    it    drives    is 
delivering  its  rated  output  at  specified  pressure  and  speed,  and  when  running 
under   this    load    for   eight   consecutive    hours    followed   by   an    overload    of    25 
per    cent    for    two    hours,    and    an    overload    of    50    per    cent    for    one    minute, 
the    rises    in    temperature   at    its    various    parts    gbove    the    temperature    of    the 
surrounding    air   must    not    exceed    those    recommended    in    the    standardization 
rules    of    the   American    Institute    of    Electrical    Engineers.      No    electrical    nor 
mechanical    weakness    should    develop    during    these    tests. 

(c)  Motor    and    control    apparatus    must    be    protected    from    water    coming 
•  from   possible   leakage,   or   breakage   of   any  connection    at    the   pump   or   other 

piping  in  its  vicinity,  including  hose  lines  which  may  be  connected  to  the 
pump. 


FIRE  PUMPS  615 

This  can  probably  be  best  accomplished  by  the  erection  of  a  non-combustible 
partition  between  motor  and  pump,  extending  from  floor  to  ceiling,  and 
laterally  sufficiently  far  to  protect  the  motor  and  other  electrical  apparatus 
not  otherwise  protected.  Such  an  arrangement  will  permit  the  use  of  the 
open  type  of  motor,  and  for  most  situations  will  prove  the  least  expensive. 
The  enclosed  type,  with  fan  or  blower  system  may  be  used,  but  preference 
is  given  to  the  arrangement  described. 

(d)  Motor  windings  should  be  thoroughly  impregnated  with  waterproofing 
compound. 

Controlling  Equipments 

The  following  specifications  cover  the  construction  and  ihstallation  of 
controlling  equipments  of  both  the  manual  and  the  combined  manual  and 
automatic  types  for  electric  motors  driving  fire  pumps. 

Before  plans  are  completed  for  such  equipment  the  inspection  department 
having  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted  as  to  whether  the  manual  or  the 
combined  manual  and  automatic  type  will  be  acceptable  for  the  proposed 
installation,  and  also  with  reference  to  the  location  of  the  controlling  equip- 
ment and  its  enclosures  or  protection  against  mechanical  injury. 

In  materials,  details  of  construction,  test  and  installation,  except  as 
modified  or  supplemented  by  these  requirements,  all  parts  'of  the  equipment 
must  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical  Code. 

All  equipments  must  be  specifically  approved  for  fire  pump  controlling 
purposes. 

Construction 

DESIGN. — (a)  The  design  of  all  parts  must  be  such  as  to  secure  simplicity, 
strength,  durability  and  ease  of  operation. 

(b)  All  parts  must  be  mounted  on   one  or  more  panels  of  slate  or  marble, 
supported    in    a   substantial   manner   on    an   iron    frame,    and   the    entire   equip- 
ment   must    comply    with    the    requirements    for    switchboards    in    the    National 
Electrical  Code. 

(c)  All   parts,   such   as  bearings,   cams   and   latches,'  the   operation   of    which 
is    liable    to    be    interfered    with    by    corrosion,    must    be    made    of    phosphor 
bronze  or  similar  metal,  except  where  magnetic  qualities  are  essential.     Springs 
must   be   of   phosphor   bronze   or   similar   metal,    or   protected   against   corrosion 
in  an  approved  manner.  , 

OPERATING  MECHANISM,  MANUAL  TYPE. — (a)  The  operation  shall  be  such 
that  the  motor  is  directly  started  by  a  single  lever,  which,  except  in  auto 
starters  or  compensators,  shall  be  arranged  to  move  in  one  direction  from 
the  initial  to  the  final  position.  , 

(b)  Electrical    actuating   devices    will   not   be    approved. 

(c)  Devices     must     automatically     return     to     the     off     position     in     case     of 
failure    of    voltage    or    in    case    the    operator    releases    the    handle    in    any    but 
the  full  running  position. 

(d)  Where    direct    current    is    used,    an    auxiliary    field    resistance    may    be 
provided   which  can  be  used   to  'increase  the  motor  speed    10   per  cent. 

RESISTANCES. — Starting  resistances  must  be,  unless  inside  of  the  motor,  of 
the  grid  type,  and  comply  with  the  requirements  for  tests  of  starting  duty 
rheostats  as  given  in  the  National  Electrical  Code. 

AUTO  STARTERS  OR  COMPENSATORS. — Must  comply  with  the  requirements  of 
these  rules  and  also  with  those  of  the  National  Electrical  Code  for  the 
construction  of  auto  starters. 

OVERLOAD  PROTECTION. —  (a)  Each  motor  lead  must  be  protected  by  a  circuit- 
breaker.  With  direct  current  motors,  leads  must  be  protected  by  a  single 


616  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

pole  circuit-breaker  in  each  lead,  or  by  an  approved  double  coil,  double  pole 
circuit-breaker  so  designed  that  each  pole  must  be  closed  independently  of 
the  other. 

(b)  Circuit-breakers    to    be    calibrated    to    400    per    cent    of    normal    motor 
current,    and    with    squirrel-cage    motors    must    also    be    equipped    with    time- 
element   relays. 

(c)  No    fuses    nor    other    overload     release    devices    except    circuit-breakers 
are  .permitted,    except    in    instrument    and    pilot    light    leads. 

WIRING. — Insulation  on  all  conductors  in  connection  with  controller  equip- 
ment must  be  of  approved  type. 

SWITCH. — A.  double  throw  knife  switch  for  two  independent  sources  of 
supply  must  be  provided,  having  one  pole  for  each  supply  wire  in  circuit. 

PILOT  LAMP  AND  INSTRUMENTS. —  (a)  A  pilot  lamp  connected  on  the  motor 
side  of  the  circuit-breakers  must  be  provided  to  indicate  the  presence  of 
voltage  on  the  line. 

(b)  A  voltmeter  and  ammeter  must  be  provided  and  suitably  mounted  and 
connected  as  a  part  of  the  control  equipment,  ajid  space  must  be  provided 
on  the  panel  for  mounting  a  watt-hour  meter. 

MARKING. —  (a)  A  name  plate  must  be  provided  giving  the  name  of  the 
manufacturer  and/ the  rating  of  the  equipment  ih  volts  and  amperes. 

(b)  All  line  and  motor  terminal  connections  must  be  suitably  marked 
so  that  they  can  be  readily  identified. 

OPERATING  MECHANISM,  COMBINED  MANUAL  AND  AUTOMATIC  TYPE. — (a)  The 
automatic  operation  shall  be  initially  actuated  by  an  approved  pressure  gov- 
ernor acting  directly  on  the  winding  of  a  solenoid  or  other  device  or  devices, 
which  in  turn  shall  close  the  main  contact,  and  a  series  of  rheostatic  switches 
admitting  current  to  and  cutting  out  starting  resistance  from  the  motor 
circuits. 

(b)  The    period    of    motor    acceleration    shall    not    exceed    TO    seconds,    when 
operating     automatically,     and     such     acceleration     period     shall     be     governed 
either    electrically    or    by    a    suction    air    dash-pot    or    other    mechanical    device, 
but    in    all    cases    the    governing    action    must    be    such    that    urider    the    most 
severe    conditions   the   entire   starting   operation   will  'be   positively    and    reliably 
completed. 

(c)  The    manual    operation    shall    be    obtained    from    a    crank    or    lever    by 
which,    without    change    of    motion,    the    same     main     contact     and     rheostatic 
switches    that    are    controlled    automatically    shall    be    mechanically    closed    in 
proper   order. 

(d)  All     devices     must     automatically     return     to     the     off     position     in     case 
of   failure   of  voltage   or  in   case   the   operator  releases  the   handle   in   any   but 
the    full   running  position. 

(e)  The    arrangement    must    be    such    that    when    the    motor    is    started    and 
brought    to     full    speed    manually    its    operation    cannot    be    affected    by    the 
pressure    governor. 

PANEL  AND  CABINET. —  (a)  Panel  must  be  constructed  of  a  high-class  elec- 
trical slate  or  marble,  supported  by  an  iron,  frame,  all  to  be  enclosed  in  a 
ventilated,  splash-proof  enclosing  cabinet  made  of  sheet  iron  or  steel  not 
less  than  No.  12  U.  S.  gauge  in  thickness. 

(b)  The  cabinet   must  be  provided  with   hinged   doors   of  the  same   material 
as   the   cabinet   both   front   and   rear,   and   the   swinging   radius   of   these   doors 
must    not    exceed    24   inches. 

(c)  The    supporting    frame    must    be    so    arranged    that    the    bottom    of    the 
panel    will    be.  not    less    than    24    inches    above    the    floor. 

(d)  The    resistance    elements  .  may,    if    desired,    be    mounted    in    a    well    ven- 


FIRE  PUMPS  617 

tilated    extension    of    the    enclosing    cabinet.      Glass    bull's    eyes    must    be    pro- 
vided  in   the   doors,   one   directly   in    front   of   each   pilot   light. 

Installation 

MANUAL  TYPE. —  (a)  Must  be  located  close  to  and  within  sight  of  the 
motor.  If  a  pump  room  used  for  no  other  purpose,  and  containing  no  other 
apparatus  except  the  fire  pump,  its  motor  and  its  accessory  appliances,  is 
provided,  the  controlling  equipment  must  be  placed  in  this  room. 

(li)  Must  be  so  protected  that  it  will  not  be  injured  by  water  escaping 
from  pump  or  connections. 

(c)  Except    where    special    exception    is   made   by   the    inspection    department 
having     jurisdiction,     the     controlling    equipment     must     be     protected     against 
mechanical    injury    by    one    of    the    following   methods: 

(d)  Grill  or  lattice  partitions  so   placed   as   to   completely  enclose   the   control 
panel    and    starter. 

(e)  The    entire    equipment    of    panel    or    starter    may    be    enclosed    at    the 
sides,    front,    back   and   top    in    a   thoroughly    substantial,    ventilated   sheet    iron 
or   steel   cabinet,   not   less   than    No.    12    U.    S.    metal    gauge   in   thickness,   with 
hinged   doors,   and   so   arranged  that   the    bottom   of  the   panel   and   the   starter 
will    be    not    less    than    24    inches    above    the    floor. 

(f)  Resistance    elements    may,    if    desired,    be    mounted    in    a   well    ventilated 
extension    of    the    enclosing   cabinet. 

(g)  A    glass    bull's    eye    must    be    provided    in    the    door,    directly    in    front 
of    the    pilot    light. 

COMBINED  MANUAL  AND  AUTOMATIC  TYPE. — (a)  Must  be  located  in  the 
pump  room  except  by  special  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

(b)  A  steel  compression  tank  of  a  capacity  satisfactory  to  the  inspection 
dcpaitment  having  jurisdiction  will  be  required  as  part  of  the  equipment 
employing  automatic  controllers. 

( 

Test  for  Acceptance 

MANUAL  AND  COMBINED  EQUIPMENTS.— The  test  shall  consist  of  not  less 
than  two  nor  more  than  four  hours  of  continuous  and  successful  operation, 
figuring  not  less  than  three  complete  operations  of  starter  per  minute.  The 
cabinet  shall  be  closed  at  the  beginning  of  the  test  and  remain  closed  until 
after  the  end  cf  the  test.  The  temperature  inside  at  the  top  of  the  cabinet 
in  front  of  the  panel  must  not  rise  more  than  90  degrees  Ce.itigrade  (162 
degrees  Fahr.)  above  the  temperature  of  the  room  at  the  end  of  the  test. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS* 

WOODEN  TANKS 

1.  SIZE. — (a)    The   standard   sizes   of   wooden   tanks   for   fire  protection  are 
from    10,000    to    50,000    gallons    capacity,    although    they    are    sometimes    made 
larger. 

The  difference  between  sizes  is  usually  5,000  gallons.  Tanks  of  less  than 
10,000  gallons  capacity  are  not  included  under  these  specifications,  and  if  used 
these  specifications  should  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  water  is  to  be  stored  above  a  building,  two  or 
more  tanks  should  be  used  so  that  the  protection  will  not  be  completely  cut 
off  when  repairing  cnc  tank. 

(b)  The  capacity  of  the  tank  should  represent  the  volume  of  water  available 
for  fire  service  and  is  to  be  the  computed  volume  between  the  maximum 
water  level  and  the  outlet  level.  < 

2.  SHAPE. — Tanks    may    be    either    cylindrical    or    tapered    but    must    be    cir- 
cular in  section.      If  tapered  the  taper  on  each  side  must  not  exceed   i£   inch 
per   foot. 

3.  MATERIAL. —  (a)    White    cedar,    cypress,    white    and    red    pine,    Douglas    or 
Washington    fir    (Oregon   pine)    or    Redwood   must   be   used.      Lumber  must   be 
free    from    sap,    loose    or    unsound    knots,    worm    holes    and    shakes;    and    be 
thoroughly   air-dried. 

Tanks  of  the  best  white  cedar  and  those  of  good  cypress  are  about  equally 
durable,  and  will  last  at  least  fifteen  years  and  commonly  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  years. 

Climatic  conditions  should  be  considered  in  selecting  the  most  desirable 
wood  for  any  location. 

4.  DRESSING  OF  LUMBER. —  (a)    Staves  and  bottom  must  be  made  of  2%-inch 
(dressed  both  sides  to  about  2%-inch)   stock,   for  tanks  not  exceeding   16  feet 
diameter    or    16    feet    deep.      For   larger    tanks,    3-inch    (dressed    both    sides   to 
about  2%-inch)   stock  must  be  used. 

(b)  All   plank  must   be   full   length   and   without   splices. 

(c)  The   edges   of   staves   and   bottom   planks   must   be   jointed   on    a   planing 
machine  and  hand  jointed  with  a  fore-plane  or  machine  sawn. 

(d)  The    croze    (groove    for    receiving   the    bottom")    must    be    cut    in    a   true 
line    and    at    a    uniform    distance    from    the    bottom    of    the    staves    and    not 
deeper    than    specified    in    table    on    page    621.      (The    croze    must    be    cut    with 
due    regard    for    the    pitch    of    the    stave    when    in    position    and    circular    in 
shape    so    as    to    be    completely    filled    by    tank    bottom    when    staves    are    well 
driven   up.      The   lower   edge   of   the   bottom   must   be   beveled    by   planing   and 
the    upper    edge    slightly    beveled    so    as    to    furnish    a    smooth    surface    to    fit 
the  croze. 

(e)  A    hole    must   be    bored    in    both    edges    of    each    stave,    about  .10    inches 
from  the  top    for   %-inch   maple   dowels   or  larger,   or,   small   metal   dogs   must 
be    driven    into    the    top    of    the    staves    to    hold    them    in    position     during 
erection. 

(f)  The    edges   of    each    bottom    plank    must    be    bored    with    holes    not    over 
3    feet    apart    for    %-inch    maple    dowels    or   larger. 

5.  HOOPS. — (a)    The    hoops    must    be    round    in    cross   section. 

*  Regulations  prescribed  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

618 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


619 


The  strength  of  a  tank  depends  chiefly  on  its  hoops.  Experience  shows  that 
flat  hoops,  especially  those  of  steel,  rust  from  the  back  side  where  they  bear 
against  the  staves,  and  serious  accidents  have  happened  by  hoops  bursting 
on  account  of  this  unobserved  corrosion. 

(b)  The    hoops    must    be    made    of    wrought    iron    or    mild    steel    of    good 
quality.       Wrought     iron    is     preferable,     however,     because     it    is    more     rust- 
resisting. 

The  wrought  iron  must  have  a  tensile  strength  of  at  least  50,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  Steel  must  have  a  tensile  strength  of  55,000  to  60,000 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

(c)  There    must   be   no   welds   in   the   hoops.      Where   more   than  one   length 
of    iron    is    necessary,    lugs    must    be    used    to    make    the   connections,    and    the 
several    pieces    constituting    each    hoop    must    be    tied    together    for    shipment. 

Hoops  with  "upset"  ends  are  not  allowed,  because:  first, 'the  metal  is 
likely  to  be  burned  in  upsetting  unless  done  under  careful  supervision;  and 
second,  the  additional  diameter  is  likely  to  be  gained  by  welding  bolt  ends 
to  smaller  rods,  thus  introducing  a  weak  place  at  the  welds. 

When  the  screw  threads  are  cut  directly  on  the  ends  of  a  hoop  the 
unthreaded  portion  may  be  corroded  to  a  depth  equal  to  the  depth  of  the 
threads  without  weakening  the  hoop.  The  screw  thread  itself  is  not  so  liable 
to  serious  corrosion  as  is  the  portion  of  the  hoop  which  bears  against  the 
staves,  since  the  latter  is  subjected  to  moisture  from  the  wood. 

(d)  The    hoops    must    be    bent    in    the   shop    so    that    they    will   fit    closely   to 
the  staves  all  around. 

(e)  The    screw   threads    on   the   ends    must   be   made   tight   fits   in    the    nuts, 
and   they  must  be   U.    S.   standard   as   follows: 

Diameter    of    screw    ends %"       %"          i"          i%" 

Number   of  threads   per   inch 10  9  8  7 

(f)  The    hoops    must    be    of    such    a    size    and    spacing    that    the    stress    will 
not   exceed    12.500   pounds   per   square   inch   when   computed    from   area   at    root 
of  thread.      Hoops  must  not  be  less  than   %-inch  diameter. 

The  following  table  gives  proper  working  strength  for  hoops  of  sizes 
commonly  used  based  on  this  allowable  stress: 


Diameter  of 

Area  of  Section 

Net  Area  at 

Safe  Working 

Round  Rod, 

of  Rod, 

Root  of  Thread, 

.Load, 

Inches 

Square  Inches 

Square  Inches 

Pounds 

| 

.44 

.30 

3,750 

| 

.60 

.42 

5,250 

1 

.79 

.55 

6,875 

!i 

.99 

.69 

8,625 

(g)  The  top  hoop  must  be  placed  within  2  inches  of  the  top  of  staves. 
No  space  between  hoops  to  exceed  21  inches.  The  hoops  must  be  so  placed 
that  lugs  will  not  come  in  a  vertical  line.  At  least  three  of  the  staves 
should  be  marked  before  leaving  the  shop,  showing  the  location  of  each 
hoop. 

(h)  The  spacing  of  hoops  may  be  figured  or  found  from  the  diagram  on 
page  620. 

The  depth  referred  to  is  the  distance  from  overflow  to  point  where  hoop 
is  to  be  located. 

The  following  example  will  best  show  the  use  of  the  diagram:  How  far 
apart  should  i-inch  hoops  be  placed,  at  15  feet  from  the  top;  on  a  tank 
20  feet  diameter? 


62Q 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


15x20  =  300.  Follow  up  the  right  side  of  the  diagram  where  marked 
"Product  of  diameter  (feet)  x  depth  (feet)"  till  you  come  to  300;  then 
follow  the  horizontal  line  to  the  left  till  it  intersects  the  diagonal  line 
marked  "  i-inch  Hoop;"  then  follow  downward  to  the  bottom  of  the 
diagram,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  hoops  under  conditions  above  stated 
may  be  spaced  8%  inches  apart. 

In  a  similar  way  the  spacing  for  any  hoop  for  any  size  tank  may  be  found. 


Spacing  of  Hoops  in  Inches. 

DIAGRAM    SHOWING    ALLOWABLE    SPACING    OF    HOOPS 


Spacing  of   Hoops  in   inches 


-e    L°*d    for    given    Ho°P    ™ 
2.6  x   dia.    (ft.)    x   depth    (ft.) 


(i)  Extra  hoops  must  be  provided  near  the  bottom  to  take  the  additional 
load  due  to  the  swelling  of  the  bottom  planks.  For  -tanks  up  to  20  feet 
in  diameter,  one  hoop  of  the  size  used  next  above  it  must  be  placed  around 
the  bottom  opposite  the  croze.  For  tanks  20  feet  or  more  in  diameter 
two  hoops  must  be  used  as  above. 

The  hoop  or  hoops  at  the  croze  are  to  be  counted  upon  as  taking  ^the 
water  pressure  of  half  the  space  above. 

(j)  The  sketches  on  pages  622  and  623  show  the  proper  spacing  of  hoops 
for  tanks  of  standard  sizes. 


(iKAVlTY    AND    PRESSURE    TANKS 


621 


0.  LUGS. —  (a)  Malleable  iron  lugs  as  strong  as  the  hoop  iron  must  be  used. 
An  acceptable  form  of  lug  is  slnuvn  in  Figure  95.  Lugs  of  other  patterns 
may  be  used,  however,  after  first  having  been  approved. 

Cast-iron  lugs,  not  malleableizcd,  are  not  acceptable,  as  they  are  liable 
to  crack. 


FIG.   95 — Lug  for  Hoops 


7.  DIMENSIONS  FOR  TANKS  OF  STANDARD  SIZES. —  (a)  For  convenience  and 
illustration  the  following  table  giving  dimensions  for  a  few  tanks  of  certain 
sizes  is  added.  The  number  and  size  of  hoops  are  stated  and  the  spacing 
is  shown  on  pages  622  and  62$.  The  proj>er  size  ami  spacing  of  hoops  for 
tanks  of  other  dimensions  can  readily  be  computed  by  use  of  the  diagram 
on  page  620,  as  explained  under  Article  sh. 


Approx. 

SIZE 

Thickness  of 

>  e 

«  § 

^E 

nj 

Net 

Lumber 

en  tl 

sl 

£  E 

HOOPS 

Capac- 

(Outside 

After  Briri" 

n-OS 

ity 

Dimensions) 

Machined 

°      SJ 

§11 

r-   4>  C 

o|l 

Average 
Diam., 

Length 
of  Stave 

Staves 

Bottom 

if 

"5  >>-• 

f1" 

No.  of 

Size 

Gallons 

Ft.-In. 

Ft. 

In. 

In. 

w~ 

C 

In. 

10,000 

13-4 

12 

2t 

2} 

3* 

1 

2! 

11 

\ 

15,000 

14-6 

14 

21 

2} 

3* 

1 

2| 

14 

5 

20,000 

15-6 

16 

2i 

2} 

3* 

I 

2! 

11 

4 

i 

25,000 

17-6 

16 

2! 

2! 

31 

; 

2| 

12 

i 

4 

• 

30,000 

18-0 

18 

2| 

21 

3* 

i 

2! 

16 

i 

3 

1 

40,000 

19-6 

20 

2! 

2! 

34 

i 

2i 

10 

5 

11 

l 

1 

4 

i 

50,000 

22-0 

20 

2] 

2? 

3j 

f 

2f 

19 

l 

Table    Giving    Dimensions    of    Wooden    Tanks    of    Standard     Sizes 


622 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


8.  SETTING   UP. — (a)    The  joint   between   staves  should   not  be   permitted   to 
come  nearer  than   %   inch  in  line  with  a  joint  between  the  bottom  planks. 
f     (b)   In    setting    up    the    nuts    on    the    hoops,    special    care    should    be    taken 
that  they   are   not   set    up    so    tight   that   a   heavy    initial   stress   is   put   on    the 
hoops. 

(c)  At    least    one    extra    stave    should    be    sent    with    each    tank,    because    an 
extra    piece    may    be    needed    to    complete    the    tank    on    account    of    shrinkage. 
The    last    stave    should    be    fitted    into    place    by   jointing    off    to   size    required. 

(d)  The    tank    must    not    be    exposed    to    the    weather    before    it    is    set    up 
and    pipe    connections    should    be    made    promptly    after    setting    up    so    that 
the  tank  may  be  filled  as  soon  as  possible. 


.f 

<o 

lr. 


I 
I 


11  Hoops  I'dia.    MHoops  I'dia.  SHoops  I'dia.  4  Hoops  I'dia. 
JIHoopsi'dia.  l£ Hoops  i'dia. 

PROPER    SPACING    OF    HOOPS 

Allowable    working    stress    12,500    Ibs.    per    square    inch    on    section    at    root 
of  thread. 


(e)  Tanks     should     be     painted     on     the     outside     of     staves     and     bottom 
planks.      The    hoops    should    first    be    painted    with    red    lead,    zinc    oxide    and 
linseed   oil   as   described   in    Article   363. 

(f)  Tank    must    be    made    absolutely    water-tight    without    the    use    of    any 
caulking    or    lining    material. 

Leaks    are    due    to    faulty    material    or    poor    workmanship. 

9.  ROOF. —  (a)  Tanks  located  outdoors  must  be  covered  with  a  double  roof, 
an  acceptable  construction  being  shown  in  Figure  96.  It  must  consist  of  a 
tight  flat  cover  made  of  matched  boards  supported  by  joists  and  above  this 
a  conical  roof.  In  the  larger  sizes  the  conical  roof  must  be  supported  by 
rafters  extending  from  the  top  of  the  tank  to  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

(b)  The  conical  roof  must  be  covered  with  galvanized  sheet  iron  or  a 
good  composition  roofing  which  is  not  readily  ignitible. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


(c)  The  joint  between  the  conical  roof  and  the  flat  cover  must  be  made 
tight  in  order  to  keep  out  the  wind  and  maintain  a  dead  air  space  between 
the  two  covers.  One  method  of  making  a  tight  joint  is  shown  in  Figure  96. 

10.  HATCHES. — (a)  Hatches  must  be  provided  in  both  the  conical  and  flat 
covers  so  as  to  give  easy  access  to  the  interior  of  the  tank.  The  hatch 
covers  must  be  made  so  they  will  not  bind  when  swollen  from  dampness, 
and  the  hinges  and  fastenings  must  have  bearings  of  non-corrodible  metal 
such  as  brass.  The  covers  must  make  a  tight  joint  at  the  hatch  edges,  the 
one  in  conical  roof  to  have  edges  turn  down  over  raised  edges  of  hatch. 


16  Hoops  f dia. 


W  Hoops  i*dia. 
|1  Hoops  I'dia, 


4Hoops  f  dia. 
IJHoops  I  dia. 


'ROPER    SPACING    OF    HOOPS 


Allowable    working    stress 
of  thread. 


12,500    Ibs.    per    square    inch    on    section    at    root 


(b)  The  hatch  cover  in  tne  conical  roof,  when  hinged,  must  be  arranged 
to  open  to  one  side  (preferably  to  the  right)  in  order  that  it  may  be 
reached  in  all  positions  by  a  man  on  the  ladder.  When  cover  is  arranged 
to  Slide  it  must  move  upwards  to  open. 

The  hatch  cover  in  flat  cover  may  be  set  loosely  in  place  without  hinges 
or  guides,  and  be  furnished  with  a  handle  so  that  it  can  be  readily  lifted 
off  and  set  to  one  side. 

Hatch  to  be  located  preferably  on  southern  side  of  tank  and  must  not 
be  less  than  20  inches  by  26  inches,  inside  measure,  in  size. 


624 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


11.  SUPPORTS. — (a)   The  weight  of  the  tank  must  be  supported  entirely  from 
its   bottom;    and    in    no    event    should    any    weight    come    on    bottom    of    staves. 

(b)  There  must  be  a  clear  space  of  at  least  i  inch  between  bottom  or  out- 
side of  staves  and  balcony  when  used. 

12.  DISCHARGE  PIPE. —  (a)   The  discharge  pipe  must  be  made  up  of  cast-iron 
or   wrought   pipe,   flanged   or   coupled.      Copper   gaskets  must   be   used   between 
flanges. 

(b)  Size  of  discharge  pipe  to  be  specified  by  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

The  size  of  discharge  pipe  should  not  ordinarily  be  less  than  6  inches. 
In  small  equipments  with  a  short  run  of  pipe  a  4-inch  or  5-inch  pipe  may 
be  used.  For  sizes  20,000  to  75,000  gallons  inclusive  an  8-inch  pipe  is  sug- 
gested, and  for  sizes  over  75,000  gallons  a  lo-inch  pipe. 


FIG.  96 — Arrangement  of  Double  Cover 

(c)  The    pipe    should    preferably    kave    the    tank    bottom    at    its    center. 

(d)  When    the    pipe    drops    vertically    to    the    ground    level    the    pipe    must 
be    supported    on    an    underground    elbow    having    a    foot    piece    resting    on    a 
concrete     foundation,    and    the    elbow    should    preferably    be    flange-connected 
to    the    underground    pipe.      If    bell    and    spigot    connection    is    used    the    joint 
should   be   strapped. 

(e)  Except    where    tank    is    the    only    supply    to    the    system,    an    approved 
check   valve   must    be    placed    in    the    tank    discharge    pipe,    underground    where 
feasible,   and   as   far   from   the   tank  as   practicable. 

NOTE.— For  tanks  on  detached  trestles,  check  valve  may  be  near  the 
footing  elbow.  It  is  desirable  to  enclose  the  check  valve  in  an  approved 
pit  so  as  to  be  readily  accessible  for  inspection  and  repairs. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS  625 

(f)  Tank    discharge   must   be   controlled    by    two    approved    gate  valves,   one 
on    each    side    of   the   check    valve.      Where   tank   discharge    pipe    runs    through 
a    building,    the    gate    valve    in    the    tank    side    of    the    check    must    be    located 
in   the  building  near  where  tank  pipe  enters.      With  tanks  on  detached  trestles 
where  discharge  pipe  enters  the  ground  the  gate  valves  may  be  either  outside- 
screw-and-yoke    or   other   approved    indicator    valves   in   pit   with    check,   or,   of 
the  post   indicator  valve  type. 

With  small  tanks  on  trestles  the  valve  nearest  the  tank  may  be  omitted 
with  the  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

The  pipe  and  valves  must  be  installed  promptly  so  that  the  tank  may  be 
filled  as  soon  as  possible  after  erection  to  avoid  drying  and  warping  of 
the  staves. 

(g)  The    pipe    must    be    braced    laterally    at    girt    connections    to    the    tower 
and    not    over    40    feet    apart.      Four    adjustable    diagonal    rods    not    less    than 
r>s-inch   diameter  to  be  used.      Where   standard   boxing  is   used,   the   rods   may 
be  attached  to  boxing  or  to  pipe. 

13.  FILLING   PIPE. — (a)    Filling  pipe   must  be   at  least   i%   inches  diameter. 
'      (b)   When    tank    is    exposed    to    the    weather,    the    pipe    must    be    carried    up 

inside  the  frost-proof  casing,  and  extend  through  tank  bottom  to  discharge  at 
top  of  tank  above  water  level.  The  portion  of  pipe  inside  tank"  must  be 
brass.  The  pipe  may  be  run  up  outside  of  tanks  located  inside  buildings, 
(c)  Large  tanks,  particularly  those  located  at  some  distance  from  the 
source  of  supply,  may  be  filled  through  a  by-pass,  around  check  valve.  Size 
to  be  2  inches  for  discharge  pipe  of  6  inches  or  less  in  diameter,  3  inches 
for  8-ineh  discharge  and  4  inches  for  lo-inch  discharge  or  larger.  An 
approved  globe,  outside-screw-and-yoke  or  post  indicator  valve,  ordinarily  kept 
closed,  to  be  provided  in  the  by-pass. 

14.  DRAIN. — (a)    An    approved    2-inch    outsMe-screw-and-yoke    gate    or    globe 
valve   must   be   provided   on   nipple   connected   to   discharge   pipe   above   valves 
to    drain    tank    and    riser. 

(b)  A  suitable  outlet  must  be  placed,  in  tank  bottom  to  drain  the  settling 
basin. 

15.  EXPANSION  JOINT. — (a)  When  a  tank  is  supported  by  a  structure  30  feet 
or   more   in   height,    whether   on    the    ground   or  on    a   building,    an   expansion 
joint  of  the  type  shown  in   Figure  97  must  be  provided  in  the  discharge  pipe 
at  the  tank  connection. 

In  cases  where  a  tank  is  located  in  a  heated  enclosed  tower,  a  four-elbow 
swing  joint  may  be  used. 

(b)  The   tank   connection   may  be   made  by  threading  a   half  coupling   over 
the  stuffing  box  and  bearing  against  an  annular  washer,   as   shown   in   Figur: 
3,   or  by  bolts  passing  through   the  tank  bottom. 

(c)  The    gland    must    be    of    brass    and    a    brass    ring    must    be    provided    at 
bottom    of    packing   space    so   that    sliding   contact    will    be    between    brass    and 
iron  surfaces. 

Expansion  joints  having  iron  to  iron  sliding  contact  have  given  trouble 
in  service  because  of  breakage  of  fittings  and  loss  of  water  from  tank  due 
to  rusting  and  sticking  together  of  the  parts. 

(d)  The  gland  bolt  nuts  must  be  of  brass. 

(e)  A    minimum   clearance   of    %    inch   must   be   provided   between   the   riser 
pipe    and    the    cast-iron    stuffing    box. 

(f)  The   stuffing   box   casting  must   be   extended   to   project   4    inches   within 
the    tank    to    insure    a    minimum    capacity    for    a    settling    basin    to    prevent 
sediment    depositing    in    the    pipe    system    and    to   keep   the   packing    free    from 
sediment.     The   riser  pipe  must  also  be  fitted  so  that  the  upper  end  is  about 
5   inches  below  top  of  expansion  joint. 


626 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE. — The  extension  piece  is  installed  to  insure  a  settling  basin  of  the 
desired  depth  even  if  the  discharge  pipe  should  be  cut  somewhat  shorter 
than  intended. 

(g)  A  large  packing  space,  i  inch  wide  by  5  inches  deep,  must  be  pro- 
vided so  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  repack  the  joint  except  at  long  intervals. 

(h)  A  good  packing,  such  as  asbestos  wicking  soaked  with  rape  oil  and 
graphite,  must  be  provided  in  stuffing  box. 

1 6.  OVERFLOW. —  (a)  The  overflow  pipe  must  be  2  inches  in  diameter  for 
tanks  up  to  30,000  gallons  capacity  and  3  inches  in  diameter  for  larger  tanks. 

A  short  length  of  2-inch  pipe  will  discharge  about  100  gallons  per  minute 
when  the  surface  of  the  water  is  three  inches  above  the  center  of  the  pipe. 

(b)  The    top    of    the    overflow    pipe    must    be    placed    3    inches    below    the 
top   of   the   staves. 

(c)  The    overflow    pipe    must    extend    through    the    bottom    or    side    of    tank. 
In  the   latter,  case   it  must  project   beyond  the   balcony. 

(d)  The  overflow  pipe  should  not  be  brought  out  through  the   riser  boxing. 
This    arrangement   has   caused   trouble   on   account   of    freezing. 


FIG.  97 — -Expansion  Joint  for  Wooden  Tanks 


17.  HEATING. — (a)  Arrangements  must  be  made  to  warm  the  water  in 
tanks  where  subject  to  freezing.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should  not 
be  allowed  to  go  below  40  degrees  F.  or  above  160  degrees  F. 

NOTE. — When  the  tank  is  in  an  enclosure  such  as  a  mill  tower,  the  heating 
system  of  the  mill  may  be  used  to  heat  the  tower  so  that  no  further  heating 
apparatus  will  be  needed. 

The    following    heating   methods    are    acceptable: 

i.  Circulation  of  Warm  Water.  The  heater  to  consist  of  coils  of  pipe, 
preferably  of  brass,  enclosed  by  a  water  jacket.  The  discharge  pipe  from 
heater  must  be  enclosed  in  the  frost-proof  boxing  or  other  covering  of  tank 
drop  and  terminate  in  an  open  tee  at  about  the  middle  of  tank.  Discharge 
pipe  at  no  point  to  be  lower  than  the  heater;  must  be  provided  with  ex- 
pansion joint  or  four  elbows,  and  must  be  properly  braced  near  its  top 
inside  of  tank.  There  should  be  a  properly  designed  relief  valve  on  this 
pipe  between  the  heater  and  discharge  valve. 

The  return  pipe  to  heater  must  be  connected  to  tank  drop  on  the  tank 
s;de  of  tank  check  and  must  be  without  pockets.  Heater  must  be  so  located 
that  there  will  be  circulation  of  water  in  all  of  the  pipe  exposed  to  frost, 
and  always  be  located  at  or  near  the  base  of  tank  drop  and  below  frost 
line  when  tank  drop  is  exposed  for  its  full  length  and  enters  the  ground. 

When  the  tank  is  on  a  tower,  which  is  close  to  a  building  or  above  It, 
the  heater  may  be  placed  within  the  building. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS  627 

The  heater  may  be  operated  by  either:  (a)  Steam,  if  constant  and  of 
sufficient  pressure,  and  preferably  by  a  direct  pipe  from  boiler.  A  steam 
trap  must  be  provided  at  heater  for  condensed  steam,  with  a  high  pressure 
boiler  (10  pounds  or  over);  (b)  Hot  water  if  constant  and  of  proper  tem- 
perature; (c)  A  small  coal  or  gas  heater  of  ample  strength  to  resist  tank 
pressure.  Heating  capacity  ample  for  size  of  tank  must  be  provided,  and 
if  necessary  two  or  more  heaters  should  be  installed.  If  heater  is  in  a  pit 
under  tank  tower,  pit  must  be  of  ample  size  to  allow  ready  access  for 
inspection  and  maintenance.  If  coal  or  gas  is  used  for  heat,  tbe  heater 
must  be  installed  in  a  fire-resistive  enclosure.  A  thermometer  must  be  located 
in  the  return  pipe  at  or  near  the  heater  to  give  the  temperature  of  the 
water.  Where  the  discharge  and  return  pipes  of  the  heater  are  run  inside 
of  a  building,  it  is  advisable  to  provide  gate  valves  on  these  as  close  to 
where  they  leave  the  building  as  possible,  so  as  to  save  water  damage  in 
the  building  in  case  of  a  break  in  the  pipes. 

2.  Steam   Coil.     A  steam  coil  of  brass  pipe  may  be  placed   in  tank  securely 
fastened    6    inches    above    the    bottom.      This    must    be    supplied    by    a    steam 
pipe    of    ample    size    running    direct    from    boiler    below    frost    line    up    through 
the    frost-proof   boxing.      Return    pipe   should    be    run    along v  side   of   the    feed 
pipe.      Condensed   steam   must,  be  properly  cared   for  by  a  trap. 

3.  Steam  Jet.     This  may  be  used,   where   conditions   warrant,   with  the   per- 
mission   of    the    Underwriters    having    jurisdiction.      A    steam    pipe    at    least    i 
inch   in   diameter   should   be    run   direct    from   boilers,    below    frost   line    where 
necessary,    and    up    through    the    frost-proof    boxing    of    the    tank    discharge 
through    bottom    of    tank.      It    should    extend    to    a    point    above    the    surface 
of  the  water  and  then  turn  down  at  least  3   feet.     A  vent  must  be  provided 
at   upper   level   of  pipe  to   prevent   siphoning   back. 

18.  FROST-PROOFING  FOR  PIPES. — (a)  The  discharge  and  hot  water  or  steam 
pipes,  and  separate  filling  pipe  when  one  is  needed,  for  a  tank  on  a  tower 
on  the  ground  or  roof  of  a  building,  must  be  protected  from  freezing  by  a 
frost-proof  covering  in  addition  to  having  the  water  in  the  discharge  pipe 
heated. 

The  frost-proof  covering  should  not  be  depended  upon  to  prevent  freezing 
of  the  "pipes  \vithout  some  heat  being  added.  Most  tanks  for  fire  protective 
purposes  have  no  draft  from  them  except  in  case  of  fire,  therefore  the 
water  in  the  discharge  pipes  has  little  or  no  circulation.  For  this  reason, 
these  pipes  need  more  thorough  protection  than  do  pipes  in  similar  positions 
which  discharge  from  tanks  in  which  there  is  nearly  constant  circulation, 
as  for  example  in  a  village  supply.  Therefore  the  amount  of  protection 
to  be  provided  for  a  certain  pipe  must  be  decided  with  due  regard  to  the 
severity  of  exposure  to  cold  winter  winds,  frequency  of  circulation  in  the 
pipe  and  amount  of  heat  to  be  supplied. 

The  standard  frost-proof  boxings  are  made  of  wood  and  are  circular  or 
square  in  section  as  shown  in  Figures  98  and  99  respectively. 

The  boxings  may  be  made  more  durable  by  using  stock  which  has  been 
antiseptically  treated. 

(b)  A   good  tight  joint  must  be  made  between  boxing  and  bottom  of  tank. 
The   lower  end   of  boxing  must  be   supported  by   the   sides   of   the   pit,    which 
must  extend  about  a  foot  above  ground.     The  woodwork  must  be  well  painted. 

Sheet  lead  or  tarred  paper  should  be  placed  between  bottom  of  boxing 
and  the  pit  to  avoid  absorption  of  moisture. 

(c)  The  upper  part  of  boxing  must  be  constructed  so  as  to  permit  of  access 
to    the    expansion    joint    without    the    necessity    of    destroying    any    portion    of 
the    boxing. 

(d)  The   boxing   must   be   made    four-ply,   with   two   air   spaces,    for   tanks   in 
Northern    Canada.      It   must    be    three-ply,    with    two   air   spaces,    as    shown    in 
Figures  98  and  99   for  tanks  in   New   England,   New   York,   Southern  Ontario, 


628 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  Two-ply  boxing  with  two  air  spaces  must  be 
used  in  states  immediately  south  of  this  section.  This  boxing  may  also  'be 
used  in  the  Southern  States  or  else  the  pipes  may  be  wrapped  with  felt 
and  tar  paper  and  covered  with  canvas  well  painted. 

19.  GAUGED — (a)    An    approved    form    of   telltale    for   showing    the    height    of 
water  in'  the   tank   must   be   provided. 

(b)   The    following  telltales   are   aceptable: 

1.  Approved    Sprinkler    Supervisory    Device.       (Signaling    Rules.) 

2.  Mercury    Gauge. 

(a)    As   this    gauge    is    connected    to   the   yard   pipe    it   is   a   separate    fitting 
which    is    not    furnished    by    the    tank    builders    unless    definitely    included    in 

<s 


Round 
hoop 
at  each 


FIG.  98 — Circular  Frost-Proof  Boxing 


their  contract.  The  gauge  will  usually  be  furnished  by  the  sprinkler  con- 
tractor who  installs  the  riser  pipe,  although  it  may  be  installed  by  the 
owner  if  desired.  Mercury  should  be  filtered. 

(b)    An    approved    design    of   gauge    is    shown    in    Figure    100. 

(c)  The  gauge  must  be  installed  in  a  convenient,  warm,  inside  location 
so  that  the  graduated  board  will  be  in  plain  sight  for  reading,  and  the 
mercury  pot  easily  accessible  for  maintenance. 

As  a  first  rough  approximation,  the  distance  of  the  center  of  the  mercury 
pot  below  the  center  of  the  gauge  board  may  be  taken  as  7%  per  cent  of 
the  height  of  the  top  of  the  tank  above  the  board. 

When  a  location  thus  chosen  proves  satisfactory,  set  up  apparatus  as 
shown  in  Figure  6,  placing  the  board  more  exactly  by  locating  the  top  of 
the  scale  "A"  a  distance  in  feet  above  "B"  equal  to  17  per  cent  of  the 
pressure  at  "  B  "  in  pounds  per  square  inch  (or  7.4  per  cent  of  height  in 
feet  of  the  water  level  above  "  B  "),  when  the  tank  is  full. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


629 


Connect  pipe  "  C  "  to  the  tank  riser  on  the  tank  side  of  the  check  valve, 
burying  all  underground  pipe  "well  below  frost  and  protecting  other  pipe 
where  exposed  to  frost. 

Locate  air  and  test  cock  "  D  "  at  a  convenient  point  for  testing  with 
gauge  board  in  plain  sight.  Remove  plug  "  E  "  and  with  valve  '"  F  "  closed, 
fill  the  mercury  pot  with  mercury  through  opening  at  "  E "  until  the  glass 
window  "  G "  is  covered,  then  fill  to  overflowing  with  water  and  insert 
plug  "  E."  Open  valve  "  F  "  and  cock  "  D  "  until  water  flows  fr%eely,  then 
close  cock  "  D."  Finally  with  the  tank  filled  to  level  of  the  overflow, 
adjust  gauge  board  so  that  the  "  full  "  mark  comes  opposite  the  mercury 
level  in  the  glass  tube,  and  then  secure  the  board  firmly  in  place. 

(d)  The  gauge  should  be  tested  occasionally  to  insure  that  it  is  in  proper 
operative  condition  as  follows: 


FIG.  99 — Square  Frost-Proof  Boxing 


ist,  Open  cock  "  D."  This  should  cause  mercury  level  to  lower.  Close 
"  D  "  and  note  if  mercury  level  rises  to  former  point.  If  it  does  not,  then 
valve  "  F  "  is  probably  closed  or  pipe  "  C  "  is  plugged. 

2nd,  Note  if  mercury  can  be  seen  through  glass  window  "  G."  If  not, 
close  valve  "  F  "  and  fill  mercury  pot  as  directed  above. 

Be   sure  to  leave  valve  "  F  "  open  and  sealed. 

3.   Float  telltales. 

Float  telltale  to  consist  of  a  float  of  ample  size  and  buoyancy,  such  as 
a  tight  cask,  connected  to  a  non-corrosive  chain  or  flexible  cable  of  ample 
strength.  This  should  run  over  suitable  non-corrosive  pulleys  and  must 
be  boxed  where  exposed  to  weather.  Chain  should  run  down  through  a 
pipe  of  not  less  than  *£-inch  diameter  and  register  on  a  dial  located  either 
at  foot  of  trestle  or  in  first  story  of  building.  Dial  must  be  marked  off 
in  feet,  must  be  solid  on  back  and  sides  and  be  protected  by  netting  or 
glass  on  front. 

Where  upper  part  of  tank  is  used  for  factory  service  or  where  there  is 
a  reliable  ball  float  with  Constant  water  pressure  in  filling  pipe,  the  telltale 
may  be  omitted  by  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

20.  LADDERS. —  (a)  A  steel  ladder  must  be  provided  on  the  outside  of  the 

tank,  extending  to  the  top,  so  as  to  afford  easy  access  to  the  hatch  in  the 
tank  roof. 

(b)   The    ladder    must    be    constructed    with    not    less    than    2  x  %-inch  flat 


630 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


side  bars,  spaced  not  less  than  14  inches  apart,  and  not  less  than  %-inch 
round  or  %-inch  square  rungs,  spaced  not  more  than  12  inches  apart.  The 
rungs  must  be  riveted  through  slotted  holes  in  the  side  bars  to  prevent 
their  turning.  The  square  rungs  must  be  placed  corner  up. 

(c)    Ladder  must  be  secured  to  steel  grillage  or  balcony  supports  by  flat  bar 
brackets  in   such  a  way   as  to  properly  support  the   weight  of  the   ladder   and 


The  gauge 
board  shown  is 
for  a  tank  20  ft 
deep.  Similar 
boards  to  be 
provided  ac 
cording  to 
depth  of  tank 


Connection 
to  tank  riser 
on  tank  side  of 
check  valve. 
Pipe  to  be  as 
short  as  possi- 
ble and  with- 
out air  pock- 
eta  to  avoid 
false  reading. 


FIG.  100 — Mercury  Gauge 


1,000    pounds    in    addition.      Ladder    must    be    at   least    6    inches    from    side    of 
tank. 

(d)  The  ladder  must  extend  about    18   inches   above   the   side  of  tank,   then 
arch  downward  to  the  cover  to  form  a  handrail,  as  shown  in  Figure  96,  so  that 
a   man   standing   near   its   top   can    readily   reach    up    and   open    with   his    right 
hand  the  hatch  cover  in  tank  roof.     The  handrail  should  be  made  of  not  less 
than    %-irich    round    rod. 

(e)  A  substantial  wooden  ladder  must  be  provided  inside  of  the  tank  extend- 
ing from   the  trap  door  to  bottom  of  tank.     Must  be  made  of  at  least   2-inch 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


63i 


by   4-inch   side   pieces   and    i-inch   by   2-inch   cleats   securely  set    in   and   spiked 
to   the   side   pieces. 

21.  LIGHTNING    ROD*. — Wooden    or    concrete    tanks    in    locations    subject    to 
thunder    storms    must    be    equipped    with    lightning    rods.      These    must    be    in- 
stalled according  to  the  rules  of  the  National   Board  of   Fire  Underwriters. 

STEEL  TANKS  ON  TRESTLES 

22.  SIZE. — (a)    The   usual   sizes   of  steel   tanks    for   fare   protection    are    from 
20,000   to    150,000   gallons   capacity   although   they   are   sometimes   made   larger. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  water  is  to  be  stored  above  the  building,  two 
or  more  tanks  should  be  used  so  that  the  protection  will  not  be  entirely 
cut  off  when  repairing  one  tank. 

(b)  The  capacity  of  the  tank  should  represent  the  volume  of  water  which 
is  available  for  fire  service  and  is  to  be  the  computed  volume  between  the 
maximum  water  level  and  the  outlet  level. 


CAPACITIES  OF  CYLINDERS  AND  TANK  BOTTOMS 
U.  S.  GALLONS 


Gallons  per 

Gallons  in 

Gallons  per 

Gallons  in 

Diameter 

Vertical 

Hemispher- 

Diameter 

Vertical 

Hemispher- 

in Feet 

Feet  of 

ical 

in  Feet 

Feet  of 

ical 

Cylinder 

Bottom   > 

Cylinder 

Bottom 

10 

587.5 

1,958 

31 

5,646 

58,342 

11 

711 

2,607 

32 

6,016 

64,170 

.12 

846 

3,385 

33 

6,398 

70,378 

13 

993 

4,303 

34 

6,792 

76,976 

14 

1,152 

5,374 

35 

7,197 

83,965 

15 

1,322 

6,610 

36 

7,614 

91,368 

16 

1,504 

8,022 

37 

8,043 

99,197 

17 

1,698 

9,621 

38 

8,484 

107,464 

18 

1,904 

11,422 

39 

8,936 

116,168 

19 

2,121 

13,432 

40 

9,400 

125,333 

20 

2,350 

15,667 

41 

9,876 

134,972 

21 

2,591 

18,137 

42 

10,364 

145,096 

22 

2,844 

20,853 

43 

10,863 

155,703 

23 

3,108 

23,828 

44 

11,374 

166,819 

24 

3,384 

27,073 

45 

11,897 

178,455 

25 

3,672 

30,600 

46 

12,432 

190,624 

26 

3,972 

34,421 

47 

12,978 

203,322 

27 

4,283 

38,547 

48         n 

13,536 

216,576 

28 

4,606 

42,991 

49 

14,106 

230,398 

29 

4,941 

47,763 

50 

14,688 

244,800 

30 

5,288 

52,877 

23.  FORM. — (a)    Tanks   must   be    cylindrical    with    hemispherical    or    elliptical 
bottoms,  except  where  conditions  do  not  permit  a  curved  bottom,  in  which  case 
a   flat  bottom  may  be  used. 

24.  PLATES. — (a)    The    steel    for    tank    plates    must    be    made    by    the    open 
hearth    process.      The    cylindrical    plates    must    have    an    ultimate    strength    of 
from   55,000  to  65,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  bottom  plates,   45,000 
to   55,000  pounds  per  square  inch.     The  steel  must  withstand  a  coH   bending 
test  of   180  degrees  flat  upon   itself  to  a  diameter   not   greater  than   thickness 
of   plate    without    fracture    of    the   outside    bent    surface. 

(h)  The  thickness  of  the  plates  for  the  tank  and  balcony  must  be  not 
less  than  %  inch.  For  6o,ooo-gallon  tanks  and  larger  the  plates  of  the 
lowest  cylindrical  ring  must  be  not  less  than  5/16  inch  thick,  and  for 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

tanks  75,000  gallons  and  larger  the  bottom  plates  must(  be  not  less  than 
5/i  6  inch  thick.  Flat  bottom  plates  must  be  made  %  inch  thicker  than  the 
lowest  cylindrical  ring  in  all  sizes. 

The   thickness   of   the   roof   plates  must  be   not   less   than    %   inch. 

(c)  The    rings    of    plates    of    the    cylindrical    portion    must    be    placed  •  with 
the  lower  edges  outsid,e  the  upper  edges  at  the  lap  joints. 

(d)  The    joint    between    the    cylindrical    portion    and    the    bottom    must    be 
made  by  lapping  the  lowest  ring  over  the  plates  of  the  bottom  on  the  outside. 

(e)  The    joints    for    the    seams    of    the    bottom    cylindrical    plates    must    be 
lapped. 

(f)  The  plates  must  all  be  formed  cold. 

25.  RIVETS. — (a)    The   steel    for   rivets   must   be    made   by   the   open   hearth 
process.     It  must  have  an  ultimate  strength  of   from  48,000  to  58,000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  not  less  than  one  half  the  ultimate  strength, 
and   an  elongation    of   26   per   cent. 

(b)  The    shearing    stress    on    rivets    must    not    exceed    7,500    pounds    and 
bearing    stress    15,000    pounds    per    square    inch* 

(c)  Rivets  must   have  full   heads  concentric  with   rivet  of  a  height  not   less 
than  6/10  the  diameter  on  outside  of  tank,  but  low  cone  heads  are  acceptable 
for  inside. 

(d)  Rivets    when    driven    must    completely    fill    the    holes    and    be    in    full 
contact    with    surface,    or    be    countersunk    when    so    required.  ! 

26.  RIVET    SOLES. — (a)     Plates    *4    inch    to    %    inch    in    thickness    may    be 
punched.      The   diameter   of   the   punch   must   not   exceed   the   diameter   of    the 
rivet   by   more    than    1/16    inch. 

(b)  Plates    %    inch    to    %    inch    in    thickness    must    be    subpunched    with    a 
punch    i/i  6    inch    smaller    in    diameter    than    the    nominal    size    of    the    rivets 
and  must  be   reamed  to   a   finished   diameter   not   more   than    1/16   inch   larger 
than   rivet. 

(c)  Plates    thicker    than    %    inch    must    be    drilled  i  to    a    diameter    not v  more 
than   i/i 6  inch  larger  than   rivet. 

27.  RIVETING. —  (a)    All    rivets    must    be    entered    from    the    outside    of    the 
tank  and  driven   from  the  inside. 

(b)  The  joints  of  the  tank  plates  must  be  riveted,  so  that  the  Unit  stresses 
on    the   net   section    of   the   plates   and    rivets    will   not    exceed    those    specified. 

(c)  The    spacing   between    rivets   along   the    caulked   edges    of   plates,   except 
at  column   connections,   must   not  be  greater   than    ten   times   the  thickness   of 
plates.      The    spacing   along   the   edges   of   plates    which    are   not   caulked   must 
not  exceed  6  inches  nor   16  times  the  thickness  of  the  thinnest  outside  plate. 

28.  ASSEMBLING. —  (a)    Drift  pins  must   be  used  only   for  bringing  the   parts 
together    and    must    not    be    driven    with    such    force    as    to    disturb    the   metal 
around  the  rivet  hole. 

(b)  The  tank  must  be  made  absolutely  water-tight  by  caulking  along  the 
edges  from  the  inside  of  the  tank  with  a  round  nosed  tool.  Caulking  must 
be  done  before  painting. 

Foreign  material  such  as  lead,  copper  filings,  cement,  etc,,  must  not  be  used 
in  the  joints  between  the  plates. 

29.  CIRCULAR    GIRDER/ — (a)    When   the   posts    have   a   batter,    it    is   necessary 
to  oppose  the  inward  thrust  exerted  by  them  on  the  tank  by  a  circular  girder 
placed    in    such    a    position    with    regard    to    the    connection    that    the    bending 
moment    produced    in    the    posts    is    a    minimum.  . 

The  use  of  structural  steel  members  within  the  tank  in  place  of  the 
circular  girder  is  not  acceptable. 

'(b)  The  girder  must  be  not  less  than  24  inches  in  width  except  when 
posts  are  vertical,  when  it  may  be  reduced  to  18  inches,  and  must  have  a 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS  633 

web  plate  not  less  than  *4  inch  thick.  It  must  be  stiffened  at  the  edges  by 
flange  angles,  channels  or  other  structural  shapes.  It  must  be  designed  to 
support  a  i.ooo-pound  concentrated  load  applied  vertically  at  any  point. 

(c)  When    it    is    necessary   to    cut   into    the   web   of   the    girder    at    the   post 
connections  to  the  tank,  the   depth  of  the  cut  must  be  kept  a  minimum  and 
the   opening   must   be   thoroughly   reinforced. 

(d)  Where     splices    are    made     in     the     girders,     there     must    be     sufficient 
strength  at   these  points  to  carry  the   load  of  the  inward  thrust. 

(e)  Holes   must    be    punched    in    the    web   of   the    girder   to    allow    drainage. 

30.  BALCONY. —  (a)    A    balcony    must    be    provided    on    all    tanks    on    towers 
30  feet  or  higher.     The  circular  girder  will  serve  as  a  balcony  for  steel  tanks. 

(b)  A  railing  about  3   feet  high  must  be  provided  around  the  balcony.      It 
should    be    built    of    angle    irons    and    well    stiffened    sidewise. 

(c)  Drain    holes    must    be    provided    in    the    balcony    floor    when    design    is 
such    that   it    does    not    allow    water   to    run   over   edge. 

31.  CoNNECTi6N    OF    POSTS    TO    TANK. — (a)     In    order  -to    avoid    eccentric 
loading    in    the  ;  posts    and    local    stresses    in    the    tank    plates,    the    connection 
between    the    posts   and   the    tank   must   be   made    in    such    a   manner   that    the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  column  section  shall  intersect  the  tank  at  the  center 
of    the    girder    Connection.      An    acceptable    design    is    shown    in    Figure    101. 
Other    designs    are    also    acceptable,    but    these    should    be    approved    by    the 
inspection    department   having   jurisdiction. 

32.  EXPANSION    JOINT. — (a)    When    a    tank    is    supported   by    a    structure   30 
feet  or  more  in  height,  whether  on  the  ground  or  on  a  building,  an  expansion 
joint  of  the  type  shown  in  Figure   102  must  be  provided  in  the  discharge  pipe 
at   the  tank  connection. 

In  cases  where  a  tank  is  located  in  a  heated  enclosed  tower,  a  four-elbow 
swing  joint  may  be  used. 

(b)  The    expansion    joint    may    be    connected    to    tank    by    rivets,    as    shown 
in    Figure    102,  br  by  bolts  with   lead  gaskets  and  steel  washers. 

(c)  The    gland    must    be    of    brass    and    a    brass    ring   must    be    provided    at 
bottom    of    packing   space    so    that    sliding   contact    will    be    between    brass   and 
iron   surfaces. 

Expansion  joints  having  iron  to  iron  sliding  contact  have  given  trouble 
in  service  because  of  breakage  of  fittings  and  a  loss  of  water  from  tank 
due  to  rusting  and  sticking  together  of  the  parts. 

(d)  The  gland  bolt  nuts  must  be  of  brass. 

(e)  A   minimum   clearance   of    %    inch   must   be   provided  between    the   riser 
pipe   and  the  cast-iron   stuffing  box. 

(f)  The  stuffing  box  casting  must  be  extended   to  project    18   inches  within 
the  tank   to  insure   a   minimum   capacity   for  a  settling  basin   to   prevent   sedi- 
ment depositing  •  in  the   pipe  system,   and  to  keep  the  packing  free  from  sedi- 
ment.     A    wrought    iron   pipe    may    be   threaded    into   the   casting   to    form    an 
extension    piece    if    desired.      The    riser    pipe    must    also    be    fitted    so    that   the 
upper   end   is   about    12    inches   below   top    of   expansion  joint. 

See  note  under  isf. 

(g)  A    large    packing   space,    i    inch    wide    by    5    inches    deep,    must   be   pro- 
vided so  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  repack  the  joint  except  at  long  intervals. 

(h)  A  good  packing,  such  as  asbestos  wicking  soaked  in  rape  oil  and 
graphite,  must  be  provided  in  stuffing  box. 

33.  ROOF. — (a)    A  sheet  metal  roof,  not  less  than   %-inch  thick  and   conical 
in    shape,    must    be    provided    on    tanks    located    outdoors.      The    joints    of    the 
plates    must    be    lapped    and    riveted.      The    joints    between    the    roof    and    the 
top    of    the    tank    must    be    made    tight    in    order    to    keep    out    the    wind    and 
maintain   a   closed   air   space   above   the   surface   of   the  water. 


634 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


The  appearance  of  the  tank  is  improved  by  having  the  roof  project  beyond 
the  tank  the  same  distance  as  the  balcony. 

(b)  A  finial  made  of  cast  iron,  zinc  or  galvanized  sheet  iron  must  be 
tightly  fitted  to  apex  of  roof. 

34.  HATCHES. — -(a)  A  hatch  not  less  than  20  inches  by  26  inches,  inside 
measure,  must  be  provided  in  the  roof  (on  south  side  when  feasible),  so 
*?.'  ii  ,.v  :•  •:,:  >•-.;  ,«i  ;  ,  ..:!  •  .'.  i.  till  in  JJM'T:  :  >tsr,  ,:>x 


*    J 


FIG.    lor — Post  Connection  to  Tank 

as  to  give  easy  access  to  the  interior  of  the  tank.  The  hinges  and  fastenings 
must  be  made  of  some  non-corrodible  metal,  such  as  brass,  or  have  non- 
corrodible  hinge  pins  and  bearings.  The  cover  must  make  a  tight  joint  and 
its  edges  must  turn  down  over  raised  edges  of  hatch. 

(b)  The  hatch  cover,  when  hinged,  must  be  arranged  to  open  to  one 
Side  (preferably  to  the  right),  in  order  that  it  may  be  reached  in  all  positions 
by  a  man  on  the  ladder.  When  cover  is  arranged  to  slide,  it  must  move 
upwards  to  open. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


635 


35.  PAINTER'S  TROLLEY. —  (a)    Some  reliable   form  of  trolley  or  other  accept- 
able  device   must   be   provided   to    facilitate   repainting   of   the   tank. 

36.  PAINTING. — (a)    The   plates  must   be   given   a   priming   coat   at   the   shop. 
The    surface    of    the    metal    must    be    thoroughly    cleaned    of    mill    scale,    rust 
and  grease  and  the   surface   must   be   perfectly   dry  before   applying  the   paint. 

A  good  paint  for  the  first  coat  may  be  made  by  mixing  20  pounds  of  red 
lead  and  10  pounds  of  zinc  oxide  with  about  3  quarts  of  boiled  linseed  oil, 
the  red  lead  and  zinc  oxide  being  ground  in.  This  will  cover  about  50 
square  yards  of  surface. 

(b)  A  second  coat  must  be  applied  after  the  tank  is  erected.  For  this 
coat  a  more  durable  oil  or  asphaltum  paitit  must  be  used. 


FIG.   1 02 — Expansion  Joint  for  Steel  Tanks 


37.  TYPICAL  DIMENSIONS  FOR  TANKS  OF  STANDARD  SIZES. — (a)  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  typical  dimensions  of  cylindrical,  hemispherical  bottomed 
tanks  of  standard  sizes.  Other  dimensions  which  provide  the  full  net  capacities 
are  equally  acceptable. 


CAPACITY— GJ 


Rated  or 

Approximate 

Actual  Net 

Total 

Diameter 

Height 

Net 

30,000 

30,036 

30,516 

15-0 

18-1 

40,000 

40,045 

40,610 

17-0 

18-3 

50,000 

50,004 

50,613 

18-0 

20-7 

60,000 

60,148 

60,800 

19-0 

22-4 

75,000 

75,089 

75,788 

20-0 

25-7 

100,000 

100,166 

100,959 

22-0 

28-2 

150,000 

150,223 

151,164 

25-0 

32-10 

SIZE — FEET  AND  INCHES 


The  height  given  is  that  of  the  cylindrical  portion.  The  method  of  calcu- 
lating the  net  capacity  is  explained  in  Article  2ib. 

38.  GENERAL  FEATURES. —  (a)  The  requirements  for  discharge  and  filling 
pipes,  overflow,  drain,  heating  and  frost-proofing,  mercury  gauge  ancl  ladders 
are  given  in  section  on  wooden  tanks,  except  as  follows: 


636 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(b)  The  ladder  must  be  securely  fastened  by   flat  bar  brackets  of  sufficient 
strength  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  ladder  and    1,000  pounds  additional.     The 
ladder  must  extend  about   18   inches  above   the  side  of  tank,   then  arch   down- 
ward to  the  cover  to   form  a  handrail,  as  shown  in   Figure  2,  so  that  a  man 
standing    near    its    top    can    readily    reach    up    and    open    with    his    right    hand 
the  hatch  cover  in  tank  roof.     The  handrail  should  be  made  of  not  less  than 
%-inch   round   rod.      A   steel   ladder   of   the   same    construction    as    for   outside 
ladders    must    be    provided    inside    tank.      The    ladder    must    extend    down    to 
within    easy    reach    of    the    expansion    joint. 

(c)  Top  of  overflow  pipe  to  take  out  one  inch  from  top  of  tank. 

CARE   OF   TANKS 

39.  GENERAL. — (a)  Tanks  fir  fire  protection  should  not  be  used  for  other 
purposes  except  with  the  permission  of  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

The  practice  of  using  a  foot  !  or  scj  of  water  for  mill  purposes  from  the 
top  of  a  tank  is  objectionable;:  because'  when  so  used  the  tank  collects  a 
larger  amount  of  sediment  if rom  ,the  water  which  is  constantly  being  supplied 
than  it  does  when  used  for  fire'  service  only.  This  sediment  is  likely  to 
settle  in  the  sprinkler  pipes,  and  either  to  clog  the,m  completely,  or,  in  case 
sprinklers  open,  to  seriously  interfere  with  their  discharge.  If  water  is 
drawn  from  the  bottom  for  mill  purposes,  the  tank  may,  of  course,  be  empty 
when  needed  for  the  fire  service.  Furthermore  the  fluctuation  of  water 
level  is  liable  to  result  in  shrinkage  of  the  upper  ends  of  the  staves,  and 
leakage. 

Where  water  is  clean  and  without  sediment,  part  of  the  tank  may  be 
used  for  domestic  purposes  with  permission  of  the  inspection  department 
having  jurisdiction.  "•'.-' 

(b)  Tanks    should    be    thoroughly    examined    at    least    twice    a    year    to    see 
that   they   are   in   good   order. 

(c)  The    sediment    which    collects    in    the    tank    bottom    should    be    cleaned 
out  when  it  reaches  the  top  of  the  expansion  joint  casting. 

(d)  Examine    flat    hoops    on    old    tanks    very    carefully    to    see    if    they    are 
rusting  from  the  back.     If  they  are  found  to  be  corroded  so  as  to  materially 
weaken,  them,    the    tank    should    be    strengthened    by    placing    new    hoops    of 
round   iron   between   the   flat   hoops,   or   by   replacing  the   flat   ones   with   round 
hoops    of    proper   size    and    spacing. 

A  flat  hoop  may  be  in  perfect  condition  at  one  point  and  nearly  rusted 
off  within  six  inches  of  that  point.  Flat  hoops  rust  more  rapidly  where  they 
do  not  fit  tightly  against  the  staves,  because  dirt  collects  there  and  holds 
the  dampness.  In  making  an ,  examination  of  flat  hoops  place  a  round  hoop 
on  each  side  of  one  of  the  lower  flat  ones,  within  easy  reach,  then  strike 
this  flat  hoop  with  a  pointed  hammer  at  intervals  of  a  few  inches  to  detect 
thin  places. 

Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  tanks  located  on  roofs  and  covered 
with  corrugated  iron  as,  unfortunately,  som£  building  laws  require.  The 
hoops  corrode  very  rapidly  on  account  of  the  dampness  held  between  the 
corrugated  iron  and  the  staves,  and  they  mky  be  found  nearly  rusted  off 
in  a  few  years  after  erection. 

(e)  The  inside   and   outside  jof  the   tank  should   be   repainteid    frequently   or 
when   the   paint  shows   signs   of  peeling.      The :  surface  must   fijrst  be  carefully 
cleaned   by   a   sand   blast   or   by   steel   brushes   and   scrapers.      The   metal   must 
be   thoroughly  :dried   before  thfc   paint   is   applied. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STEEL  TOWERS 

These  specifications  are  intended  to  produce  steel  towers  which  are  strong 
and  reliable  and  involve  no  features  which  necessitate  radical  changes  in 
present  shop  practice  or  equipments.  The  towers  must,  in  addition  to  con- 
forming to  the  specifications,  be  satisfactory  in  the  composition  of  materials, 
construction  of  the  parts  and  workmanship. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS  637 

40.  HEIGHT. — (a)    The    height    of    the    tower    shall    be    the    vertical    distance 
from   the   top   of   the   capstpnes  of  the    foundations   to   the   outlet   level   within 
the    tank. 

41.  FORM. — (a)    Towers   for   supporting  tanks   of   sizes   up   to   and   including 
150,000    gallons    capacity    should    preferably    have    four    posts.      In    those    few 
cases    where    larger    tanks    are    used,    the    towers    may    have    six    posts.      Short 
towers    for   tanks    on    buildings   may   have    three    posts.' 

Four-posted  trestles  are  considered  preferable  to  those  of  more  posts,  for 
the  reason  that  the  members  are  larger  and  less  liable  to  be  impaired  by 
corrosion  and  also  more  likely  to  carry  the  proportion  of  the  load  for  which 
they  are  designed. 

In  designing  a  tank  trestle,  there  should  be  as  few  angles,  corners  and 
plnces  which  are  difficult  to  paint,  as  possible. 

42.  BATTER    OF    POSTS. —  (a)    The    post    panels    must    have    a     batter     of     not 
less  than   i   to   12,  except  wb/ere  conditions  do  not  permit. 

43.  MATERIAL. —  (a)    The  steel   for  the  structural  members  must  be  made  of 
medium    grade    of    from    55,000    to    65,000    pounds    ultimate    strength    and    an 
elastic   limit   of   not   less   than   one   half   of   the    ultimate   strength.      Before    or 
after    heating   to    a    low    cherry    red   and   cooling    in   water    to    82    degrees    F., 
the  steel  must  stand  bending  to  a  curve  whose   inner   radius  is   i%  times  the 
thickness   of  the   sample   without   cracking. 

(b)  The  thickness  of  the  metal  of  structural  members  carrying  load 
must  be  not  less  than  *4  inch  except  in  the  case  of  channels.  This  speci- 
fication does  not  apply  to  auxiliary  fittings  such  as  fillers,  railing,  balcony 
brackets  on  grillage,  etc. 

44.  RIVETS. — Rivets  must  have   full  heads  concentric  with   rivet  of  a  height 
not  less  than  6/10  the  diameter. 

See   also   Section   253   and  d,   and   Section    57. 

45.  RIVETING. — (a)    All    connections    must    be    riveted    except    those    of    the 
wind  rods  when  made  adjustable,  and  the  balcony  railing. 

See  also  48  b. 

(b)  The    minimum    distance    between    centers   of    rivet    holes    must    be    three 
diameters  of  the   rivets,   but  the   distance   shall   preferably   be  not  less  than   3 
inches  for   %-inch,   2%   inches  for   %-inch  and  2  inches   for   %-inch  rivets. 

(c)  The    maximum    distance    between    centers    of    rivet    holes    must    never 
exceed   6  inches. 

(d)  The    maximum    pitch    in    the    line    of   stress    for    members    composed    of 
plates  and   shapes  must  be   6   inches   for    %-inch,    5   inches   for   %-inch,   and   4 
inches  for  %-inch  rivets,  and  must  not  exceed  twice  this  amount  where  there 
are  two  or  more  gauge   lines. 

(e)  The    minimum    distance    from    the    center   of    any    rivet   hole    to   sheared 
edge  must  be  i%  inches  for  %-inch,  1*4  inches  for  %-inch,  i  inch  for  %-inch 
rivets,  and  to  a  rolled  edge   1%   inches,    i%   inches  and   %   inch,   respectively. 

(f)  The  maximum  distance  from  edge  must  be  eight  times  the  thickness  of 
the  plate,   but  must  not  exceed   6  inches. 

(g)  The  diameter  of  rivets  in  any  angle  carrying  calculated  stress  must  not 
exceed    *4    the    width   of   the   leg    in   which    they    are   driven.     In   minor    parts 
%-inch    rivets   may   be   used    in    3-inch    angles,    %-inch   in    2%-inch    angles   and 
^'i-inch    rivets    in    2-inch    angles. 

(h)  The  pitch  of  rivets  at  the  ends  of  built-up  compression  members  must 
not  exceed  four  diameters  of  the  rivets  for  a  length  equal  to  i%  times  the 
maximum  width  of  the  member. 

(i)  Hand-driven   rivets  must  not  be  larger  than   %-inch  diameter. 

46.  COMPRESSION    MEMBERS. —  (a)  The    metal    in    compression    members    must 
be   concentrated   as   much   as   possible   in   webs   and    flanges,    and    the    numbers 
must  be  of  approved  types. 


638 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


(b)  Cover  plates  must  have  a  thickness  not   less  than    1/40   of   the   distance 
between  rivet  lines.     When  cover  plates  are  used,  only  one  should  be  provided 
on    each   post. 

The   posts  should   be   constructed   so   that   all   parts  are   accessible    for   paint- 
ing,   for   which    reason    the    use   of    two   cover   plates   is    not    allowable. 

(c)  Post  members  built  up  of  two  angles  placed  star-shape,  must  have  pairs 
of  tie  plates  or  tie  angles,  spaced  so  that  the  distance  between  pairs  will  not 
exceed  the   following: — 

Size   -of    post    angle  4"  5"  6"  8" 

Spacing     of     ties  24"  36"  42"  48" 

There   must   be   at  "least   two   rivets    connecting   each    tie   to   each   angle,    the 
number  to  be   increased  with   increase  in  size  of  post  angle. 

(d)  Struts    must    be    connected    to    columns    through    gusset    plates    and    in 
such  a  manner  that  the  columns   are   rigidly  supported. 

(e)  Abutting  joints  in   compression   members  must   be   faced   for   bearing  so 
that  the  surfaces  will  be  finished  as  smoothly  as  by  milling. 

(f)  The  joints  must  be  spliced  on  four  sides  to  carry  the  maximum  tension, 
or  half  the  maximum  compression,  in  the  posts,  the  design  requiring  the  most 
riVets  to  be  used.      There   must  not  be   less  than  two  rows  of  rivets   on   each 
side   of   the   joint   where    size   of   post   member   permits.      Joints    with    abutting 
faces   not    finished  equal   to   milling   must   be    fully   spliced   so   that    rivets   will 
transmit   the   compression   load. 

(g)  Joints  must  be  placed  as  near  panel  points  as  possible  and  never  more 
than    1 8   inches   above. 

(h)    Where   foundations  are  set  in  soft  clay  or  comparatively   loose  earth   a 
lower  chord  should  be  provided. 

47.  LATTICE. —  (a)   The  size  of  rivets  for  latticing  channel  flanges  of  various 
widths    must   be    as    follows:     %-inch    rivets    for    flanges   less    than    2*4    inches 
wide,    %-inch    rivets    for    flanges    2%    inches    to    3^    inches    wide    and    %-inch 
rivets    for   flanges   3^   inches   and   wider. 

(b)  The   minimum   width   of   lattice  bars   for  compression   members  built   up 
of  channels   must  conform   to   the   size   of   rivets   used   as   follows:     2^   inches 
for   %-inch,   2%   inches   for   %-inch,    2    inches   for    %-inch    rivets. 

(c)  The   thickness   of   lattice   bars   must   be   not   less  than    1^/40   the    distance 
between  end  rivets  for  single  lattice  and    1/60   for  double  lattice. 

(d)  The    inclination    of   lattice    bars   with   the   axis   of   the    member   must   be 
not  less   than   45   degrees. 

(e)  When   the   distance   between   rivet   lines   in   the   flanges  is  more   than    15 
inches,   if  single   riveted  bar  is  used,   the   lattice   must  be   doubled   and   riveted 
at  the   intersection. 

48.  GRILLAGE. — (a)    For  towers  to  support  wooden  tanks,   a  grillage  of  steel 
I  beams  must  be  provided.     These  are  to  be  supported  by  and   bolted  to  post 
cap   I   beams   which  must  be   braced   by  steel   work  or   be   strapped   to   the   cap 
beams  to  prevent  overturning.      An   acceptable   form   of  construction   is  shown 
in   Figure   103. 

(b)  When  struts  are  not  provided  at  top  of  posts  below  the  post  cap  beams, 
the   latter  must   be   riveted   to   the   cap   plates.     When   struts   are    provided,   the 
beams  may  be  bolted  to  the   plates. 

(c)  The  grillage  beams  must  be  spaced   so   as   to   properly   support   the   tank 
bottom  and  not  to  exceed   18  inches  in  the  clear  between  flanges. 

(d)  A  balcony  should  be  installed  on  every  tank. 

(e)  The    balcony    supports    must    consist    of    steel    members    riveted    to    the 
grillage    beams.     They    must    carry    a    i,ooo-pound    concentrated    load    applied 
vertically  at  any  point.     An  acceptable  form  of  support  is  shown  in  Figure  103. 

49.  CAP  AND   BASE   PLATES. —  (a)    The  cap   and   base  plates  must   be   made   of 
steel. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


639 


(b)  The  base  plates  must  be  of  sufficient  thickness,  size  and  properly  stif- 
fened so  that  the  masonry  shall  be  loaded  uniformly  and  not  overstressed. 
An  acceptable  design  of  base  plate  for  angle  iron  posts  is  shown  in  Figure  104. 
and  for  channel  posts  in  Figure  105.  Other  designs  which  are  equally  good 
are  also  acceptable  but  should  be  approved  by  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

50.  ANCHOR  BOLTS. —  (a)  The  columns  must  be  anchored  to  the  foundations 
by  means  of  anchor  bolts  made  of  wrought  iron  or  mild  steel  without  upset 
ends. 

(b)  The   diameter  of   bolt  at   root   of   thread   must   be  such   as   to   withstand 
the  maximum  uplift  produced  by  the  wind.     No  bolt  shall  be  less  than  %-inch 
diameter.     The  bolts  must  also  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  the   shearing 
force  at   the  column   footing. 

(c)  The    bolts    must    have   anchor    plates   not    less    than    ^-inch    thick    under 
the  nut  and  set  in  the  foundation  pier  several  inches  above  the  bottom. 


FIG.    103 — Arrangement  of  Grillage 

When  structural  steel  shapes  are  used  as  plates  they  may  be  less  th?*i 
'..inch  thick. 

51.  WIND  BBACING. — (a)  The  wind  bracing  may  be  made  either  of  wrought 
iron  or  steel  rods  arranged  for  tightening  or  built  up  of  riveted  structural 
members. 

(b)  The    rods    may    be   either   round   or  square   and   if   provided    with    upset 
ends  must  comply  with   Franklin   Institute  standard  and   in   no  case  have   less 
than    15  per  cent  excess  area  at  the  root  of  the  thread  over  the  nominal  cross 
section  of   the    rod. 

(c)  The  ends  of  the   rods  must   be  fitted   with   either  clevis  nuts  or   forked 
ends.     Clevis  nuts  must  be   made  to  dimensions  of  the   Cleveland   City    Forge 
and   Iron   Co.   standard.      The   design   of  forked  ends  is   shown   in    Figure    106 
and    the   dimensions    are    given    in    the    table. 

(d)  Rods    having    forked    ends    must    have    turn-buckles    for    tightening.     All 
turn-buckles  must  be  of  the  open  type  and  made  to  dimensions  of  the   Cleve- 
land  City    Forge   and    Iron   Co.    standard. 


640 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


FIG.   104 — Base  Plate  for  Angle  Post 


FIG.  105 — Base  Plate  for  Channel  Post 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


641 


(c)  All  screw  threads  must  he  made  tight  fits  in  the  nuts  and  turn-buckles. 
They  must  he  U.  S.  standard  except  for  diameters  greater  than  i%  inches 
when  they  must  have  six  threads  per  inch  as  follows: — 

Diameter   of   screw   ends,  i"  i%"          i*4"          i%"     and  greater 

X  umber    of    threads    per    inch,  8  7  7  6 


FIG.    1 06 — Forked    Ends 


D 

S 

U 

F 

f 

1 

4* 

* 

| 

1 

4  3 

9-16 

1 

1 

5 

11-16 

H 
1J 

1 
1 

5 
5i 

13-16 

H 

U 

5J 

i 

l| 

2 

5£ 

1 

1! 

21 

5f 

1   1-16 

P  should  be  made  large  enough  to  give  a  bearing  stress  for  the  pin  not 
exceeding  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch'.  G  equals  thickness  ot  plate 
plus  1/16  inch. 

52.  PINS.— (a)   The  pins  must  be  made  of  rolled  steel. 

(b)  The  pins  must  have  a  head  on  one  end,  and  provided  with  a  nut  at  the 
other  end.  They  must  be  inserted  downwards.  It  is  advised  that  bolts  be 
headed  over  the  nut. 

53.  FOUNDATION    PIERS. —  (a)    The  piers  must   be   pyramidical   in   shape,   with 
full  or  stepped  sides,  and  the  height  must  be  not  less  than  the  mean  width. 

(b)  When    columns    are    inclined,    the    piers    must    be    designed    so    that    the 
resultant   of  the   vertical   and  horizontal   forces   due  to   direct  loads   shall   pass 
through   the   center  of   gravity. 

(c)  The  piers  must  be  carried  below  frost  line  and  the  tops  must  be  about 
12   inches  above  ground. 

In  no  case  should  earth  or  ashes  be  filled  in  about  the  steel  work,  as 
this  might  result  in  severe  corrosion  of  it. 

(d)  The  weight  of  the  pier  when  buried  for  at  least  two-thirds  of  its  height 
must  be  equivalent  to  the  calculated  net   uplift;   otherwise,  the  weight  must   be 
one  and  one-half  times  this  amount. 

(e)  The  piers  must  be  constructed  of  concrete,  consisting  of  one  part  Port- 
land  cement,   three  parts  clean   sand  and   five  parts  broken  stone   or   gravel. 

(f)  The    capstones,    if    constructed    of    concrete,    must    consist    of    one    part 
Portland   cement,   one    and   one-half   parts   clean   sand    and    three    parts    broken 
stone. 

(g)  The  top  of  pier  must  be  of  such  size  that  there  will  be  at  least  3  inches 
all   around  the  base   plate,  as  shown   in    Figures    104   and    105. 

54.  LADDERS. —  (a)    A   steel   ladder   must   be   provided   on   one   post   extending 
from  a  point  within  easy  reach  from  the  ground  to  the  balcony.     It  must  not 
tip  outward   from  the  vertical  at  any  point. 


642  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(b)  The  ladder  must  be  constructed  with  not  less   than. 2  x  %-inch  flat  side 
bars,  spaced  not  less  than   14  inches  apart,  and  not  less  than  %-inch  round  or 
%-inch  square  rungs,  spaced  not  more  than   12  inches  apart.     The  rungs  must 
be  riveted  through  slotted  holes  in  the  side  bars  to  prevent  their  turning.     The 
square   rungs   must   be   placed   corner   up. 

(c)  The  sections  of  the   ladder  must  be   connected  by  single  butt  straps  of 
the  same  size  as  the  side  bars  and  have  at  least  two  i/^-inch  bolts  in  each  side 
of  strap. 

(d)  The    ladder    must    be    secured    to    the    post    every    10    feet    by    flat    bar 
brackets  about  6  inches  long,  of  sufficient  strength  to  carry  the  weight  of  the 
ladder  and   1,000  pounds  additional.     The  brackets  must  be  connected  at  each 
end    by    at    least   two    %-inch    bolts.     The    ends    of    the    bolts    must    be    riveted 
over  the  nuts. 

55.  PAINTING. — (a)  The  steel  work  must  be  painted  as  directed  in  Article  36, 
items  a  and  b. 

56.  LOADS. — (a)    The    dead    load    shall    consist    of    the    weight    of    the    tank, 
structural  and  ornamental  steel  work,   platforms,   roof,   piping,   etc. 

(b)  The  live  load  shall  consist  of  the  weight  of  the   total  volume  of  water, 
the  movable  load  on  the  platform,  and  the  wind   load. 

(c)  The   live    load   on   the   platform   shall   be    assumed   to   be    30   pounds   per 
square   foot. 

(d)  The   wind  pressure   shall   be   assumed   to  be   30   pounds   per   square    foot 
acting    in    any    direction.     In    calculating    the    wind    load    on    the    tank,    this 
pressure  is  assumed  to   act  on   6/10  the   projected  area  of  the  tank   including 
the  roof,  and  in  the  case  of  steel  tanks  the  hemispherical  bottom. 

(e)  The  total   wind  pressure  on  posts,   struts,   wind  rods,   ladders   and    riser 
boxing  shall  be  assumed  to  be  200  pounds  per  foot  of  height  of  tower. 

(f)  All  parts  of  the  structure  must  be  proportioned  so  that  the  sum  of  the 
dead   and    live    loads   shall   not   cause   the   stresses   to   exceed    those    which    are 
allowable. 

57..  UNIT  STRESSES  AND  PROPORTION  OF  PARTS. — The  maximum  stresses  must 
not  exceed  the  following  amounts  in  pounds  per  square  inch:— -. 

Axial   tension:    on   net   section,   wind   and   anchor   rods 15*000 

Plates 1 0,000 

Axial  compression  on  gross   section  of  columns  and  struts 12,000 

This  stress  shall   be   reduced   by  the   formula    17,100 — 57— where 

"  !•  •'    is    the    unsupported    length    of    the    member    from    center    to 
center   of   connections   in   inches,    and   "  r  "   is   the   least   radius   of 

gyration    of   section    in    inches.      The    ratio—  must    not   exceed    125 

for   columns   and    150   for   struts   and   minor   members. 
Bending:     on  extreme   fibres   of   rolled  shapes,   built   sections,   struts   and 

steel    castings;     net    section ...16,000 

Footing  I  beams  set  on  brickwork  or  concrete;  net  section 12,000 

Pins .  . 20,000 

Shearing:     shop   driven   rivets  and   pins 10,000 

Field    driven    rivets ;•..... 7,500 

.  Bolts .' . 6,000 

Plates. 1 0,000 

Bearing:     shop   driven    rivets   and   pins .  20,000 

Field    driven    rivets.  .  j 15,000 

58.  ALLOWABLE  PRESSURES  ON  BEARING  PLATES. — (a)  In  proportioning  the 
size  of  bearing  plates,  the  following  allowable  pressures,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch,  should  be  used: — 

Portland    cement    concrete :;; . .  .  i;.  .'; .  . :': 400 

Sandstone     (first    class) , 400 

Limestone     (first    class) •. . . 500 

Granite    (first    class) '. . . .'.'.. 600 

Hard  brick  with   Portland   cement  mortar '..'....'  1 ...  •: '. '.'  i. . '. . ; 200 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


643 


\\  hen  bearing  plate  is  to  support  .tank  above  roof  of  building,  the  brick- 
work (hard  brick)  with  Portland  cement  mortar  should  be  figured  on  the 
basis  of  125  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Allowable  pressures  on  soil  will  range  from  i  to  5  tons  per  square  foot, 
depending  on  whether  the  soil  is  soft  clay,  ordinary  clay,  dry  sand  and  clay, 
hard  clay,  or  gravel  and  coarse  sand. 

PRESSURE  TANKS 

59.  CAPACITY.  —  Total    capacity    of   tank    must    be    specified    by   the    inspection 
department  having  jurisdiction. 

Si  /AS    less    than    4,500    or    over    9,000    gallons    are    not    recommended.       In 
where   pressure   tanks   are   the    primary   supply    to   dry-pip£    systems    it    Is 
advisable    to    provide    a    larger    tank    capacity    than    would    be    required    for    an 
equivalent    number    of    sprinklers    on    a    wet-pipe    system. 

60.  LOCATION.  —  Tank  not  to  be   located  below   upper  story  of  building. 

61.  TANK     SERVICE.  —  Tanks    to    be    used    only    as    a    supply    to    automatic 
sprinkler  systems  and  hand  hose. 

62.  CONSTRUCTION.  —  (a)   Material.     Must  be  of  open  hearth  flange  steel  con- 
forming to   the   American   Society    for   Testing   Materials    Specifications.     Each 
plate  must  have  a  test  mark   12  inches  from  each  corner  and  one  in  the  center. 

Thickness  of  plates  of  the  cylindrical  shell  must  be  determined  by  the 
following  formula:  — 


T  = 


Px  r  x  5 


T  =  Thickness  of  cylindrical  shell  plate  in  inches. 

r  =  Radius  of  cylindrical  tank. 

5  =  Factor  of  safety. 

S  =  Ultimate  tensile  strength  of  steel. 

P  =  Normal  working  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

%  —  Efficiency  of  longitudinal  seam. 


(b)   Heads. 
formula:  — 


Thickness    of    heads    must    be    determined    by    the      following 
Pxr  x  5 


T  = 


Ofix  S 


Radius  of  dish  of  head   must  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the   tank. 

In  case  of  tanks  of  odd  diameters  the  inspection  department  having  juris- 
diction may  allow  a  variation  of  3  inches  either  above  or  below  the  diameter. 

Radius  to  be  used  in  formula  for  heads  to  be  the  radius  of  the  tank  which 
is  one-half  the  radius  of  the  head. 

Heads  must  be  dished  concave  to  the  pressure.  Corner  radius  of  dished 
heads  to  be  not  less  than  one-sixteenth  of  the  radius  of  the  tank,  the  corner 
radius  to  be  measured  on  the  concave  side  of  the  head. 

(c)  Scams.  Longitudinal  seams  must  be  butt  joint,  with  inside  and  outside 
butt  straps  and  placed  below  the  water  line.  Not  more  than  one  seam  is 
allowed  in  each  course. 

The   minimum   thickness   of  butt   straps   must   be   as    follows:— 


Thickness  of       Minimum  Thickness 

Thickness  of 

Minimum  Thickness 

Shell  Plates             of  Butt  Straps 

Shell  Plates 

of  Butt  Straps 

1 

r 

33' 

V« 

i 

!» 

4* 

i 

i 

K 

jt; 

\ 

Tf  * 

it'- 

644 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Butt  straps  to  be  rolled  or  formed  to  the  proper  curvature  on  forms  made 
for  that  purpose.  Maximum  length  of  continuous  longitudinal  joint  not  to 
exceed  12  feet.  Girth  seams  may  be  lap  joint,  single  riveted,  but  must  have 
a  factor  of  safety  of  at  least  5. 

Rivets.  Rivet  steel  to  conform  to  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Mate- 
rials Specifications  for  Rivet  Steel.  On  longitudinal  joints,  the  distance  from 
the  center  of  the  rivet  hole  to  the  edge  of  the  plate,  except  rivet  holes  in 
the  ends  of  butt  straps,  shall  not  be  less  than  1^2  times  the  diameter  of  the 
rivet  hole.  Rivet  holes  must  be  drilled  in  place,  or  punched  %  inch  smaller 
and  reamed  to  size.  Seams  must  be  caulked  tight  outside  under  test  pressure. 
All  caulking  must  be  done  by  a  round  nose  tool. 

In  calculating  the  efficiency  of  seams,  unless  data  is  available  from  actual  tests 
of  materials,  the  following  constants  are  to  be  used: — 

Ultimate  tensile  strength  of  steel  plate;  Ibs.  per  sq.  in 55,000 

Ultimate  crushing  strength  of  steel  plate,  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. . 95,000 

Shearing  strength  of  rivets: — 

Iron  rivets  in  single  shear 38,000 

Iron  rivets  in  double  shear 70,000 

Steel  rivets  in  single  shear 42,000 

Steel  rivets  in  double  shear 78,000 

(d)  Manhole.     Must  be  placed  below  the  water  line,  and  not  exceed   u'x  15 
inches    in    size.     The    manhole    frame    or   other   reinforcing   ring   should   be   of 
wrought   iron    or   cast   steel,    and    have    a   net    cross    sectional    area,    on    a    line 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  shell,  not  less  than  the  cross  sectional  area  of  the 
shell    plate    removed   on    the    same   line,    and    this    reinforcement   should    be   at 
least  as   thick  as  the   shell  plate.     The   strength   of  the   rivets   in  shear   on   all 
manhole    frames    and    reinforcing    rings    must    be    not    less    than    the    tensile 
strength    of   the   plate    removed,    on    a    line    parallel    to    the    axis    of    the    shell, 
through   the   center  of  the  manhole.     The   short  axis   of   the  manhole   opening 
must  be  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  shell,'  to   facilitate   reinforcement. 

(e)  Outlet   and   Other   Openings.      Discharge   fitting   must   be   placed    in   the 
bottom   of  the  tank  projecting  2   inches   within   the   tank   to   prevent   sediment 
depositing    in    the   sprinkler    pipes.     Fitting   may   also    be    used    for   connecting 
the   i^-inch  water  filling  pipe  to  the  tank.     Inlet  for  air  supply  to  be   i   inch, 
and  placed  at  proper  point  for  upper  gauge   glass  nipple,   where   suitable  con- 
nections can   be   made   for   both   purposes;    or   2-inch   inlet   may   be   made   at   a 
proper   point  above  the   water  line   into   which  both   the    1%-inch   water   filling 
pipe   and  the    i-inch  air  filling  pipe   may   connect   to  proper   valves   to  be   pro- 
vided,  as  noted  in  Rule  64  d. 

Brass  nipples  must  be  provided  for  these  inlets  arid  also  for  the  %-inch 
fitting  .needed  to  complete  the  gauge  glass  connections.  An  approved  auto- 
matic valve  must  be  provided  at  each  end  of  gauge  glass.  A  2-inch  nipple 
extending  at  least  6  inches  into  tank  should  also  be  provided  at  the  end  of 
water  inlet,  to  prevent  surging  or  "  foaming  "  of  water  when  tank  is  being 
filled.  Any  opening  for  a  threaded  pipe  connection  i  inch  in  diameter  or 
over  must  have  not  less  than  the  minimum  number,  of  threads  in  such  opening, 
as  shown  in  the  following  table: — • 

Size  of  pipe  connection  in  inches  ....      1*  and  1J*     1$*  and  2"      2$'-4"        4$'-6' 

Number  of  threads  per  inch .!,!'•:       11$  11$  8  8 

Minimum  number  of  threads  required 

in  opening '.  .  .  4  5  7  8 

Minimum  thickness  of  material  re- 
quired to  give  above  number  of 
threads .,  .  .348'  .435'  .875'  1' 

If  the  thickness  of  the  material  in  the  tank  is  not  sufficient  to  give  such 
number  of  threads,  there  shall  be  a  standard  commercial  pressed  or  cast 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS 


645 


steel  flange  or  steel  plate,  substantially  riveted  to  the  tank  so  as  to  give 
the  required  number  of  threads. 

Size  of  discharge  must  be  4  inches  in  tanks  up  to  5,000  gallons  capacity 
and  must  be  6  inches  for  larger  sizes. 

There  should  be  a  swing  joint  in  discharge  pipe  directly  under  or  near 
the  tank. 


646 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


63.  TEST. — Tank  must  be  tested  at  the  shop  and  proved  tight  at  a  hydro- 
static pressure  of  at  least  50  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  normal  working 
pressure  required.  After  erection,  the  tank,  two-thirds  full  of  water,  must 
be  tested  at  the  working  air  pressure  required.  In  this  condition  and  with 
all  valves  closed,  tank  must  not  show  loss  of  pressure  in  excess  of  %  pound 
in  24  hours. 

PRESSURE  TANK  FOR  SPRINKLER  SYSTEM 


END  VIEW  AND  DETAIL  OF  PIPING 


NOTATION 

A  connection  from  tank. 
B  connection  from  tank. 

C  shut-off  valves  of  best  quality,  to  be  kept  closed. 
D  water  gage  of  best  quality. 
E  shut-off  valve  of  best  quality. 
F  check  valve  of  best  quality. 
G  shut-off  valve  of  best  quality. 
H  check  valve  of  ^  best  quality. 

I  shut-off  valve  of  best  quality,  to  be  secured  open. 
J  dial  pressure  gage  of  best  quality  reading,  to  150  Ibs. 
K  shut-off  valve  of  best  quality,  to  be  secured  closed. 
L  brass  plug  secured  by  chain;  opening  is  for  testing  gage. 
M  man-hole. 
N   discharge   outlet   for  connection   to  sprinkler  system. 


GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  TANKS  647 

TABLE  OF  HEIGHT  OF  WATER  IN  HORIZONTAL  CYLINDRICAL 
PRESSURE  TANK 

Tank   two-thirds    full 

Diameter   Tank   in    Inches 
56 

II 

I'o 

61 
62 

II 
I 

69 
70 

72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
Pressure  tanks  can  he  made  at  any  boiler  works. 

64.  FITTINGS  AND  CONNECTIONS. — (a)   .Gauge  Glass.     Must  be  placed  on  the 
end    of   horizontal    and   side   of   upright   tank   so   that  the   two-thirds   line    will 
be  at  the  center  of  the  glass.     Gauge  glass  valves  must  be  of  the  best  quality 
angle  globe  pattern. 

The  two  valves  in  the  water  gauge  connections  to  be  of  approved  automatic 
type  and  to  be  kept  closed,  and  opened  only  to  ascertain  the  amount  of 
water  in  the  tank,  as  breaking  of  or  leakage  about  glass  will  cause  the 
escape  of  pressure. 

(b)  Pressure    Gauge.      Must    be    placed    directly    on    the    upper  ,  gauge    glass 
nipple    and    provided    with    a    separate    shut-off    valve. 

(c)  Filling    Point.      Tank   must   be   kept   two-thirds    full   of   water   and   have 
a    fixed    metallic    horizontal    line    opposite    gauge    glass,    indicating    this    water 
level.      A    conspicuous    sign    indicating    minimum    air    pressure    allowed    should 
be   stamped   on   the   fixed  metallic   plate   indicating   the   water   level. 

For  horizontal  tanks  the  two-thirds  line  to  be  determined  by  the  following 
formula:  Distance  above  the  bottom  equals  1.265  x  radius  of  tank  in  inches. 

(d)  Filling    Pipes.      Water    for    supplying    tank    must    be    conveyed    through 
fixed    iron    piping    not    less    than    i%    inch    in    size.      Sprinkler    piping   not   to 
be    used    for    this    purpose. 

Pipe  from  air  pump  must  be  at  least  i  inch  in  diameter,  connect  with 
tank  above  the  water  level,  and  must  be  independent  of  water  supply  pipe, 
except  as  noted  under  Section  626. 

See  also   Section   68   as   to   safety  valve. 

(e)  Drain  Pipe.     Provision  must  be  made  to  drain  each  tank  independently 
of  other  tanks  and  the   sprinkler  system   by   a  pipe   not   less   than    i%    inches 
in    diameter. 

The  practice  of  placing  drain  valves  at  lower  levels  and  accessible  from 
the  exterior  of  buildings  is  not  approved. 

65.  PRESSURE. — When    the    bottom    of    the    tank    is    located    on    a    level    with 
the    highest    sprinklers    an    air    pressure    not    less    than    75    pounds    should    be 
maintained    in    order    that    a    pressure    of    not    less    than    15    pounds    will    be 


648  FIRE  PREVENTION  •  AND  PROTECTION 

furnished  at  the  highest  line  of  sprinklers  when  all  water  has  been  discharged 
from  the  tank. 

When  the  bottom  of  the  tank  is  located  lower  than  the  highest  sprinklers 
a  pressure  in  excess  of  75  pounds  should  be  maintained.  This  excess  pressure 
must  be  equal  to  three  times  the  pressure,  due  to  the  height  of  the  sprink- 
lers above  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

66.  FILLING. — Arrangements   must  be  made   for   filling  the   tank   so  that   the 
proper    water    level    may    be    restored    at    any    time    without    reducing    the    air 
pressure. 

67.  MAINTENANCE. — Tank   must   be   painted   inside    and   outside,    with   a   good 
quality    of    lead    paint,    must    be    cleaned,    scraped    and    repainted    when    neces- 
sary.     Tank    must    have    a    hydrostatic    pressure    test    similar    to    one    noted 
in    Section    63,    once   in    two    years. 

68.  AIR  COMPRESSOR. — A  steam  or  electrically  driven  air  compressor  having 
sufficient  capacity  to   increase   the  air  pressure  at  an   average  rate  of   at  least 
one   pound   in   two   minutes   should   be   provided. 

A  properly  designed  safety  valve  must  be  installed  at  the  air  compressor, 
or  in  the  pipe  from  it  to  tank,  so  that  an  excessive  air  pressure  may  not 
be  pumped  into  tank. 

Where  the  compressor  is  also  used  to  maintain  dry-pipe  systems,  the  air 
supply  should  be  taken  from  the  outside  or  from  a  room  having  dry  air.- 
in  order  to  avoid  carrying  moisture  into  the  pipe  system.  The  intake  should 
be  protected  by  a  screen. 

69.  TANK    HOUSE. — Tank    must    be    properly    protected    from    frost,    and    if 
located   above   the   roof   must   be   enclosed   in   a   house  of   substantial   construc- 
tion, .of   easy'  access, 'and   of   ample   size   to   provide   free   access,  on   all    sides. 

Must   be   arranged   so   that   it   can   be  properly   lighted   at    all    times. 

There  should  be  a  space  at  least  3  feet  at  end  where  gauges  are  located 
and,  ^  window  should  be  provided  opposite  gauges.  ,  r,,  ,-,,j,-, 

Tank  house  must  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  oi 
municipal  of '  building  authorities  where  they  exist. 

70.  SUPPORTS  FOR  TANKS. — Tank  to   rest  on   a  cradle   of  cast   iron,   concrete 
or'  other  equ'ally   rigid  material   which   will   prevent   possible   sagging  or   vibra- 
tion.      Wood    is    not    approved     for    this    purpose.  '•  Supports    must    be    prb- 
pbrtioned  so  as  to  safely  carry  the' load,  using  a  factor  of  safety  of  at  least 
four,    arid    rtiust    be'  installed    tinder    the  '  requirements    of   the    municipal    or 
building    authorities    where    they   exist. 

lov-ii    v.i, ..7    -)ift    viil-.;f.«i    •>}!•!<(    -/ulrr:oc    f.-.yH    '.;.:•    r".    \.-><i'.)tnr-     • 

':;;!3?ANKs  ON  BUILDINGS 

'  {a)  Tanks  should  be  located  on  buildings  only  when  this  is  Absolutely 
necessary  as  tanks  so  located  are  ap|  menace  to  life  and  property  unless  the 
best  of  care  is  taken  regarding  the  supports. 

(b)  Before    supporting    a    tank    on    a    building    great    care    should    be    taken 
to   make   sure  .that   the   building -is   strong   enough,  to   carry    the   extra    weight 
that  the  tank  imposes. 

(c)  In    a    building    about    to    be    erected    special    arrangements    for    the    tank 
should   be   macje  in  .the   plans   of   the   building   itself.      With   buildings   already 
constructed    it   is    necessary    to    haye    an    expert    pass    on    the    strength    of   the 
supports.      It    will    often    be '  desirable    to    arrange    for    the    required    capacity 
by   two   tanks   instead  of   one. 

(d)  Tanks    on    buildings    should    be    supported    either    by    steel    beams    laid 
across  brick,  stone  or  concrete  walls,  carried   above  the   roof  to  the  necessary 
height   or   by   a   substantial  trestle   of   the   necessary   height   built1  in   accordance 
with    preceding    rules   so    far   as   they    apply. 

If,   a    trestle    is    used    it    should    be    supported    entirely    by    brick,    stone    or 


CONCRETE-  RESERVOIRS  649 

concrete  walls,  posts  or  piers.  If  the  tank  is  supported  wholly  or  in  part 
by  steel  columns  within  a  building,  these  should  be  riveted  and  fireproofed. 
An  exception  to  this  is  in  case  the  whole  building  is  of  wood,  when  a  tank 
may  be  supported  by  wood  columns  only  by  special  permission  of  the  inspec- 
tion department  having  jurisdiction. 

(e)  In  designing  trestle  footings  for  tanks  on  buildings  the  safe  load  on 
any  brick  work  must  not  be  figured  at  over  125  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  trestle  should  be  strongly  and  securely  anchored  to  the  building  to 
guard  against  any  possible  overturning  due  to  the  action  of  the  wind  when 
the  tank  is  empty. 

Special  attention  ts  called  to  the  necessity  of  safeguarding  against  corrosion 
at  the  point  where  steel  supports  pass  through  the  roof. 

CONCRETE    RESERVOIRS* 

See   Figures    107  to    no   inclusive. 

Concrete  work  shbuld  be  entrusted  only  to  experienced  and  responsible 
parties,  as  even  the  best  material  will  give  poor  results  unless  properly  used. 

Workmanship  should  be  first  class  and  in  conformity  with  best  engineering 
practice. 

The  time  of  construction  should  be  chosen  so  as  to  avoid  freezing  weather, 
as  concrete  is  likely  to  be  unsatisfactory  and  unsafe  if  laid  when  temperature 
is  below  freezing  unless  great  precautions  are  taken. 

Specifications  for  Reservoirs 

It  is  believed  that  concrete  proportioned  for  maximum  density,  properly 
reinforced  and  carefully  mixed  and  placed  is  the  best  material  that  can 
br  used  for  water-tight  reservoirs.  Either  rectangular  or  circular  form  may 
be  used.  The  circular  form  admits  of  a  more  economical  arrangement  of 
reinforcement  and  gives  the  greatest  resistance  against  both  external  and 
internal  pressure. 

1.  MATERIALS.  —  i.  The  cement  shall  be  Portland  cement,  and  shall  meet  the 
requirements    of    the    Standard    Specifications    of    the    American    Society    for 
Testing    Materials. 

2.  The    aggregate   shall   be   sand  and   stone   or   other    hard   durable   material. 
Frozen   material  must  never  be   used.      Both   sand  and  stone  to  be   free   from 
dust,   loam,   vegetable  or   other   organic   matter. 

(a)  Fine    Aggregate.      Fine    aggregate    shall    consist   of    sand,   crushed    stone 
or   gravel    screenings,    graded    from    fine    to   coarse    and   passing,    when    dry,    a 
screen    having    one-quarter     (*4)     inch    diameter    holes,    and    not    more    thar 
three    (3)    per    cent    passing    a    sieve    having    one    hundred    (100)    meshes    per 
linear  inch. 

(b)  Coarse    Aggregate.      Coarse    aggregate    shall    consist    of    crushed    stone, 
gravel   or   similar   material,    graded    in   size,    retained   on    a    screen    having   one- 
quarter    (14)    inch   diameter   holes   and  the  maximum   size   which   shall   be  such 
as  to  pass   a   one   and   one-quarter    (i*4)    inch    ring. 


Natural  mixed  aggregates  shall  not  be  used  as  tfrey  come  from  the  deposit 
but  shall  be  screened  and  remixed  to  agree  with  the  proportions  specified. 

3.  Water  shall  be  free  from  oil  or  excess  of  acid,  alkali  or  vegetable  matter. 

4.  The   reinforcing   metal   shall  meet   the  current   requirements  of   the   Stand- 
ard Specifications  for  Steel  Reinforcement  of  the  American   Railway  Engineer- 
inn    Association. 

2.  FOUNDATIONS.  —  5.  Average  earth,  except  loam,  will  safely  support  from 
two  to  four  tons  per  square  foot.  In  doubtful  cases  the  service  of  a  com- 
petent engineer  should  be  secured  and  a  proper  foundation  specified  by  him. 

*  Regulations    prescribed    by    National    Board    of    Fire    Underwriters. 


650 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


3.  SUB-GRADE. — 6.  Depth.  (a)  If  a  sub-base  is  required,  the  sub-grade 
shall  not  be  less  than  eleven  (n)  inches  below  the  finished  surface  of  the 
floor. 

(b)  If  a  sub-base  is  not  required,  the  sub-grade  shall  not  be  less  than 
five  (5)  inches  below  the  finished  surface  of  the  floor. 


r 


i 


U~ 


.___          „_. ^..j 


3 


7.  Preparation    of    Surface.      All    soft    and    spongy    places    shall    be    removed 
and    all    depressions    filled    with    suitable    material    which    shall    be    thoroughly 
compacted   in   layers  not  exceeding  six    (6)    inches   in   thickness. 

8.  Drainage.     When   required,  a  suitable  drainage   system  shall  be   installed. 
4.   SUB-BASE.— 9.   The  sub-base  shall   consist  of  a   layer  of  suitable   material, 

clean  and  hard,  and  not  exceeding  four  (4)  inches  in  the  largest  dimension. 
To  be  spread  on  the  sub-grade  and  rolled  or  tamped  to  a  surface  at  least 
five  (5)  inches  below  the  finished  grade  of  the  floor. 


CONCRETE  RESERVOIRS  651 

10.   Wetting.      While    compacting    the    sub-base,    the    material    shall    be    kept 
thoroughly  wet,  and  shall  be  in  that  condition  when  the  concrete   is  deposited. 

5.  CONSTRUCTION. —  n.    The    forms    shall    be    substantial,    unyielding    and    so 
constructed    that    the    concrete    will   conform    to    the    designed    dimensions    and 
shall    also    be    tight   to    prevent   the    leakage   of    mortar.      The    forms    shall   not 
be    removed    in    less    than    ten     (10)    days    after    the    concrete    is    placed,    and 
then   only    with    the    consent    of   the   engineer    in   charge. 

12.  The    reinforcement    shall    be    free    from    rust,    scale    or    coatings    of    any 
character  which  will  tend  to  reduce  or  destroy  the  bond,  and  shall  be  placed 
and  held  in  position  so  that  it  will  not  become  disarranged  during  the  deposit- 
ing of  the  concrete. 

13.  Joints   in    Concrete.      For   concrete   construction   it   is   desirable    to    place 
the    entire    structure  .at    one    operation,    but    as    this    is    not    always;  possible, 
especially    in    large    structures,    it    is    necessary    to    stop    the    work    at    some 
convenient   point.      This   point   should   be   selected    so   that   the    resulting   joint 
may    have    the    least    possible    effect    on    the   strength    of    the    structuiie.      It    is 
therefore    recommended    that    the    joints    in    columns    be    made    flush    with    the 
lower   side    of   the   girders;    that   the  joints   in    girders   be    at    a   point   midway 
between    supports,    but    should    a    beam    intersect    a    girder    at    this    p^oirit,    the 
joint    should    be    offset    a    distance    equal    to    twice    the    width    of    t&e    beam; 
that 'the  joints  in  the  members  of   a  floor  system   should   in   general.be   made 
at    or    near    the    center   of    the    span. 

14.  Joints   in   columns   should   be   perpendicular   to   the   axis   of   the   column, 
and    in    girders,    beams,    and    floor    slabs    perpendicular    to    the   plane    of    their 
surfaces. 

15.  Joints    in    Reinforcement.      Wherever    it    is    necessary    to    splicfc    tension 
reinforcement,    the    length    of    lap    should    be   determined   on    the    basis   of   the 
safe    bond    stress,    the    stress    in    the   bar,   and    the    shearing    resistance    of    the 
concrete    at  .  the    point    of    splice;    or    a    connection    should    be    made,  between 
the    bars    of    sufficient    strength    to    carry    the    stress.      Splices    at    points    of 
maximum    stress    should    be    avoided.      In    columns,    bars    more    than    %-inch 
in  diameter,  not  subject  to  tension,  should  be  properly  squared  and  butted  in 
a    suitable    sleeve;     smaller    bars    may    be    treated    as    indicated    for    tension 
reinforcements,  or  the  stress  may  be  cared  for  by  embedment  in  large  masses 
of  concrete.     At  foundations,  bearing  plates  should  be  provided  for  supporting 
the    bars,    or   the    bars    may   be   carried    into    the    footing   a    sufficient    distance 
to   transmit  the   stress  of  the  steel   to   the   concrete   by   means  of  the   bearing 
and    bond    resistance;    in    no    case    shall    the    ends    of    the  -bars    be    permitted 
merely    to    rest    on    concrete. 

6.  MEASURING  ANIX  MIXING. — 16.    The   materials   for   the   concrete,   including 
water,  to  be  measured  separately  in  such  a  manner- as  to  insure  uniform  pro- 
portions   at    all    times.      A    bag    of    Portland    cement    (94    Ibs.    net)    shall    be 
considered   one    (i)    cubic    foot. 

17.  The    ingredients    of    the   concrete    or   mortar    shall    be   thoroughly   mixed 
dry,   sufficient   water  added  to   obtain  the   desired   consistency   and   the    mixing 
continued    until    the    materials    are    uniformly    distributed    and    the    mass    is 
homogeneous    and    uniform    in    color. 

(a)  Machine    Mixing.      When   the   conditions   will   permit,    a   machine    mixer 
of  a  type   which   insures   the   uniform  mixing  of  the  materials,   shall   be   used. 

(b)  Hand    Mixing.       When    it    is    necessary    to    mix    by    hand,    the    mixing 
shall   be   on   a    water-tight   platform    and   according   to   the   above    requirements. 

18.  Retempering,    that    is,    remixing    mortar    or    concrete    that    has    partially 
hardened    with    additional    water,    will    not    be    permitted. 

7.  FLOORS. — 19.    Thickness.      The   floors   shall   be   thick  enough    to   stand   the 
necessary  strains  and  in  no  case  have  a  thickness  of  less  than  four   (4)   inches. 


652 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


20.  Proportions.      The    mixture    of    concrete    shall    be    as    rich    as    the    fol- 
lowing    (by    volume),    one     (i)     part    Portland    cement,    two     (2)     parts    fine 
aggregate,    and   four    (4)    parts   coarse    aggregate. 

21.  Consistency.      The    materials    shall    be    mixed    wet    enough    to    produce    a 
concrete    of    a    consistency    that     will    flow     into    the     forms     and     about    the 
reinforcement,    but    which    can    be    conveyed    from    the    mixer    to    the    forms 
without    the    separation    of    the    coarse    aggregate    from    the    mortar. 


t/J-f  m/xrvr*  of /.• 


CONCR3TE   RESERVOIR. 


FIG.  i 08 


22.  Placing.      The  concrete  shall  be  placed  in  a  manner  to  insure  a  smooth 
surface,     and     thoroughly    worked     around    the     reinforcement     and     into     the 
recesses  of  the  forms.     It  shall  be  brought  to  a  surface  at  least  one   (i)    inch 
below    the    finished    surface    of    the    floor,    and    before    it    has    dried    out    ,the 
wearing   course    shall   be    applied.      Workmen    shall    not    be    permitted    to   walk 
on    freshly   laid   concrete,    and    if    sand   or   dust   collects    on    the   base,    it   shall 
be    carefully    removed    before    the    wearing    course    is    applied. 

23.  Wearing    Course,     Proportions.       The    mortar    shall    be    mixed    in     the 


CONCRETE  RESERVOIRS  653 


manner    hereinbefore    specified    in    the    proportion    of    one    (i)    part    Portland 
cement    and    not    more    than    two    (2)    parts    fine    aggregate. 

24.  Wearing    Course,    Consistency.      The    mortar    shall    be    of    a    consistency 
that    water    will    flush    to    the    surface    only    under    heavy,    thorough    working 
with   a   wood   float. 

25.  Wearing    Course,    Thickness.      The    wearing    course    of    the    floor    shall 
have  a  thickness  of  at  least  one    (i)    inch. 

26.  Wearing   Course,    Placing.      The    wearing   course   shall    be   placed    imme- 
diately after  mixing. 

27.  Wearing  Course,   Finishing.     After  the  wearing  course  has  been  brought 
to  the  established   grade,   it   shall   be   worked   with   a  wood   float   in   a   manner 
which    will    thoroughly    compact    it.       When    required,    the    surface    shall    be 
troweled   smooth,   but  excessive  working  with   a  steel   trowel  shall  be   avoided. 
If    excessive    moisture    occurs    on    the    surface,    it    must    be    taken    up    with    a 
rag   or   mop,   and   in   no   case   shall   dry   cement   or   a   mixture   of   dry   cement 
and   sand  be   used   to  absorb  this  moisture   or   to   hasten   the   hardening. 

8.  SUMP. — 28.    A    sump    consisting    of    a    recess    at    least    three    feet    square 
and  three  feet  deep  to  be  located  so  as  to  come  under  manhole  in  roof.     The 
surface    of    the    floor    to    be   carefully    graded    to    produce   a    uniform    pitch   to 
the    sump. 

9.  WALLS. —  29.    Proportions.       (Same    as    floors.) 

30.  Walls    to    be    properly    designed    to    resist    the    stresses    to    be    sustained 
with  reservoir  full  or  empty.     Thickness  to  be  not  less  than   four   (4)   inches. 

31.  They  shall  be  built  true  .to  planes  by  means  of  suitable   forms,  securely 
braced    against    movement. 

32.  The    surface    next    to    forms    shall    be    thoroughly    spaded    by    means    of 
a   suitable   spading    tool   so    as    to    insure    a    smooth    face    when    the    forms   are 
removed.      Care   shall   be   exercised   to   prevent    disturbing  the   position    of   the 
reinforcing  melal    during   the   placing   of   concrete. 

33.  Where    sections    of    walls    are    stopped    during    construction,    a    groove 
shall    be    formed   in    the    face   of   the   joint.      On    joining   the    next    succeeding 
section,  the  face  of  the  joint  shall  be  carefully  cleaned  with  water  and  coated 
with  neat  cement. 

34.  A  permanent   ladder  to   be  provided    from   top   to   floor  of  reservoir. 

10.  ROOF  AND  COLUMNS. — 35.     Proportions.      (Same  as  floors.) 

A  covered  reservoir  is  preferable  to  an  open  one,  as  it  is  stronger,  less 
liable  to  freeze,  and  water  is  kept  cleaner.  If  it  is  desired  to  omit  the 
roof,  permission  should  be  obtained  from  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction.  Where  no  cover  is  used,  suitable  provision  should  be  mp-le 
to  prevent  excessive  freezing. 

36.  Roof  and  columns  to  be  properly  designed  to  fit  existing  conditions. 

37.  If    reservoir   is   completely    roofed   over,  ^a   trap   door   at   least   20   by   26 
inches  to  be  provided  in  the  roof  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  opened.     Perma- 
nent  ladder  to   be   accessible   from   this   opening. 

38.  The    forms    for   the   entire    roof   should   preferably   be    built   so    that    the 
placing  can  be  done  in   one  operation. 

11.  FINISH. — 39.     Should    porous    or    void    spaces    appear    when    the    forms 
are    removed,    the    same    shall    be    cut    out    until    solid    work    is    exposed,    and 
the   hole  thus  made  filled  with  a  mixture  of   rich  cement  mortar. 

40.  When  the  reservoir  is  completed,  it  shall  be  cleaned  out,  and  the  walls 
washed  with  two  coats  of  cement  wash  applied  to  the  entire  walls  and 
floors.  Additional  means  of  waterproofing  may  be  used  if  desired. 

12.  LEAKAGE. — 41.    Leakage   for   the   first   24   hours   after  filling   shall   not   be 
more   than    5    per    cent    of    the    total    reservoir    capacity.      If    more    than    5    per 


654 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


cent,  water  to  be  drawn  oft"  and  porous  concrete  cut  out  and  spaces  filled 
with  rich  cement  mortar. 

42.  Reservoir  must  be  substantially  water-tight  after  having  been  filled  with 
water  1 4  days. 

13.  WORKING    STRESSES. — 43.    Concrete    composed    of    materials    meeting    the 


requirements  of  these  regulations  shall  develop  a  compressive  strength  at 
28  days  equal  to  that  given  in  the  following  table  for  the  respective  pro- 
portions and  materials  used,  when  tested  as  8-inch  diameter  cylinders  16 
inches  long  under  laboratory  conditions  of  manufacture  and  storage,  using 
the  same  consistency  as  is  used  in  the  field: 


CONCRETE  RESERVOIRS  655 

TABLE  OF  CO-MPRESSIVE  STRENGTHS  OF  DIFFERENT  MIXTURES  OF  CONCRETE 

(In    Pounds    per    Square    Inch) 

AGGREGATE  1:1:2        1:1J:3  1:2:4  1:2*:5  1:3:6 

Granite,  trap  rock 3300         2800  2200  1800  1400 

Gravel,    hard    limestone    and    hard 

sandstone 3000         2500  2000  1600  1300 

Soft  limestone  and  sandstone 2200         1800  1500  1209  1000 

Cinders 890           700  600  500  400 

For    variations   in    the    moduli    of   elasticity    see    Paragraph    53. 

On  this  basis  the  following  stresses,  given  in  the  form  of  percentages  of 
the  compressive  strength  of  the  concrete  to  be  used,  shall  be  allowed  in 
construction: 

a.  Bearing   compression,   32.5   per   cent  of   the   compressive  strength. 

b.  Compression  in  extreme  fibre,  32.5  per  cent  of  the  compressive  strength. 
With   increase   of    15    per   cent    near   supports    in   continuous   beams. 

o.  Axial  compression  in  columns  without  hoops,  22.5  per  cent  of  the 
compressive  strength  and  6,750  pounds  per  square  inch  on  vertical  reinforce- 
ment. 

d.  Axial  compression   in   columns   with    i    per  cent  of  hooping,   27   per  cent 
of    the   compressive   strength,    and    8, too    pounds    per   square    inch    on    vertical 
reinforcement. 

e.  Axial   compression    in    columns   with    i    per   cent   of   hooping   and    i    to   4 
per  cent  of  vertical   reinforcement,   32.5  per  cent  of  the ,  compressive  strength 
and    9,750    pounds    per    square    inch    on    the    vertical    reinforcement. 

44.  The    bars    in    the    base    of    columns    shall    bear    on    a    plate    or    casting, 
or  shall  be  enlarged  so   as  to  reduce  the   bearing  stress  at  the  bottom  to  the 
stress    given    in    paragraph    433.      In    lieu    of    plate    or    the    enlargement    for 
bearing,    the    stress    may    be    distributed    to    the    footing    by    means    of    dowels 
with    flat    upper    ends,    length    of    the    dowels    being    sufficient    to    distribute 
the  stress  by  means  of  the  bond  of  the  dowel. 

45.  In   the    footing,    the   concrete   bond    stress   to   be   as   given    in   paragraph 
50.      The    footings    supporting    columns    where    hooping    vertical    reinforcement 
is   used   shall   be   enlarged  at   the   top   to   at   least   six   inches   on   each    side   of 
the  column,  measurements  being  taken  from  the  hooping. 

46.  Bars  composing  longitudinal  reinforcement  in  columns  shall  be  straight 
and   shall   have    sufficient   lateral   support   to   be   securely   held    in   place    until 
the   concrete   is   set. 

47.  The    clear    spacing   of    bands    or    hoops    shall    not    be    greater    than   one- 
fourth   the   diameter   of   the  enclosed   column.     Adequate   means   must   be   pro- 
vided   to    hold   bands    or    hoops    in    place    so    as   to    form    a    column,    the    core 
of    which    shall    be    straight    and    well    centered. 

48.  Bending    stresses    due    to    eccentric    loads    must    be    provided     for    by 
increasing  the   section   until   the  maximum   stress   does   not  exceed   the  values 
above   specified. 

49.  Compression    on    columns    reinforced    with    structural    steel    units    which 
thoroughly  encase  the  concrete  core,  27  per  cent  of  the  compressive  strength 
of    the    concrete    and    8,100    pounds    per    square    inch    on    the    structural    steel. 

50.  Web    stresses.       In    calculating    web    reinforcement    the    concrete    shall 
be   considered   to   carry    2    per   cent   of    the   compressive   strength    of   the    con- 
crete, the  remainder  to  be  provided  for  by  means  of  reinforcement  in  tension. 

51.  Members    of    web    reinforcement    shall   be    imbedded    in    the    compression 
portion    of    the    beam    so    that    adequate    bond    strength    is    provided    to    fully 
develop    the    assumed    strength    of    all    shear    reinforcement.      They    shall    not 
be    spaced    to    exceed    three-fourths    (%)    of    the    depth    of    the    beam    in    that 
portion    where    the    shearing    stresses    exceed    the    allowable    shearing   value    of 
the    concrete.       Web    reinforcement,    unless    rigidly    attached,    shall    be    placed 


656 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


at    right    angles    to    the    axis    of    the    beam    and    looped    around    the    extreme 
tension   member. 

52.  Bond  between  plain  bars  and  concrete,  4  per  cent  of  the  compressive 
strength  of  the  concrete  of  surface  of  bar;  where  adequate  mechanical'  bond 
is  provided  the  stress  shall  not  exceed  7.5  per  cent  of  the  compressive  strength 
of  the  concrete. 


• 

,!T,',J I''.')*    ,:H      j., 
•I'.-V         r. 

FIG.   no 

.j;->i;MT-'f    .',    I.I-KII  .-M  ,i  ;n  -11   1.     .-I'C'Ufr   •/  iivi,   •».;   •>!   ':  ,'iniir.ii"n   t;{l :    •:•(•••• 

'      f'      j.'.i  i   ..ilitll       :'!      lii.i    :      I."  ,fj,   ,-..!.•')  f'i'K       '  </>      •>     .••f'jifir->i/^ 

53.  The  ratio  of  moduli  of  elasticity  of  concrete  to  steel  shall  be  considered 
as.  1:15  when  the  strength  of  the  concrete  is  taken  as  less  than   2,200  pounds 
per   square    inch;    or    1:12    when    taken    between    2,200    and    2,900    pounds    per 
square   inch;   or.i:io  when  taken   over  2,900  pounds  per  square  inch. 

54.  The   allowable    tensile   stress   in   reinforcement  ,to   be    15,000   pounds    per 


CONCRETE  RESERVOIRS 


657 


square    inch    for   medium    steel   And    20,000    pounds    per    square    inch    for   high 
elastic   limit   steel    with    adequate   mechanical   bond. 

55.  Size  and  capacity.  Conditions  vary  so  greatly  that  no  definite  re- 
quirements for  dimensions  can  be  laid  down.  The  depth  should  not  exceed 
15  feet  and  preferably  should  be  10  feet. 


L 


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r 

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Li*         'i 

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M        r     —  \       -»j- 

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1  1  1  1 
j                        1  1 

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i             i: 

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VALVE     TIT. 

FIG.   in 


The  following  sizes  and  capacities  are  suggested,  and  in  most  cases  will 
prove  the  most  economical,  for  the  reason  that  contractors  may  use  standard 
forms,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  of  construction. 

CIRCULAR  RESERVOIRS 

Capacity 

33  ft.  diameter  by  10  ft 60,000  gals. 

46  ft.  diameter  by  10  ft 120,000  gals. 

56  ft.  diameter  by  10  ft 180,000  gals. 

64  ft.  diameter  by  10  ft 250,000  gals. 


658 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Dimensions 
15  ft.  x  60  ft. 
15  ft.  x  120  ft. 
15  ft.  x  180  ft. 
15  ft.  x  240  ft. 
30  ft.  x  60  ft. 
30  ft.  x  90  ft. 
30  ft.  x  120  ft. 
45  ft.  x  60  ft. 
45  ft.  x  -75  ft. 
60  ft.  x  :60  ft. 

I    I 


RECTANGULAR  RESERVOIRS 


Capacity 
60,000  gals. 
120,000  gals. 
180,000  gals. 
240,000  gals. 


10ft 

10ft ..... 

10ft 

10ft...,. >^ 

10  ft '.': 120,000  gals. 

10  ft 180,000  gals. 

10  ft . .      240,000  gals. 

10  ft .180,000  gals,. 

10  ft 240,000  gals. 

10  ft. .  ,      240,000  gals. 


•;.:;-.';>-A-.-f  •'.•:-••?  :•>•-;:••> 
'WV'V '?••"•• 

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§i 

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f'.;i 


m 


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m 


& 

4i'.v* 

i 

IV,'.. 

B-J 


VALVE    PIT. 
FlG.    112 


VALVE  PITS* 

See    Figures    in,    112  and    113. 

The   rules    for   materials,    mixtures,    forms,    etc.,    given    for    large    reservoirs, 
also    apply    to    small    reservoirs    and    valve    pits. 

1.  SIZE. — The    size    should    be    ample    so    that    there    will    be    a    space   of    at 
least   12  inches  around  all  valves. 

2.  FLOOR. — Concrete    to    be    at    least    4    inches    thick    and    reinforced    with 
metal    lathing   or  rods. 

3.  WALLS. — Walls  to  be  of  concrete   at  least  4   inches  thick  and   reinforced 
in    a   similar    manner    to    floor. 

4.  ROOF. — a.    To    be    not    less   than    6    inches   thick   and   properly    reinforced 
to  carry  load  to  which  it  is  liable   to  be  subjected. 


-  •-— «- /»-v. — .«-<  c-i,-"r— <"r.T—  —  «— n'^r  **.— — «r^r»Jf^»  •.    *y ;. 

*&sJ2?&&&i*.£1^^ 


VALVK  PIT. 
FIG.  113 

b.  A  standard  manhole  cover  to  be  placed  in  the  top  of  each  pit.  Six 
inches  below  the  iron  cover  a  second  cover  of  2-inch  plank  to  be  placed  on 
a  ledge  formed  in  the  concrete.  Ledge  to  be  at  least  2  inches  wide.  In 
regions  where  extremely  cold  weather  occurs  it  is  advisable  to  fill  pit  with 
suitable  insulating  material,  such  as  hay  or  straw. 

5.  DRAINAGE. — If  thought  necessary  in  suitable  soil  such  as  sand  and  gravel, 
drainage   hole  may  be   provided.     To  be  at  least  4  inches  in  diameter. 

6.  WATERPROOFING.-«-I f    a    waterproof   pit    is    necessary,    as   in    water-bearing 
ground,   the  entire  outside  surface   of  pit  should   be   thoroughly   waterproofed. 

The  following  method  is  advised.  Surface  to  be  painted  with  hot  tar  or 
asphalt  and  then  covered  with  at  least  two  layers  of  tarred  felt  and  hot 
tar  or  asphalt  alternately.  Felt  to  be  lapped  18  inches. 

*  Regulations    prescribed    by    National    Board    of    Fire    Underwriters. 


660  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

CONCRETE    TANKS* 

Where  there  are  building  ordinances  or  special  regulations  by  municipal 
authorities  relating  •  to  the  construction  of  tanks  or  structures,  they  are  to 
be  followed  except  that  when  such  ordinances  permit  of  a  weaker  con 
struction  than  is  herein  specified,  these  requirements  should  be  followed. 

Concrete  would  probably  not  be  used  except  for  tanks  of  considerable  size 
and  the  design  and  construction  should  be  entrusted  only  to  competent 
engineers. 

The  design  of  concrete  tanks  should  in  general  follow  the  requirements 
for  concrete  reservoirs,  but  as  the  field  experience  with  such  tanks  is  very 
limited  it  is  not  deemed  desirable  to  give  detailed  specifications.  l . 

1.  REINFORCEMENT. — a.  Tank  to  be  reinforced  so  that  all  tensile  stress  shall 
be   borne    by   the   reinforcing  metal. 

b.  Radial  bars  at  least  eight  feet  long  to  be  embedded  in   floor  and  carried 
up  at  least  four  feet  into  the  walls.      Bars  to  be  at  least   %-inch  in   diameter 
and  to  be  spaced  not  over    12   inches  at  the   circumference   of  tank. 

c.  Horizontal  hoops  in   walls   from  the  floor  to   a  height  of   three   feet   shall 
not  have  a  stress  of  over  8,000  pounds  per  square  inch  with  tank  full.     Above 
this   point,   stress   may   be   increased   gradually   to   not   over    12,500   pounds. 

d.  Laps   in   hoops  to   be    fastened   mechanically   so    as   to   safely   develop   the 
working    stress. 

e.  Hoops  to   be   accurately   spaced   and   supported   so   they   cannot   lie   moved 
out    of    place    while    concrete    is    being    filled    in.       Reinforcement    at    top    of 
tank  to  be  designed  to  resist  pressure  from  ice  in  case  the  tank  freezes  over. 

f.  All   reinforcing  metal   to   be   covered   by   at   least    i    inch   of  concrete. 

2.  WALLS. — a.   Walls  to  be  not  less  than  4  inches  thick  at  any  point. 

b.  Where  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  pass  through  the  wall,  thickness  to  be 
increased  to  at  least  twice  the  normal  thickness. 

3.  TIGHTNESS. — Tank   to    be   tight,    showing   no    leaks   before   being  accepted. 

*  Regulations   prescribed   by    National    Board    of   Fire    Underwriters. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE   CONSTRUCTION 

AND  EQUIPMENT  OF  HOSE  HOUSES 

FOR  MILL  YARDS 

Standard  Hos'e  Houses. — The  following  specifications  for 
Standard  Hose  Houses  are  now  used  throughout  the  whole  coun- 
try, having  been  agreed  upon  in  joint  conference  by  representatives 
of  the  different  organizations  interested  in  this  class  of  work.  They 
are  known  as  "  The  National  Standard  "  and  have  been,  up  to  this 
time,  adopted  by  the  following  associations : 

Associated  Factory,   IVJutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies. 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

National  Fire  Protection  Association. 

The  Standard  Hose  House  specified  herein  provides  an  accessible 
place  where  the  hose  and  the  small  equipment  for  mill  yard  fire 
protection  may  be  assembled  and  kept  ready  for  instant  use. 

Hose  and  appliances  stored  in  towers  or  buildings  may  be  made 
inaccessible  by  fire  or  smoke  and  the  entire  equipment  of  pump, 
water  mains  and  hydrants  thus  rendered  useless  for  hose  service. 
Serious  delay  may  also  be  occasioned  by  placing  the  hose  and  ap- 
pliances at  distant  parts  of  the  yard. 

The  increased  efficiency,  economy  and  the  prolonged  life  of  hose 
stored  on  slatted  shelves  in  well  ventilated  houses,  render  the 
installation  of  properly  equipped  Standard  Houses  essential  to  a 
mill  3'ard.  , 

These  specifications  cover  two  types  for  a  two  or  three-way 
hydrant,  and  one  type  for  a  four-way  hydrant,  having  two  lengths 
of  attached  hose.  The  latter  house  is  seldom  necessary,  except 
between  buildings  or  in  the  center  of  a  plant  where  it  may  be  of 
advantage  to  have  the  hose  so  attached  that  it  can  be  run  off  in 
either  direction  without  delay.  The  designs  given  for  the  two  and 
three-way  houses  are  practically  those  which  have  been  used  in 
some  localities  for  a  number  of  years.  The  Underwriters  having 
jurisdiction  should  be  consulted  as  to  the  best  type  for  use  in  each 
individual  case. 

Construction 

1.  LOCATION. — Houses  to   be  located  so  that  two  or  three-way  hydrants  will 
be    as    close   to    the    front    of    the    house    as    possible    and    still    allow    sufficient 
room   back  of  the   doors   for   the   hose   gates  and   attached    hose. 

2.  FOUNDATIONS. — To    consist    of    a    brick    pier    at    each    corner,     12    inches 
square    and    8    inches    high,    above    ground. 

NOTE. — Depth  of  the  foundation  should  be  sufficient  to  prevent  serious  dis- 
placement by  frost. 

3.  MATERIAL — To    be     of    good    lumber,     free     from     injurious     knots,    and 

66l 


662 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


seasoned    to    prevent    serious    warping.      Sheathing,    roof    and    doors    to    be    of 
%-inch   matched   stuff   dressed   on   one  side. 

4.  SIZE. — Frame  to  be   6   feet  4   inches  wide,  6   feet  deep   and   about   7   feet 
high,   for  two  or   three-way   hydrants,  and  8   feet  square   and   7   feet   high    for 
four-way  hydrants.     See  Figs.    115  and   118. 

5.  FRAME.— To  be  made  of  2x3,   2x4  and  3x4  inch  material,  constructed 
as  illustrated    in  Figs.  116  and  119. 

6.  ROOF. — To    be    made    weather-tight    by    tinning    or    its    equivalent    and    to 
be    properly   inclined    for   drainage. 

NOTE. — The  ornamental  roof  shown  in  Fig.  120  or  121  may  be  used  if  desired. 

7.  DOORS. — a.    To   be   in   pairs,    to    open   the    full   width    of   the    front,    to   be 
hung  on  heavy  tee  hinges  bolted  on  and  to  swing  one  foot  clear  of  the  ground. 


b.  To  be  provided  with  substantial  battens  at  top  and  bottom  and  a  suitable 
diagonal    cross    brace    well    nailed    on.      Nails    to    be   clinched. 

NOTE. — Care  should  be  taken  to  select  well-seasoned  stuff  in  order  to 
prevent  warping.  Extra  wide  battens  and  cross-braces  should  also  be  used. 

c.  Two   sets   of    doors    opening   on   opposite    sides    to    be   provided    when   the 
four-way  hydrant  is  used.     See  Fig.   120. 

8.  HOSE  SHELVES. — a.  To  be  made  of  3-inch  slats  %-inch  thick  and  spaced 
i/^-inch  apart  and  supported  as  shown  in  Figs.  115,  118  or  120. 

NOTE. — The  object  of  the  slats  is  to  permit  the  circulation  of  air  around 
the  hose.  The  spacing  named  should  not  be  exceeded,  as  the  hose  is  liable 
to  catch  in  wider  openings. 

b.  Two  shelves  supported  on  the  horizontal  framing  and  extending  across 
the  house  to  be  provided  when  the  two  or  three-way  hydrant  is  used. 

NOTE. — The  lower  shelf  is  designed  to  hold  100  feet  of  hose  attached  to 
the  hydrant.  The  upper  shelf  is  designed  to  hold  the  spare  hose. 


HOSE  HOUSES  FOR  MILL  YARDS 


c.  Three  shelves  supported  on  one  side  and  extending  from  door  to  door 
to  be  provided  where  the  four-way  hydrant  is  used.  Shelves  to  be  pro- 
vided with  6-inch  sideboards  and  the  two  lower  shelves  to  be  provided  with 
endboards  at  opposite  ends.  The  flooring,  if  any,  may  serve  as  the  lower 
shelf. 


leather  loop  two  feet  tulr 
•o  prevent  hose  rubbing  when 
door  is  open 


H.avv  Tc«  Hinge  bolted  > 

Ifcroujh' door  and  frame  to  msur. 
•trcnjrh   and  durability 

'•« 2-9"   — 


— .  3'-  3"- 


FIG.  115 


NOTE. — The  two  lower  shelves  are  each  designed  to  hold  too  feet  of  hose 
attached  to  the  hydrant  on  opposite  sides.  The  upper  shelf  is  designed  to 
hold  the  spare  hose. 

9.  FLOORS. — Where  used,  to  be  constructed  of  *%-inch  stuff,  not  exceeding 
4  inches  wide  and  laid  open. 

NOTE  i. — Ordinarily  no  flooring  is  necessary,  but  in  case  the  house  is 
locked  to  guard  against  theft,  a  slatted  floor  may  be  used.  The  foundation 
pier  and  framing  in  front  of  the  hydrant  in  Fig.  1 14  is  unnecessary  in  case 
the  house  is  not  floored. 

NOTE  2. — If  necessary,  the  flooring  may  be  cut  away  around  the  hydrant 
so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  swing  of  spanners  at  any  outlet.  See  Fig.  1 1 7. 


664 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


10.  VENTILATION. — An    opening    permitting    the    free    circulation    of    air    to 
be    provided    under    the    eaves.      The    opening    to    be    protected    by    a    strip    as 
illustrated  in  Figs.   115,  118  or  122. 

11.  HARDWARE. — a.  Hinges  to  be  extra  heavy  wrought  tee  pattern,    16  inches 
long.      To    be    securely    bolted    through    the    doors    and    framing    of    the    house 
by    %-inch   bolts.  ,/., 

NOTE  i. — The  hinges,  should  be  installed  so  as  to  allow  the  doors  to  swing 
back  against  the  sides  of  the  house.  The  bolts  should  be  provided  with 
washers  next  to  the  woodwork. 


FIG.   116 


NOTE  2. — The  use  of  galvanized  hardware  is  advised  especially  for  the 
hinges. 

b.  Hasp.      Doors    on    the    five-sided    house,    shown  in    Fig.    115,    to    be    pro- 
vided  with   a  hasp   made  of    i*4  x  ^4-inch   iron,   bent  to  conform   to   the   angle 
of    the    doors    when    closed.      The    staples    at    each  end    of    the    hasp    to    be 
securely  bolted  or  clinched  to  the  doors. 

c.  Latch.     Doors  on  houses  shown  in  Figs.    117  and   120  to  be  provided  with 
a    latch    made    of    i1/^  x  i/4-inch    iron    at    least    24    inches    long.      Latch    to    be 
loosely    bolted    to    one    door    near    the    center,    to    be    provided    with    a    handle 
and  arranged  so  as  to  drop  into  a  catch  on  the  opposite  door.     See  Fig.    123. 
Catch    to    be   made    of    2  x  ^4,-inch    iron    bolted    through    the    door    by    at    least 
two    bolts. 

NOTE. — The  hasp  and  latch  specified  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  an 
upright  post  in  the  center  of  the  doorway  and  provide  for  fastening  two  large 
doors  without  bolting  one  on  the  inside. 


HOSE  HOUSES  FOR  MILL  YARDS 


665 


d.  Door     Fastening.       A    light    bar    of    round    iron    pointed    and    hung    to 
bottom  of- door,  to  be  provided  for  holding  each  door  open.     See  Figs.   114  and 
117. 

e.  Locks.      Ordinarily    hose    houses    should    not    be    locked,    but    where    it   is 
necessary  to  guard  against  theft  they  may  be  locked  with  a  specially  designed 
lock    having    a    substantial    appearance,    but    which    can    be    easily    broken    in 
case    of   necessity. 

f.  Chafing    Strip.      A    substantial    leather    loop    two    feet    high    to    be    placed 
at  each  side  of  the  house  to  protect  the   hose   from  injury  by  rubbing  against 
the   sharp   edges   at    the   jambs. 


FIG.  117 


NOTE    i. — The    leather  should    be    installed    while    the   doors   are    against   the 

sides  of  the  house  so  as  to  insure   unrestricted   movement   of  the  doors. 

12.  PAINTING. — House  to    be    thoroughly    painted    on    the    outside    with    two 
good   coats. 

Equipment 

13.  HOSE. — a.    Two    or    three-way    hydrant    houses    to    be    supplied    with    100 
feet   of   hose,    attached 'to   the   hydrant   and   laid   in   laps   on   the   lower   shelf   as 
shown   in    Figs.    114   and    117.      This   hose   to   have   standard   play   pipe   attached. 

XOTE.— Hose   stored   and   attached  as   shown   can   be   pulled   off  without   twist- 
ing short   at  the  coupling. 

1>.    Four-way  hydrant  houses  to  be  supplied  with  two   loo-foot  lengths  attached 
on   opposite   sides,  as  shown   in   Fig.    120. 


666 


t  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


c.  Each  house  to  be  supplied  with  100  or  more  feet  of  spare  hose  on  the 
upper  shelf.  This  hose  to  be  stored  in  coils  of  50  feet,  with  the  female 
coupling  outside. 


NOTE. — The   amount   ot   extra   hose   necessary   depends   somewhat   on   circum- 
stances and  may  be  varied  by   Underwriters   having  jurisdiction. 

d.  All    hose    to   be    National    Standard    2%-inch    cotton    rubber-lined. 
NOTE. — See    list    of    approved    hose. 

14.  COUPLINGS. — To    be    interchangeable    with    the    public    service    or    nearest 
plant   from   which   assistance   may  be   obtained,   if   there    be   no   public   service. 

15.  PLAY    PIPES. — To    be    made    in    accordance    with    the    National    Standard 
specifications. 

NOTE. — This   specification   requires   a    Play   Pipe   with   swivel    handles,   a   per- 
fectly smooth  tapering  tube  30  inches  long  wound  and  painted  and  a    i%-inch 


HOSE  HOUSES  FOR  MILL  YARDS 


667 


smooth  bore  nozzle.  Nozzles  with  larger  openings  should  not  be  used  except 
with  the  consent  of  the  Underwriters  having  jurisdiction,  and  where  there 
is  ample  water  supply. 

See   specifications   for   Play    Pipe   on   page   668. 

1 6.  SPANNERS. — The  Tabor  Spanner  is  recommended,  as  it  is  easily  handled 
by     an     inexperienced     person     and    will     operate     in     either     direction.       See 
Kip-   124- 

17.  MISCELLANEOUS. — a.     Each    house    to    be    supplied    with    two    axes,    two 
bars,  one  extra  play  pipe,  two  ladder  straps,  four  spanners,  one  extra  hydrant 


FIG.   119 


wrench  and  one  heavy  mill  lantern,  arranged  as  shown  in  Figs.  114,  117,  or  120. 

b.  Coils    of    one-half    inch    rope    to    suit    the    height    of   buildings    should    be 
hung    in   each    house.      A    liberal    supply    of    rubber   hose    washers    should    also 
be  provided  and  hung  in  a  conspicuous  place. 

c.  Hydrant   wrench   to   be   always   on   the   hydrant. 

NOTE  i. — The  equipment  for  the  four-way  house  should  be  increased  in 
proportion  to  the  special  demands  in  each  case. 

NOTE  2. — A  substantial  1 2-inch  hand  wheel  attached  to  the  hydrant  may 
be  substituted  for  the  hydrant  wrenches  otherwise  required. 


668 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Rack  for  Washing  and  Drying  Hos-e 

A  hose  drying  rack  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  125  is  recommended. 
This  is  a  rack  for  drying  hose  after  it  has  been  wet  either  at  a  fire  or  at 
a  test.  The  rack  should  be  52  feet  long,  one  foot  high  at  the  lower  end 
and  at  least  3  feet  high  at  the  upper  end. 

NOTE. — This  is  a  simple  and  effective  arrangement  and  does  away  with 
the  necessity  of  hoisting  the  hose  on  the  outside  of  a  tower  or  building. 

The  rack  facilitates  the  proper  care  of  the  hose,  which  will  tend  to  prolong 
its  life  and  thus  reduce  the  cost  of  the  one  perishable  part  of  the  equipment. 

The  cut  shows  a  rack  in  three  sections,  3  to  4  feet  wide,  and  with  slatted 
top  so  that  half  a  dozen  lines  of  hose  may  be  dried  at  one  time. 


FIG.  i 20 
Specifications   for   National   Standard   Play   Pipe 

1.  LENGTH. — To   be   30   inches  long  over  all. 

2.  MOUNTINGS. — All  mountings  to  be  of  brass. 

3.  PIPE. — a.    To    be    of    rolled    brass    1/16    inch    thick    or    seamless    drawn 
copper  0.05    inch   thick. 

b.  To    have    an    inside    diameter    of    2    17/32    inches    at    the    base    and    i% 
inches    at    the    throat. 

c.  To  extend  through  the  brass  mounting  at  the  throat. 

d.  Waterways    to    be    absolutely    free    from    rough    drops   of    solder   or    other 
projections   and   to   have    a   smooth   surface   throughout. 

NOTE.— For  best  results  waterway  should  be   smooth  as  a  gun   barrel. 
c.  To    be    wound    with    cord    and    painted. 

4.  BUTT.— To    be    threaded    to    fit    as    ordered. 

NOTE. — Always    use    City    Fire    Department    standard    thread    so    as    to    have 
all    hose    and    pipes    interchangeable.      A ,  recess    should    be    provided    back    of 
the    threads    for    retaining    washer. 
'    5.  'HANDLES.— To   be   of   the   swivel   pattern   securely   attached. 


HOSE  HOUSES  FOR  MILL  YARDS 


669' 


6.  NOZZLE. — a.  To  be  5  inches  long  and  have  an  inside  diameter  of  i  25/32 
inch  at  the  base  and  i  %  inch  at  the  discharge. 

NOTE. — The  nozzle  is  made  slightly  larger  than  the  end  of  the  pipe  to 
prevent  possibility  of  corner  projecting  against  current. 

b    To  have  a  straight  taper  finished  off  at  discharge  with  an  easy  curve. 

c.  The  tip  of  the  nozzle  to  be  extra  heavy  and  cut  out  at  the  discharge 
orifice  to  prevent  bruising. 


FIG.  121 


One -inch  opening  J 
along  sides  for) 
Ventilation  ' 


FIG.   122 

d.  Inside  of  the   discharge   orifice  to   be   straight   for   %    inch. 

e.  The    brass    mounting    to    which    the    nozzle    is    screwed    to    be    provided 
with  an   outside  groove   for  retaining  the   washer,  to  be   2   5/16  inch  diameter 
outside    the    threads    and    threaded    with    the    Providence    thread    (12    to    the 
inch). 


670 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


NOTE.— The  washer  is  placed  outside  to  prevent  it  from  projecting  inside 
the  pipe  and  disturbing  the  stream.  A  projecting  lip  covering  the  edge  of 
the  washer  prevents  its  being  blown  out  by  the  pressure. 

7.  WORKMANSHIP. — All    parts    to    be    made,    fitted    and    finished    in    a    first- 
class    workmanlike    manner    throughout. 

8.  MARKING. — The     maker's     name     and     the    year     of     manufacture     to     be 
stamped   on    the    butt    and   the    words    "  National    Standard  "    stenciled    on    the 
cord    winding. 

NOTE. — The  name  "  Underwriter  "  has  been  largely  used  for  a  considerable 
time  to  designate  this  play  pipe.  \Vhile  our  preferences  are  against  the  use 
of  this  word  as  designating  any  piece  of  apparatus,  objection  will  not  b? 
raised  to  its  continuance  in  this  case. 


FIG.  123 


FIG.  124 


FIG.  125 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FIRE  PROTECTION 

Quantity  Required. — No  definite  statement  can  be  given  as  to 
the  amount  of  water  required  for  protection  of  an  industrial  plant, 
store  or  warehouse.  This  depends  upon  the  area  and  height  of 
the  building,  type  of  construction,  exposure  by  other  buildings  and 
class  of  occupancy. 

For  sprinkler  supply,  the  requirements  are  as  given  on  page 
564.  This  means  a  supply  of  about  2,000  gallons  a  minute  for 
a  building  of  25,000  square  feet,  the  maximum  area  allowed  for  a 
fireproof  building  in  the  recommended  building  code  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

For  use  as  hose  lines,  it  is  even  harder  to  fix  upon  a  required 
quantity,  as  not  only  does  the  question  of  how  much  is  needed 
enter  in,  but  also  as  to  how  much  could  be  used  by  the  fire  fighting 
force  which  would  be  called  in  in  case  the  plant  was  completely 
involved.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  minimum  should  never  be 
less  than  500  gallons  a  minute  available  for  at  least  3  hours  for 
any  plant  or  building  desiring  protection  from  hose  lines.  It  is 
safe  to  assume  a  flow  of  500  gallons  from  a  hydrant  and  that 
all  the  hydrants  within  500  feet  of  any  one  part  of  a  building 
will  be  in  use  at  time  of  a  serious  fire,  and  for  the  extensive  plant 
or  a  group  of  individual  factories,  all  the  hydrants  within  500 
feet  of  the  largest  building  may  be  in  use,  giving  a  possible  maxi- 
mum required  fire  draft  of  5,000  to  10,000  gallons  a  minute. 

Flow  Tests. — In  all  cases  there  should  be  absolute  assurance 
of  a  good  water  supply  for  fire  protection ;  it  should  be  the  aim 
of  the  owner  or  his  engineer  to  see  that  the  public  water  supply, 
if  one  is  available,  is  at  sufficient  pressure  and  can  maintain  an 
adequate  pressure  during  the  maximum  draft  that  the  system  may 
be  called  upon  to  deliver.  If  dependence  is  placed  entirely  or 
partly  upon  a  private  system,  the  same  .consideration  must  be 
given.  It  is  possible  in  some  cases  for  an  engineer  to  calculate 
sufficiently  close  to  give  this  assurance  of  adequacy  of  water 
supply,  and  in  the  past  it  has  often  been  assumed  that  if  pressure 
were  sufficiently  high  and  the  main  in  the  street  was  of  good 
diameter,  even  calculation  would  not  be  necessary.  Such  assump- 
tions should  no  longer  be  depended  upon ;  simple  methods  of  mak- 
ing tests  are  applicable  and  are  used  by  insurance  inspectors  to 

671 


672  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

great  advantage.  These  should  be  adopted  and  used  by  the  owners 
of  valuable  property  to  a  greater  extent  and  by  water  works  and 
insurance  engineers  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  a  good  water 
supply  is  provided. 

It  is  not  feasible  to  open  up  enough  sprinkler  heads  to  demon- 
strate whether  the  supply  is  .ample,  and  it  results  in  a  large  amount 
of  hose  being  used  if  a  duplication  of  possible  fire  conditions  is 
attempted.  Equally  as  good  results  can  be  obtained  by  measuring 
the  flow  from  open  hydrant  outlets  and  simultaneously  observing 
the  drop  in  pressure  on  the  system.  Test  should  be  made  at  least 
yearly,  as  it  is  only  by  comparative  tests  that  the  effect  of  age 
on  a  water  works  system  can  be  kept  track  of.  Also  such  tests 
often  show  that  some  important  gate  valve  has  been  left  closed. 


FIRE   FLOW   TESTS   AS   MADE  BY  THE   COMMITTEE 

ON  FIRE  PREVENTION  OF  THE  NATIONAL 

BOARD    OF   FIRE   UNDERWRITERS 

11    vT  {>•.•:•     it'    ••! •> .-.'.    ".       •  ',.    Jmi    .ft'     i'it'1  . 

METHOD. — The  method  of  conducting  "  Fire  Flow  Tests  "  as  practised  by 
the  engineers  of  the  Committee  on  Fire  Prevention  of  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  is  a  development  of  the  scheme  of  measuring  dis- 
charges from  smooth-bore  fire  department  nozzles  by  means  of  the  Pitot  tube 
and  gage,  originated  by  Mr.  John  E;.  Freeman  and  ,  now  .used1'  by  the 
National  Board  in  its  tests  of  fire  engines. 

Discharges  directly  from  the  open  butts  of  hydrants  are  subject  to  less 
accurate  measurement  than  those  from  smooth-bore  nozzles;  the  orifice  is 
often  not  completely  filled,  especially  in  the  case  of  steamer  outlets  (4-  or 
4%-inch),  and  the  velocity  of  discharge  is  not  uniform  throughout  the  >part 
that  is  filled;  neither  of  these  features  is  so  marked  in  the  2^-inch  outlets 
as  in  the  steamer  outlets. 

HYDRANT  DISCHARGES. — It  is  possible  to  measure  hydrant  discharges  with 
considerable  accuracy -by  the  use  of  short  lines  of  hose  and  large  nozzles; 
however,  in  cities  where  the  normal  hydrant  pressures  are  low,  .only  a 
small  part  .of  the  total  quantity  available  for  engine  ( supply  may  be  obtained 
in  this  way,  and  much  more  time  and  labor  is  consumed  than  when  open 
butt  discharges  .are  measured.  For  these  reasons, ;  and  in  order  that  a  repre- 
sentative number  'of  tests  might  be  made  in  a  reasonable  time  in  the 
various  cities  reported  on  by  the  National  Boardj  the  present  scheme  was 
worked  out.  It  is  believed  that  the .  results  obtained  will  show  not  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  error. 

The  number  of  hydrants  in  a  group,  all  of  which  are  opened  simul- 
taneously, varies  from  2  to  6,  or  even  more  in  exceptional  cases,  depending 
upon  the  quantity  of  water  available,  the  pressures  and  the  character  of 
the  district  in  which  the  test  is  made.  It  is  usual  to  open  all  available 
outlets  on  the  hydrants  used;  however,  if  the  pressures  are  high  enough 
to  furnish  effective  streams  direct  from  hydrants,  it  is  better  to  open  only 
enough  outlets  to  lower,, the  pressure  in  the  mains  to  a  figure 'assumed  , to 
be  the  minimum  consistent  with  good  fire  service, :  which  will  range  from 
60  to  75  pounds  or  more,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  district. 
Diameters  of  outlets  are  recorded  to  the  nearest  sixteenth  of  an  inch. 

PRESSURE   GAGED. — The   pressure   in   the    mains   before   and   during  the   tests 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FIRE  PROTECTION 


673 


is  determined  by  attaching  a  gage  to  a  hydrant  preferably  located  near 
the  center  of  the  group  to  be  tested;  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  have 
another  gage  at  a  hydrant  outside  the  group,  to  determine  the  loss  of  head 
in  the  main  arteries,  or  a  recording  gage  located  near  the  center  of  the 
distribution  system  may  serve  the  purpose  for  a  number  of  groups.  Know- 

DIAGRAM 

SHOWING 

REDUCTION   OF  AREA  OF  FREE  DISCHARGE 

FROM 
STEAMER    OUTLET    OF    HYDRANT 

TO    BE     USED     IN      PlTOT      MEASUREMENT 


Flowi 


ng 


Area    of  4/2 

inch 

Outlet  = 

1590 

full 

with 
minus 

Uniform    Veloci 

A*=  1543  + 

ty    Gives     100 

15.90  »97% 

%     of 

Table    Fi 
of  Table 

gures 
Figures 

>j 

" 

A'    = 

14.36    -5- 

15.90 

=  90% 

"      ^0 

n 

»r 

„ 

n 

»> 

A'*  = 

12.76    -*- 

15.90 

=  80  % 

"  Vs 

,, 

n 

„ 

» 

n 

A2   = 

10.69   ^ 

15.90 

=  67% 

"    z/3 

t» 

„ 

„ 

" 

» 

B*  = 

15.26   •*- 

15.90 

=  96% 

"    % 

» 

» 

* 

f9 

ft 

B1    = 

14.02    ^ 

15.90 

=  88% 

••   7/a 

„ 

,. 

»> 

>•> 

» 

B'^  = 

12.28    -s- 

15.90 

-  77  % 

"  -J^ 

„ 

tt 

,. 

» 

» 

B2  = 

10.  1  9    -s- 

15.90 

-  66% 

"  */a 

« 

„ 

ft 

» 

» 

C"*  = 

13.44    -i- 

15.90 

=  85  % 

"     S/6 

» 

„ 

99 

n 

» 

C?  = 

1  1.66    - 

15.90 

=  73  % 

"      % 

M 

rr 

„ 

SUMMARY 

Hole 

/2"H 

igh,  Deduct  y$z 

from 

Discharge    in    Table 

•»     . 

r 

»            »» 

Ab  t< 

j  '/8    " 

M 

• 

»> 

» 

IV 

M 

fa  t( 

>'A    " 

» 

„ 

»» 

« 

a 

**            "      YA  to  /4   •» 

»> 

,, 

" 

FIG.  126 


674 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


DISCHARGE  THROUGH  CIRCULAR  OUTLETS  IN  GALLONS  PER 
Coefficient  .90 


Pres- 
sure 

21' 

2-x5e" 

21* 

2yV 

2Y 

2TV 

2f" 

2-H' 

31" 

3*1" 

31' 

311' 

} 

90 

100 

110 

110 

120 

120 

130 

140 

270 

280 

290 

300 

1 

140 

140 

150 

160 

170 

180 

180 

190 

380 

390 

400 

420 

li 

170 

180 

190 

200 

210 

220 

230 

240 

460 

480 

490 

510 

2 

190 

200 

210 

230 

240 

250 

260 

270 

530 

550 

570 

590 

2* 

220 

230 

240 

250 

270 

280 

290 

310 

600 

620 

640 

660 

3 

240 

250 

260 

280 

290 

310 

320 

340 

660 

680 

700 

720 

3i 

250 

270 

280 

300 

310 

330 

350 

360 

710 

730 

760 

780 

4 

270 

290 

300 

320 

340 

350 

370 

390 

760 

780 

810 

830 

4| 

290 

300 

320 

340 

360 

370 

390 

410 

800 

830 

860 

890 

5 

300 

320 

340 

360 

380 

390 

410 

430 

850 

880 

900 

930 

5i 

320 

340 

350 

370 

S90 

410 

430 

450 

890 

920 

950 

980 

6 

330 

350 

370 

390 

410 

430 

450 

470 

930 

960 

990 

1020 

6* 

350 

370 

390 

410 

430 

450 

470 

490 

960 

1000 

1030 

1060 

7 

360 

380 

400 

420 

440 

470 

490 

510 

1000 

1030 

1070 

1100 

7* 

370 

390 

410 

440 

460 

480 

510 

530 

1040 

1070 

1110 

1140 

.8 

380 

410 

430 

450 

480 

500 

520 

550 

1070 

1110 

1140 

1180 

8* 

400 

420 

440 

460 

490 

510 

640 

560 

1100 

1140 

1180 

1220 

9 

410 

430 

450 

480 

500 

530 

550 

580 

1130 

1170 

1210 

1250 

9* 

420 

440 

470 

490 

520 

540 

570 

600 

1170 

1210 

1240 

1280 

10 

430 

450 

480 

500 

530 

560 

580 

610 

1200 

1240 

1280 

1320 

10  J 

440 

470 

490 

520 

540 

570 

600 

630 

1230 

1270 

1310 

1350 

11 

450 

480 

500 

530 

560 

590 

610 

640 

1250 

1300 

1340 

1380 

Hi 

460 

490 

510 

540 

570 

600 

630 

660 

1280 

1330 

1370 

1410 

12 

470 

500 

520 

550 

580 

610 

640 

670 

1310 

1350 

1400 

1440 

12* 

480 

510 

540 

560 

590 

620 

650 

690 

1340 

1380 

1430 

1470 

13 

490 

520 

570 

610 

640 

670 

700 

1360 

1410 

1460 

1500 

13* 

500 

530 

560 

590 

620 

650 

680 

710 

1390 

1440 

1480 

1530 

14 

510 

540 

570 

600 

630 

660 

690 

730 

1420 

1460 

1510 

1560 

14* 

520 

550 

580 

610 

640 

670 

700 

740 

1440 

1490 

1540 

1590 

15 

530 

560 

590 

620 

650 

680 

720 

750 

1470 

1510 

1560 

1610 

15* 

540 

570 

600 

630 

660 

700 

730 

760 

1490 

1540 

1590 

1640 

16 

540 

570 

610 

640 

670 

710 

740 

780 

1510 

1560 

1610 

1670 

16| 

550 

580 

620 

650 

680 

720 

750 

790 

1540 

1590 

1640 

1690 

17 

560 

590 

620 

660 

690 

730 

760 

800 

1560 

1610 

1660 

1720 

17* 

570 

600 

630 

670 

700 

740 

770 

810 

1580 

1640 

1690 

1740 

18 

580 

610 

640 

680 

710 

750 

780 

820 

1600 

1660 

1710 

1770 

18* 

590 

620 

650 

690 

720 

760 

790 

820 

1630 

1680 

1740 

1790 

19 

590 

630 

660 

700 

730 

770 

810 

840 

1650 

1700 

1760 

1820 

19* 

600 

640 

670 

700 

740 

780 

820 

860 

1670 

1730 

1780 

1840 

20 

610 

640 

680 

710 

750 

790 

830 

870 

1690 

1750 

1810 

1860 

21 

620 

660 

690 

730 

770 

810 

850 

880 

1730 

1790 

1850 

1910 

22 

640 

670 

710 

750 

790 

830 

870 

910 

1770 

1830 

1890 

1960 

23 

650 

690 

730 

760 

810 

850 

890 

930 

1810 

1880 

1940 

2000 

24 

670 

700 

740 

780 

820 

860 

910 

950 

1850 

1920 

1980 

2040 

25 

680 

720 

760 

800 

840 

880 

920 

970 

1890 

1950 

2020 

2080 

26 

690 

730 

770 

810 

860 

900 

940 

990 

1930 

1990 

2060 

2130 

27 

710 

750 

790 

830 

870 

920 

960 

1010 

1970 

2030 

2100 

2170 

28 

720 

760 

800 

840 

890 

930 

970 

1020 

2000 

2070 

2140 

2210 

29 

730 

770 

820 

860 

310 

950 

990 

1040 

2040 

2110 

2170 

2240 

30 

750 

790 

830 

870 

920 

970 

1010 

1060 

2070 

2140 

2210 

2280 

31 

760 

800 

840 

890 

940 

980 

1030 

1080 

2110 

2180 

2250 

2320 

32 

770 

810 

860 

900 

950 

1000 

1040 

1100 

2140 

2210 

2280 

2360 

33 

780 

830 

870 

920 

970 

1010 

1060 

1110 

2170 

2250 

2320 

2390 

34 

790 

840 

880 

930 

980 

1030 

1070 

1130 

2210 

2280 

2350 

2430 

35 

810 

850 

900 

940 

990 

1040 

1090 

1140 

2220 

2310 

2390 

2470 

36 

820 

860 

910 

960 

1010 

1060 

1110 

1160 

2270 

2340 

2420 

2500 

WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FIRE  PROTECTION 


6/s 


MINUTE  FOR  INDICATED  VELOCITY  PRESSURE  IN  POUNDS 


4" 

41'' 

4|* 

4-V 

4J* 

4iV 

4i' 

4T78' 

4*' 

4TV 

4f 

4*4' 

Pres- 
sure 

300 

310 

320 

330 

340 

350 

370 

380 

390 

400 

410 

i420 

1 

430 

440 

460 

470 

490 

500 

520 

530 

550 

560 

570 

590 

1 

530 

540 

560 

580 

600 

610 

630 

650 

670 

690 

700 

720 

u 

610 

630 

650 

670 

690 

710 

730 

750 

770 

790 

810 

840 

2" 

680 

700 

720 

750 

770 

790 

820 

840 

860 

890 

910 

940 

21 

750 

770 

790 

82'0 

840 

870 

900 

920 

940 

970 

1000 

1020 

3 

810 

830 

860 

880 

910 

940 

970 

990 

1020 

1053 

1070 

1100 

31 

860 

890 

920 

950 

970 

1000 

1030 

1860 

1090 

1120 

1150 

1180 

4 

910 

940 

970 

1000 

1030 

1060 

1090 

1120 

1160 

1190 

1220 

1250 

41 

960 

990 

1020 

106C 

1090 

1120 

1150 

1190 

1220 

1250 

1280 

1320 

5 

1010 

1040 

1070 

1110 

1140 

1180 

1210 

1240 

1280 

1310 

1350 

1390 

51 

1050 

1090 

1120 

1160 

1190 

1230 

1260 

1300 

1330 

1370 

1410 

1450 

6 

1100 

1130 

1170 

1200 

1240 

1280 

1310 

1350 

1390 

1430 

1470 

1510 

61 

1140 

1170 

1210 

1250 

1290 

1330 

1360 

1400 

1440 

1480 

1520 

1560 

7 

1180 

1210 

1250 

1290 

1330 

1370 

1410 

1450 

1490 

1530 

1570 

1620 

71 

1210 

1250 

1290 

1340 

1380 

1420 

1460 

1500 

1540 

1580 

1620 

1670 

8 

1250 

1290 

1330 

1380 

1420 

1460 

1500 

1540 

1590 

1630 

1680 

1720 

81 

1290 

1330 

1370 

1420 

1460 

1500 

1540 

1590 

1630 

1680 

1720 

1770 

9 

1320 

1370 

1410 

1460 

1500 

1540 

1590 

1630 

1680 

1720 

1770 

1820 

91 

1360 

1400 

1450 

1490 

1540 

1580 

1630 

1670 

1720 

1770 

1820 

1870 

10 

1390 

1440 

1480 

1530 

1580 

1620 

1670 

1720 

1760 

1810 

1860 

1910 

101 

1430 

1470 

1520 

1570 

1610 

1660 

1710 

1760 

1810 

1860 

1910 

1960 

11 

1460 

1500 

1550 

1600 

1650 

1700 

1750 

1800 

1850 

1900 

1950 

2000 

111 

1490  1540 

1580 

1640 

1690 

1730 

1780 

1840 

1890 

1940 

1990 

2050 

12 

1520 

1570 

1620 

1670 

1720 

1770 

1820 

1870 

1930 

1980 

2030 

2090 

121 

1550 

1600 

1650 

1700 

1750 

1800 

1860 

1910 

1970 

2020 

2070 

2130 

13 

1580  1630 

1680 

1730 

1790 

1840 

1880 

1950 

2000 

2060  2110 

2170 

131 

1610  1660 

1710 

1770 

1820 

1870 

1930 

1980 

2040 

2090 

2150!  2210 

14 

1640  1690 

1740 

1800 

1850 

1910 

1960 

2020 

2080 

2130 

21901  2250 

141 

1660 

1720 

1770 

1830 

1880 

1940 

1990 

2050 

2110 

2170 

2230  2290 

15 

1690 

1750 

1800 

1860 

1920 

1970 

2030 

2090 

2150 

2200 

2260  2330 

151 

1720 

1770 

1830 

1890 

1950 

2000 

2060 

2120 

2180 

2240 

2300 

2360 

16 

1750 

1800 

1860 

1920 

1980 

2030 

2090 

2150 

2210 

2270 

2330 

2400 

161 

1770 

1830 

1890 

1950 

2010 

2060 

2120 

2180 

2250 

2310 

2370 

2440 

17 

1800 

1850 

1910 

1980 

2040 

2090 

2160 

2220 

2280 

2340 

2400 

2470 

171 

1840 

1880 

1940 

2000 

2060 

2130 

2180 

2250 

2310 

2370 

2440 

2510 

18 

1850'  1910 

1970 

2030 

2090 

2150 

2220 

2280 

2350 

2410 

2470 

2540 

181 

1870 

1930 

1990 

2060 

2120 

2180 

2250 

2310 

2380 

2440 

2510 

2580 

19 

1900 

1960 

2020 

2090 

2150 

2210 

2280 

2340 

2410 

2470 

2540 

2610 

191 

1920  1980 

2050 

2110 

2180 

2240 

2300 

2370 

2440 

2500 

2570 

2640 

20 

1970  2030 

2100 

2160 

2230 

2290 

2360 

2430J  2500 

2560 

2630 

2710 

21 

2020  2080 

2150 

2220 

2290 

2350 

2420 

24901  2560 

2620 

2700 

2770 

22 

2060l  2120 

2190 

2270 

2340  2400 

2470 

2540!  2610 

2690 

2760 

2820 

23 

2110 

2170 

2240 

2310 

2380  2460 

2520 

2600  2670 

2740 

28201  2900 

24 

2150 

2220 

2280 

2360 

2430  2510 

2580 

2650  2720 

2800 

2870  2960 

25 

2190 

2260 

2330 

2410 

2480!  2550 

2630 

2700  2780 

2850 

2930  i  3020 

26 

2230 

2300 

2380 

2450 

2530 

2600 

2680 

2760  2830 

2910 

2990!  3070 

27 

2280 

2350 

2420 

2500 

2580 

2650 

2730 

2800  2880 

2960 

3040|  3130 

28 

2320 

2390 

2460 

2540 

2620 

2700 

2770 

2850'  2940 

3020 

3090J  3180 

29 

2380 

2430 

2510 

2590 

2670 

2740 

2820 

2900  '  2990 

3070 

3150}  3240 

30 

2390 

2470 

2550 

2630 

2710 

2790 

2870 

2950  3030 

3120 

32001  3290 

31 

2430 

2500 

2590 

2670 

2750 

2830 

2920 

3000!  3080 

3170 

3250 

3340 

32 

2470 

2550 

2630 

2720 

2800 

2880 

2960 

3040  l  3130 

3220 

3300 

3390 

33 

2510 

2580 

2670 

2760 

2840 

2920 

3000 

3090  i  3190 

3260 

3350 

3440 

34 

2540 

2620 

2710 

2800 

2880 

2960 

3050 

3140i  3210 

3310 

3400 

3500 

35 

2590 

2660 

2740 

2830 

2920 

3000 

3090 

3180 

3270 

3360 

3450 

3540 

36 

! 

676 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


ing  the  loss  of  head  due  to  ordinary  consumption,  and  the  additional  loss 
due  to  the  measured  flow  from  hydrants,  a  close  approximation  may  be 
made  of  the  quantity  available  at  any  given  pressure. 

AREA  OF  "  No  FLOW."  —  It  has  already  been  noted  that  hydrant  outlets, 
especially  the  large  ones,  are  not  completely  filled  by  the  stream;  the  area 
of  no  flow  is  almost  always  a  segment  in  the  bottom  of  the  outlet,  of 
varying  height  depending  upon  the  design  of  the  hydrant  and  somewhat 
upon  the  velocity  of  the  stream.  Any  projection  into  the  waterway,  such 
as  the  end  of  the  stem  of  an  independent  valve  or  a  roughness  of  the 
nipple,  will  also  produce  small  "  holes  "  in  the  stream.  The  area  of  no 
flow  is  in  most  cases  fairly  well  denned,  and  the  shape  of  the  "  hole  " 
is  sufficiently  uniform  to  enable  its  proportion  to  the  total  area  to  be  deter- 
mined by  measuring  its  height  with  a  rulev;  for  instance,  with  a  4%-inch 
outlet,  a  "  hole  "  i  inch  high  forms  10  to  12  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the 
outlet,  a  i%-inch  hole  20  to  25  per  cent,  and  so  on.  The  correction  to  be 
made  may  be  determined  by  referring  to  Figure  126. 

VELOCITY.  —  In  determining  the  average  velocity  of  the  stream  issuing 
from  the  outlet,  the  Pitot  tube  is  moved  throughout  the  area,  and  the 
observer  will  soon  train  himself  by  this  traverse  to  fix  upon  a  substantially 
accurate  average;  readings  noted  at  the  center  and  near  the  ends  of  the 
horizontal  .  and  vertical  diameters  will  usually  suffice,  and  the  center  reading 
in  a  small  outlet  is  in  most  cases  very  near  the  average  for  the  whole 
area.  Readings  should  not  be  taken  closer  than  ^4-inch  to  the  sides  of  the 
orifice,  since  there  is  a  noticeable  retardation  of  velocity  caused  by  friction 
against  the  walls  of  the  hydrant  nipple.  This  retardation  necessitates  applying 
a  coefficient  of  discharge,  which  has  been  determined  by  experiment  on  three 
different  makes  of  hydrants,  with  outlets  of  various  sizes  and  with  velocities 
of  discharge  ranging  from  %  to  28  pounds;  the  discharges  as  measured 
by  the  Pitot  tube  were  compared  with  those  determined  variously  by  Venturi- 
•  meter,  Pitometer  in  supply  main,  and  by  a  Worthington  current  meter.  The 
coefficient  of  discharge  ranged  from  0.85  to  0.96,  with  an  average  of  0.91. 
It  is  therefore  concluded  that  a  coefficient  of  0.90  is  a  fair  one  to  use;  this 
is  to  be  applied  after  allowance  has  been  made,  as  above  noted  in  the  case 
of  outlets  not  completely  filled  by  the  stream.  From  the  tables  on  pages 
674  and  675  results  can  be  readily  figured,  or  for  any  other  size  of  outlet,  a 
discharge  can  be  obtained  as  given  in  the  formula  on  page  699. 

The  Pitot  tube  used  in  determining  discharges  from  hydrant  outlets  has 
a  straight  blade  about  4  inches  long,  which  is  threaded  into  one  end  of  a 
piece  of  ^4-inch  brass  pipe  8  or  10  inches  long,  on  the  other  end  of  which 
is  screwed  the  gage  by  which  the  velocity  of  discharge  is  determined;  a 
union  may  be  used  to  keep  the  joints  tight  in  whatever  position  the  gage  may  be. 

GAGE  USED.  —  The  gage  which  appears  to  be  best  suited  for  this  work  is 
3-inch,  graduated  in  half  pounds,  from  o  to  50  pounds.  Such  a  gage  may 
be  read  easily  to  the  nearest  quarter  pound;  corrections  should  be  made 
as  indicated  by  calibrations  before  and  after  using;  either  by  means  of 
a  weight  tester  or  by  comparison  with  an  accurate  test  gage. 

Velocity  heads  of  i  pound  or  more  are  desirable,  since  they  are  read 
with  greater  accuracy  by  the  ordinary  observer,  and  also  because  any 
inaccuracy  in  the  gage  reading  has  less  effect  on  the  correctness  of  the 
discharge  figures.  However,  discharges  may  be  determined  with  considerable 
accuracy  in  cases  where  the  velocity  head  is  as  low  as  *4  pound.  It  is 
better  where  discharges  are  small  to  use  only  one  small  outlet,  rather  than 
two  small  ones  or  a  large  one. 


WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  FIRE  PROTECTION  677 

FIRE  ENGINE  TESTS  AND  FIRE  STREAM  TABLES* 

The  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  issued  a  pamphlet 
in  1910  on  '*  Fire  Engine  Tests  and  Fire  Stream  Tables,"  which 
is  reprinted  in  this  and  following  pages  by  permission  of  the  Na- 
tional Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

PREFACE 

This  pamphlet  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  assisting 
fire  department  officials  and  others  who  may  wish  to  determine 
the  condition  of  fire  engines.  It  may  also  be  of  service  in  testing 
the  capacity  of  new  engines  with  a  view  to  their  acceptance  by 
a  city. 

Tests  similar  to  those  outlined  herein  have  been  adopted  by  many 
fire  departments  and  are  being  made  by  our  engineers  in  their 
investigation  of  cities  throughout  the  country,  so  that  by  corre- 
sponding with  this  Board,  the  location  of  the  nearest  field  party 
may  be  ascertained  and  if  desired,  an  opportunity  afforded  to 
observe  such  tests. 

The  appended  fire  stream  tables,  on  pages  702  to  723,  are  based 
on  tests  of  rubber-lined  fire  hose  made  in  October,  1909,  by  our 
engineers,  with  the  assistance  of  the  New  York  Fire  Department 
and  the  co-operation  of  the  Department  of  Water  Supply  of  New 
York  City.  These  tables  may  also  be  used  to  find  the  approximate 
amount  of  water  used  at  a  fire,  if  engineers  will  observe  from  time 
to  time  the  water  pressure  carried  and  the  length  of  time  at  work. 
With  an  approximate  average  of  the  water  pressure  at  each  engine, 
the  amount  of  water  delivered  per  minute  can  be  found  for  each 
line  if  the  size  of  nozzle  and  length  of  hose  is  also  known.  Copies 
of  this  pamphlet  will  be  sent  to  such  captains  of  companies  and 
engineers  of  steamers  as  would  use  them  in  keeping  accurate 
records  of  the  performance  of  their  engine  at  fires. 

NATIONAL  BOARD   OF  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS. 
COMMITTEE  ON  FIRE  PREVENTION, 

76  William  Street, 
August,  1915.  New   York. 

PRACTICAL  TESTS  FOR  FIRE  ENGINES 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  manual  to  set  forth  convenient  and  practical  meth- 
ods of  making  fire  engine  tests  which  will  show  the  physical  condition  of 
engines,  their  capacity  for  delivering  water  at  a  reasonable  pressure  and  the 
ability  of  the  operating  crews.  The  method  described  has  been  in  use  for  a 
number  of  years  and  has  been  found  practical,  exact  and  of  great  value. 
Although  methods  similar  to  that  described  below  are  in  use  in  some  depart- 
ments, the  character  of  tests  made  in  many  cities,  and  especially  those  for 
acceptance,  are  usually  more  spectacular  than  exact.  The  throwing  of  a 
stream  over  a  church  spire,  city  hall  or  court  house  does  not  necessarily  show 
that  the  engine  is  capable  of  delivering  its  full  rated  capacity  at  a  proper 
working  pressure. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  where  regular  and  systematic  tests  of  engines 
are  not  made,  even  in  well  managed  fire  departments,  defects  often  exist 

*  Copyrighted,  1910,  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters;  reprinted 
in  this  book  by  permission. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND'  PROTECTION 


PLATE  I. — Apparatus  for  Testing  Fire  Engines 


TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES 

which  may  continue  unsuspected  for  considerable  periods  and  become  manifest 
under  the  stress  of  a  large  fire,  where  the  engine  is  called  upon  to  deliver  its 
full  capacity  under  suitable  working  pressures.  Furthermore,  regular  tests 
are  a  most  valuable  drill  for  engine  crews,  for  in  only  a  few  departments  do 
they  receive  sufficient  training  in  operating  engines  to  capacity.  The  break- 
down of  an  engine  at  a  fire  or  the  inability  of  the  crew  to  operate  it  to 
capacity  may  be  the  direct  cause  of  confusion  and  the  needless  loss  of 
property  and  perhaps  of  life,  to  the  discredit  of  the  department. 

Contracts  for  new  fire  engines  usually  contain  guarantees  that  the  engine 
will  deliver  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  but  often  do  not  specify  the  pressure 
at  which  it  is  to  be  delivered,  nor  provide  for  any  definite  tests  which  will 
accurately  determine  whether  the  engine  has  fulfilled  the  guarantee;  or,  in 
other  words,  if  the  department  is  getting  what  it  is  paying  for.  In  several 
cities,  engines  are  required  to  fill  large  measured  tanks  in  a  specified  time,  but 
this  is  a  cumbersome  method  at  best,  and  such  tanks  are  frequently  unavailable; 
this  usually  gives  no  definite  results  as  to  pressure  obtained  and  power 
developed. 

STEAM   FIRE  ENGINES 

WHAT  TEST  SHOULD  SHOW. — A  practical  test  should  show,  with  fair  accur- 
acy, the  condition  of  both  water  and  steam  ends'  of  pumps  and  the  condition 
of  the  boiler;  determine  the  amount  of  water  which  the  engine  will  pump 
at  a  reasonable  working  pressure,  such  as  would  be  required  when  operating 
at  a  large  fire;  demonstrate  the  ability  of  the  engine  to  draft  water,  whether 
the  pumps  and  watervrays  are  tight  under  high  pressures  and  steam  valves 
are  properly  set,  and  whether  the  coal  used  is  quick  steaming  and  free  from 
objectionable  impurities.  In  addition,  the  test  should  be  of  such  a  character 
as  to  approach  the  working  condition  at  a  serious  fire  where  the  full  capacity 
of  the  engine  would  be  required,  and  at  the  same  time  be  easily  understood. 
The  following  tests  are  intended  to  bring  out  all  of  these  points. 

DISPLACEMENT  TEST. — The  displacement  test  indicates  very  closely  the 
actual  condition  of  the  pumps  as  a  whole  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  high 
pressure  and  valve  tests,  the  condition  of  the  plungers,  pump  valves,  packing, 
etc.  The  high  pressure  test,  in  connection  with  the  results  obtained  from 
the  capacity  test,  indicates  the  setting  of  steam  valves  and  condition  of  steam 
cylinders  and  packed  joints.  The  capacity  test  shows  the  steaming  quality 
of  the  boiler  under  heavy  draft  and  the  ability  of  the  engine  to  make  suf- 
ficient speed  to  develop  its  capacity  when  working  against  a  reasonable 
water  pressure.  If  the  test  is  made  from  a  cistern  or  reservoir,  it  will 
show  the  ability  of  the  engine  to  draft;  if  made  from  a  hydrant,  the  per- 
centage of  slip  obtained  will  indicate  this  feature,  as  an  engine  showing 
less  than  7  per  cent  slip  may  be  depended  upon  to  take  suction  satisfactorily. 
Incidentally,  the  test  also  shows  the  ability  of  the  engine  crew  in  operating 
and  stoking  the  engine. 

Any  machine,  when  new,  should  be  capable  of  greater  work  than  after  sev- 
eral years  of  service;  for  this  reason,  a  new  engine  should  be  given  an  accept- 
ance test  at  least  as  severe  as  any  work  it  may  have  to  perform  in  actual 
service.  This  test  should  bring  out  not  only  the  capacity  to  puftip  the  actual 
volume  of  water  specified  by  the  maker  as  the  rated  capacity,  but  also  to  do 
this  at  a  good  working  pressure. 

A  good  specification,  applying  equally  well  to  steam  fire  engines  and  automo- 
bile fire  engines,  is  that  the  engine  should  deliver  its  full  rated  capacity  at  120 
pounds  net  pressure  and  50  per  cent,  of  its  rated  capacity  at  200  pounds  net 
pressure.  This  will  assure  sufficient  bciler  capacity  in  steam  fire  engines  and 
motors  of  high  enough  power  in  automobile  fire  engines. 


6;8b 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Engines  in  service  need  not  be  given  as  severe  a  test  as  those  being 
accepted,  as  it  is  mainly  their  general  condition  that  is  to  be  ascertained; 
for  this  reason,  100  pounds  net  water  pressure  would  seem  a  sufficiently 
high  requirement  for  the  ordinary  capacity  test,  which  should X be  made  at 
least  yearly. 

APPARATUS  NECESSARY  FOR  TESTING. — For  the  tests  outlined  below,  no 
elaborate  or  costly  outfit  is  needed,  the  only  special  appliances  absolutely 
required  being  as  shown  on  Plate  I  and  listed  below: 

A   revolution   or  speed   counter    (Figures    7,    13    and    18). 

A  stop-watch  and  wrist  strap  (Figure  n). 

A  small  Pitot  tube  (Figure  5). 

An  air  chamber  on  Pitot  (Figure  6). 

Two  or  more  pressure  gages  (Figures  2  and  3). 

A  set  of  smooth  bore  nozzles  (Figures  9  and  10). 

A  hydrant  or  engine  discharge  cap  (Figure  i). 

Appliances  for  attaching  counter  (Figures  14  and  15  or  Figure  16). 

For  convenience,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  Pitot  bracket    (Figure    17). 

This  is  shown  attached  in  Figure  8,  with  a  special  form  of  elbow  (Figure  4) 
and  ^4-inch  bent  rod  (Figure  12). 

NOZZLE  STREAM  PITOT 


Scale  Full  Size 
,  To  be  of  brass  and  finished-smooth 

The  revolution  counter  should  be  of  a  type  easily  attached  to  the  engine 
frame,  or  any  convenient  part,  and  so  made  as  to  register  accurately  at 
any  speed  likely  to  be  reached  by  a  reciprocating  engine  and  be  easily  read. 


TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES        679 

The  counter  may  be  provided  with  straps  for  attaching  to  engine,  or  with 
the  clamp  and  angle  iron  shown  on  Plate  I,  Figures  14  and  15,  and  Plate  II, 
or  with  bolts  and  slotted  lugs  as  shown  in  Plate  I,  Figure  16. 

For  high  speeds,  and  particularly  where  the  speed  is  uniform,  as  with  motor 
driven  pumps,  the  speed  counted,  Figure  13,  is  best;  30  second  or  i  minute 
readings  can  be  taken  from  some  shaft  at  frequent  intervals. 

Most  Tachometers  and  speed  indicators  are  unsuitable  for  steam  fire  engine 
work,  as  the  vibration  is  apt  to  render  their  readings  unreliable,  and  the  vari- 
ation in  speed  makes  their  readings  of  little  value. 

A  stop-watch  can  be  purchased  for  less  than  $10,  although  an  ordinary 
watch  can  be  used. 

The  Pitot  tube  may  be  any  of  several  suitable  types  now  on  the  market, 
or  may  be  readily  constructed;  dimensions  are  given  below.  It  should  be  con- 
nected by  ^4-inch  brass  pipe  fittings  to  a  pressure  gage;  to  prevent  vibration 
of  the  needle,  an  air  chamber  should 'be  provided  as  shown  in  Plate  I. 

The  pressure  gages  should  be  preferably  not  more  than  3%  inches  in  diam- 
eter,! in  order  that  they  may  be  conveniently  handled.  They  should  be  without 
a  rest  pin  for  the  needle,  in  order  that  any  disarrangement  of  the  needle  may 
be  readily  observed;  one  capable  of  indicating  a  vacuum  should  be  provided 
if  a  gage  is  used  on  the  suction;  the  Pitot  gage  should  read  up  to  200  pounds, 
and  be  divided  preferably  for  every  pound  and  marked  every  5  or  10  pounds; 
the  pressure  gage  should  read  up  to  300  pounds,  and  where  tests  to  250 
pounds  are  made,  to  400  pounds,  and  may  be  divided  only  for  every  5  pounds. 
Gages,  especially  those  used  with  the  Pitot,  should  be  of  good  quality  and 
accurate.  They  should  be  carefully  calibrated  (tested)  with  a  weight  tester 
or  a  standard  gage  before  each  day's  work. 

NOZZLES. — Nozzles  suitable  for  testing  are  usually  found  in  the  regular 
equipment  of  every  fire  department.  Only  smooth  bore  tapered  nozzles  should 
be  used,  as  discharges  from  ring  nozzles  are  uncertain.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  the  tips  are  not  nicked  or  otherwise  injured,  and  that  washers 
do  not  project  into  the  pipe,  as  a  perfectly  smooth  waterway  is  essential. 
The  ring  nozzles  on  many  engines  have  loose  rings,  which  may  be  slipped 
out  by  unscrewing  the  end  cap,  leaving  a  suitable  smooth-bore  tip.  Shut-off 
nozzles  should  not  be  used,  as  these  generally  have  interior  projections  or 
breaks  in  the  waterway,  likely  to  cause  eddies  in  the  stream.  Where  much 
testing  is  to  be  done,  it  is  better  to  set  aside  nozzles,  keeping  them  solely 
for  that  purpose.  The  bore  of  nozzles  should  be  accurate  to  size  within 
1/1,000  of  an  inch  and  carefully  measured.  f 

CHECKING  ENGINE  GAGE. — The  engine-discharge  cap,  or  hydrant  cap  (in 
most  cities  these  have  the  same  thread)  is  tapped  for  14-inch  pipe  thread 
and  fitted  with  a  nipple  and  stop-cock  for  attaching  the  test  gage.  By  attach- 
ing to  the  discharge  outlet  of  the  engine  as  shown  on  Plate  II,  the  engine 
water  gage  and  the  test  gage  may  be  compared  to  determine  if  the  engine 
gage  is  correct.  Where  there  is  time  to  detach  the  water  gage  and  a 
testing  set  is  available,  the  gage  can  be  more  accurately  checked.  The  steam 
gages  are  less  likely  to  get  out  of  order,  being  less  subject  to  sudden 
fluctuations,  and  a  comparison  of  readings  of 'side  and  rear  steam  gages  will 
usually  be  sufficient.  If  the  engine  has  no  suction  gage  or  tapped  suction 
cap,  the  engine  or  hydrant  cap  should  be  used  on  the  second  outlet  of  the 
hydrant  when  testing  an  engine  at  a  double  outlet  hydrant. 

PERSONNEL. — Tests  are  best  made  by  a  supervisor  (as  the  master  mechanic 
or  other  officer  conducting  the  test  will  hereafter  be  called),  with  an  assistant 
accustomed  to  reading  gages.  Tables  showing  the  discharge  at  various 
pressures  through  different  nozzles,  for  use  with  Pitot  tube  readings,  are 
to  be  found  on  pages  704  and  705.  A  suitable  form  for  recording  data  of 


68o 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


PLATE  II. — Method  of  Attaching  Gages  and  Counter  for  Testing  Engines 


TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES        681 

tests  is  shown  on  page  686,  and  until  the  supervisor  becomes  familiar  with 
tests,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  similar  form  at  the  tests  in  order  not  to  over- 
look any  necessary  data.  Later,  a  pocket  note-book  will  doubtless  be  found 
more  convenient,  care  being  taken  to  record  all  the  necessary  data. 

PRELIMINARY  TO  TEST. — If  possible,  calibrate  gages  of  engine  before  the 
test,  by  detaching  and  comparing  on  a  portable  gage-testing  set.  They 
should  be  calibrated  in  the  position  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  either 
horizontally  or  vertically.  If  this  is  not  done,  check  water  and  suction 
gages  at  test,  as  explained  below. 

If  it  is  desired  to  determine  the  ability  of  the  regular  engine  crew,  the 
engine  should,  of  course,  be  operated  by  them;  if  the  condition  and  capacity 
of  the  engine  are  the  unknown  factors,  a  crew  known  to  be  efficient  should 
be  selected. 

If  there  is  any  convenient  body  of  water,  or  cistern,  where  water  may 
be  drafted  with  at  least  10  feet  of  lift,  then  test  should  be  made  at  draft; 
otherwise,  attach  engine  to  hydrant,  care  being  taken  to  get  a  hydrant  attached 
to  a  large  main  (8-inch  or  larger),  and  that  the  hydrant  pressure  is  not 
excessive,  preferably  below  40  pounds.  Four-inch  or  larger  suction  should 
be  used.  After  suitably  stationing  engine,  light  the  fire;  note  the  time 
when,  smoke  comes  from  stack,  when  steam  gage  needle  moves,  at  50  pounds 
of  steam,  at  100  pounds,  and  pressure  and  time  of  blowing  off.  If  engine 
has  hot  water  in  boiler,  this  may  be  omitted,  noting  only  the  pressure  at 
whitih  safety  valve  blows  off.  Then,  if  water  gage  on  engine  has  not  been 
calibrated  (checked),  attach  hydrant  cap  and  200-pound  test  gage  to  engine 
discharge  outlet.  Record  zero  of  all  three  gages — water,  suction  and  test 
gages;  open  hydrant  and  record  static  pressure  on  all  three  gages;  then  with 
churn  (hand  relief)  valve  partly  open  and  discharge  gates  shut,  pump  up 
pressure  and  compare  test  and  water  gages  at  80  pounds,  100,  no,  120,  etc., 
up  to  120  pounds  over  the  static  or  hydrant  pressure.  If  engine  has  no 
suction  gage,  one  of  the  suction  caps  on  the  engine  can  be  tipped  to  connect 
the  gage  or  the  engine  or  hydrant  cap  provided  with  the  second  gage  should 
be  attached  to  one  hydrant  outlet. 

Let  supervisor  and  assistant  compare  watches  and  set  second  hands 
together,  or  nearly  so;  this  is  more  quickly  accomplished  if  one  watch  has  a 
stop-hand.  The  supervisor  will  find  it  convenient  to  tie  his  watch  to  coat 
or  wrist  in  order  to  leave  his  hands  free  to  hold  note-book  or  Pitot.  A 
leather  watch  holder  and  wrist  strap,  as  shown  on  Plate  I,  such  as  any 
harness  maker  can  make,  is  a  convenient  appliance  for  this  purpose.  Attach 
the  revolution  counter  and  connect  with  one  of  the  eccentric  strap  oil 
cups  or  studs  by  a  short  length  of  cord,  have  engine  started  slowly  and 
adjust  counter  cord  so  that  each  revolution  registers. 

DISPLACEMENT  AND  CAPACITY  TEST. — While  the  engine  is  getting  up  steam, 
have  firemen  lay  hose  and  connect  nozzle.  If  testing  on  a  paved  street, 
it  is  best  to  lay  nozzle  down  in  gutter.  Use  a  play-pipe  holder  or  lie  nozzle 
to  any  convenient  post,  in  order  to  prevent  pipe  getting  way  from  pipeman 
and  doing  damage. 

For  the  larger  engines,  attach  a  line  of  hose  on  each  side  of  the  engine 
and  connect  into  the  Siamese  of  a  deluge  set. 

With  the  smaller  size  engines,  it  is  usually  more  convenient  to  use  a 
single  line  from  one  side  of  the  engine;  when  deluge  sets  are  not  available, 
single  lines  may  be  used  on  the  larger  engines.  In  the  tables  on  pages 
692  and  693,  the  length  of  hose  and  size  of  nozzle  best  adapted  for  testing 
engines  of  various  sizes  are  given.  In  testing  with  the  Siamesed  lines, 
start  the  engines  with  both  lines  open  and  bring  it  up  to  speed;  if  the 
desired  water  pressure  is  not  obtained,  close  the  discharge  gate  on  one  line 


682  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

slowly  until  the  gage  indicates  the  proper  pressure.  Similarly,  with  a 
single  line  attached,  the  gate  is  closed  slowly  after  engine  has  obtained  its 
full  speed  until  the  desired  pressure  is  obtained. 

The  supervisor  can,  from  time  to  time,  regulate  this  discharge  gate  to 
keep  the  desired  water  pressure,  although  if  the  crew  operates  the  engine 
properly  but  little  change  will  have  to  be  made  throughout  the  test.  The 
engineer  can  be  instructed  to  direct  all  his  attention  to  operating  his 
engine  to  full  capacity,  and  the  supervisor  or  testing  engineer  can  regulate 
the  water  pressure,  take  the  readings  of  the  revolution  counter,  steam,  water 
and  suction  gages,  while  his  assistant  takes  readings  of  the  nozzle  pressure 
throughout  the  test. 

When  Siamesed  lines  are  used,  should  the  engine  not  be  able  to  maintain 
the  desired  water  pressure  with  one  line  shut  off  entirely,  add  another 
length  of  hose  to  each  side,  or  use  a  nozzle  Vs-inch  smaller.  With  single 
lines,  when  the  engine  cannot  maintain  the  desired  pressure  without  undue 
throttling  of  the  discharge  valve,  use  a  smaller  nozzle  or  add  another  length 
of  hose.  The  nozzle  readings  should,  if  possible,  be  over  40  pounds,  as 
below  this  point  readings  must  be  very  nearly  constant  to  give  accurate 
results. 

Should  water  pressure  at  the  engine  be  too  high  with  both  lines  wide 
open,  use  a  larger  nozzle  or  cut  out  a  length  of  hose  from  each  side. 

Relief  valves  should  be  closed,  sprinkler  used  only  as  needed,  and  feed 
pumps  operated  regularly.  The  capacity  test  should  last  at  least  20  minutes 
from  the  time  the  engine  reaches  full  speed.  During  this  time  the  water 
pressure  at  the  engine  should  be  constant  and  such  as  to  give  a  ne't  water 
pressure  over  the  suction  pressure  of  100  to  120  pounds.  Unless  the  rubber 
tires  cause  undue  vibration,  a  modern  engine,  if  in  good  condition,  can 
safely  run  for  an  indefinite  period  at  400  to  425  feet  of  piston  travel  per 
minute,  that  is,  300  to  320  revolutions  for  an  8-indh  stroke. 

It  is  usually  better  to  hold  about  10  pounds  over  the  pressure  actually 
required,  when  the  water  pressure  fluctuates  much,  as  most  engineers  read 
the  top  of  swing  of  a  gage  needle,  while  the  supervisor,  of  course,  should 
read  the  middle  of  the  vibration.  Gages  may  be  throttled  to  prevent  excessive 
vibration,  but  should  always  show  some  vibration  to  get  true  readings.  A 
better  method  of  preventing  excessive  vibration  of  needle  on  gage  is  to 
attach  a  small  air  chamber  to  the  connection  near  the  gage;  such  an  appli- 
ance is  shown  attached  to  gage  used  on  Pitot  tube.  During  the  capacity 
test,  the  supervisor  should  read  counter  (exactly  at  minute)  and  steam, 
water  and  suction  gages  each  minute  in  regular  order,  and  note  the  handling 
and  stoking,  feed  water,  leaks,  uneven  steam  pressure,  blowing  off,  foaming 
of  boiler,  accidents,  and  the  other  little  details  which  his  experience  teaches 
him  to  observe.  Meanwhile  the  supervisor's  assistant  should  read  the  nozzle 
pressure  every  *4  minute.  Special  care  should  be  taken  in  reading  the  nozzle 
pressure.  The  Pitot  should  be  held  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  with  the 
tip  about  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  bore  from  the  end  of  the  nozzle. 
Gage  should  be  horizontal  or  vertiqal,  according  to  the  position  in  which  it 
was  calibrated,  and  at  the  same  level  as  the  end  of  the  nozzle.  This  is 
shown  on  Plate  III. 

HIGH  PRESSURE  TEST.-^-After  a  run  of  20  minutes  in  which  there  were 
no  serious  interruptions  to  readings,  and  pressure  was  maintained  at  an 
average  of  at  least  100  pounds  net,  stop  stoking;  shut  down,  close  discharge 
gates,  partly  open  churn  valve  and  get  steam  down  to  between  70  and  80 
pounds,  drawing  fire  if  necessary.  Then  start  engine  slowly,  and  gradually 
close  churn  valve  tight.  See  that  all  other  openings,  feed  pumps,  sprinklers, 
relief  cocks,  etc.,  are  shut.  Let  engine  turn  in  this  condition  for  one  or 


TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES        683 


PLATE  III. — Showing  Use  of  Nozzle  Pitot 


684  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

two  minutes;  observe  the  number  of  revolutions,  and  the  water,  steam  and 
suction  (now  static)  pressures;  note  any  uneven  motion  of  engine,  blowing 
through  'of  steam  or  imperfect  valve  setting,  leaks  in  steam  or  water  ends, 
or  fittings,  etc.  If  pumps  are  in  good  condition  and  valves  set  correctly, 
speed  should  not  be  over  one  revolution  in  10  seconds  in  any  modern  type 
engine.  (This  does  not  apply  to  a  Silsby  or  a  Button.)  With  70  pounds 
steam  and  50  pounds  suction,  water  pressure  will  reach  about  250  pounds; 
this  is  perfectly  safe  and  not  a  severe  test,  as  such  pressures  are  frequently 
met  in  operation  when  long  lines  are  used. 

VALVE  TESTS. — After  taking  the  observations  for  the  high  pressure  test, 
shut  off  throttle  of  engine  and  open  cylinder  drips.  Note  the  drop  in  water 
pressure  for  say  one-half  minute.  The  manner  in  which  this  pressure  holds 
up  is  an  indication  of  the  condition,  of  the  discharge  valves.  A  drop  of  not 
over  15  pounds  in  one-half  minute,  provided  there  are'  no  external  leaks 
visible  around  the  pump,  indicates  a  fairly  good  condition  of  the  valves. 

SUCTION  TEST. — If  the  engine  has  been  tested  at  a  hydrant,  its  ability  to 
draft  may  be  determined  as  follows,  provided  it  is  equipped  with  a  compound 
suction  gage  or  one  of  the  suction  caps  is  tapped  to  receive  a  compound 
gage:  Disconnect  engine  from  hydrant  while  there  is  still  some  steam 
pressure  on  boiler,  put  both  suction  caps  on  tight,  open  one  of  the  discharge 
gates  and  then  open  throttle,  allowing  engine  to  run  at  a  moderate  speed, 
observe  the  reading  of  the  compound  gage  while  running,  and  also  after 
shutting  down.  The  drop  of  the  vacuum  after  shutting  down  is  an  indication 
of  the  condition  of  the  suction  valves,  provided  all  joints  are  good. 

To  FIGURE  DISPLACEMENT. — (Displacement  is  figured  as  indicated  for  sample 
test,  pages  688  and  689.)  In  averaging  the  nozzle,  steam,  water  and  suction 
pressures,  subtract  %  of  first  and  last  readings  from  sum  of  readings  used 
(see  page  689  and  sample  test  sheet).  Average  the  nozzle  pressure  during  a 
period  in  which  the  engine  ran  steadily,  water  pressure  was  well  maintained 
and  the  nozzle  pressure  varied  the  least.  When  possible,  use  a  2o-minute 
period  in  figuring  the  displacement;  if  for  any  reason  there  is  much  variation 
in  the  nozzle  pressure,  say  over  10  per  cent  during  any  one  minute,  select 
as  long  a  period  as  possible,  but  at  least  10  minutes,  during  which  the 
pressure  has  been  well  maintained.  Correct  for  gage  error.  Take  out 
corresponding  gallons  from  table,  pages  700  and  701  interpolating  for  odd 
pressures  or  for  odd-size  nozzles. 

Example:     i%"  nozzle,   61   pounds  nozzle  pressure: 

62    pounds    nozzle   pressure    gives 525  gallons 

-     60 517  gallons 

or   2   pounds   give   a   difference   of 8  gallons 

and  i   pound  gives  %  of  this,  or 4  gallons 

Therefore,    61    pounds    nozzle    pressure z=Si7+4 

nz52i  gallons 
Example:     i    9/16"  nozzle,  60  pounds  nozzle  pressure: 

60    pounds    through    i%"    nozzle    gives 607  gallons 

60  i%"  517  gallons 

or    %"    difference   in   nozzle    diameter   gives 90  gallons 

and    1/16"  "      45  gallons 

Therefore,    i    9/16"   nozzle   at   60   pounds   gives 517+45 

2^562  gallons 

For  odd-size  nozzles,  the  discharge  can  be  accurately  obtained  by  using 
the  formula  on  page  696. 

Divide  the  average  gallons  discharged  by  the  average  revolutions  per 
minute  to  obtain  the  actual  net  displacement  of  the  pumps.  The  nominal 
displacement  will  be  found  from  the  table,  page  690,  allowing  for  the  pump 


TESTS  OF  FIRE  PUMPS  AND  FIRE  ENGINES        685 

rods.  The  dimension  of  the  pumps,  such  as  stroke,  diameter  of  pump  barrel 
and  pump  rods,  should  be  accurately  measured,  if  in  question.  The  difference 
between  actual  and  nominal  displacements  is  the  slip,  which  should  be 
from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  the  nominal  displacement  in  a  new  engine  (6  per 
cent  in  a  rotary);  of  this,  about  %  per  cent  is  due  to  the  feed  water  (i 
per  cent  with  a  Button  or  Silsby  engine).  After  engine  has  been  in  use  a 
few  months,  slip  will  generally  increase  about  i  per  cent;  thereafter,  if 
valves  and  packings  are  given  proper  attention,  there  should  be  only  a  slight 
increase.  A  slip  of  10  per  cent  or  over  indicates  broken  or  displaced  valve 
springs,  and  more  than  this,  a'  badly  worn  plunger  or  pump  barrel,  or 
possibly  a  leaky  suction.  In  a  rotary,  the  wear  is  principally  in  the  pump 
cam  slides,  which  will  also  stick  at  times,  causing  increased  slip  even  if 
not  worn. 

To  FIGURE  CAPACITY. — When  the  engine  is  run  for  20  minutes  at  a  uniform 
speed  during  the  displacement  test,  the  average  discharge  measured  at  the 
nozzle  by  the  Pitot  is  the  capacity  of  the  engine.  If  only  a  lo-minute  period 
of  the  tun  is  used  for  figuring  the  displacement,  the  capacity  of  the  engine 
is  determined  by  multiplying  the  actual  displacement  (found  in  the  dis- 
placement test)  by  the  average  revolutions  per  minute  during  a  2o-minute 
period  in  which  the  engine  worked  at  its  full  capacity.  Steam,  water  and 
suction  pressures  during  the  capacity  run  should  be  averaged  and  corrected 
for  gage  error.  In  figuring  percentage  of  capacity  delivered,  for  a  new  fire 
engine,  it  is  well  to  use  contract  figures  for  the  rated  capacity  which  the 
engine  is  guaranteed  to  deliver.  A  capacity  due  to  a  piston  travel  of  400 
to  420  feet  per  minute  (300  to  315  revolutions  for  8-inch  stroke)  less  a  3 
per  cent  allowance  for  slip,  is  reasonable  for  a  modern  engine;  older  types 
vary  considerably.  „ 

AUTOMOBILE  AND  MOTOR  DRIVEN  FIRE  ENGINES 

In  so  far  as  they  apply,  the  same  tests  are  desirable  for  automobile  and 
motor  driven  pumping  engines  as  for  steam  fire  engines;  the  same  methods 
for  measuring  the  water  discharged,  calibrating  (testing)  water  gauges,  calcu- 
lating the  actual  and  nominal  displacement  and  slip  of  the  pumps,  and  aver- 
aging the  net  water  pressure  may  be  used.  Valve  and  suction  tests  may  be 
made  in  much  the  same  manner  as  with  steam  fire  engines,  for  piston  or  rotary 
displacement  pumps;  for  centrifugal  or  rotary  gear  pumps,  they  will  not  apply. 

Owing  to  the  characteristics  of  the  gasoline  motor,  certain  modifications  and 
additional  tests  are  advisable.  The  capacity  test  should  be  run  longer  than  is 
usually  necessary  with  a  steam  engine.  It  is  suggested  that,  for  acceptance, 
engines  of  this  type  be  required  to  deliver  their  full  rated  capacity  at  120 
pounds  average  net  pressure  for  2  hours,  50  per  cent,  of  their  rated  capacity 
at  200  pounds  average  net  pressure  for  %  hour,  and  33  per  cent,  of  their 
rated  capacity  at  250  pounds  average  net  pressure  for  %  hour.  Tests  should 
preferably  be  made  when  drafting  with  about  10  feet  of  lift,  especially  if  the 
engine  may  be  required  to  draft  water  from  a  river,  canal  or  cistern  when  in 
service.  With  a  motor  driven  pump  the  high  pressure  test  recommended  on 
page  682  for  steam  engines  becomes  inadvisable.  The  %-hour  runs  at  high 
pressures  serve  to  show  the  action  of  motor  and  pump  under  high  pressures, 
and  whether  the  gear  ratios  are  properly  arranged.  The  tables  on  pages  692 
and  693  may  be  used  to  determine  the  length  of  hose  and  size  of  nozzles  to  be 
used  with  an  engine  of  any  given  or  guaranteed  capacity.  If  two  streams  are 
preferred  for  the  capacity  test,  the  tables  beginning  on  page  702  will  be  found 
convenient  in  laying  out  the  length  of  hose  and  size  of  nozzles  to  be  used. 
If  the  relief  valve  connection  between  discharge  and  suction  side  of  pump  is 


686  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

small  or  tortuous,  it  may  be  desirable  to  make  an  additional  test  with  a  i%- 
inch  shut-off  nozzle  on  a  line  of  about  300  feet  in  length,  and  with  the  engine 
pumping  at  120  pounds  pressure.  The  relief  valve  should  be  set  to  operate  at 
about  10  pounds  higher  than  the  pressure  to  be  carried,  and  when  the  nozzle 
is  closed  should  permit  the  engine  to  run  with  an  increase  of  not  over  30 
pounds  pressure.  The  motor  should  start  the  pump  readily  with  the  hand  relief 
valve  open  and  the  discharge  gates  closed. 

For  a  two-hour  run,  nozzle  and  engine  pressures  may  be  recorded  every 
5  minutes,  after  the  engine  is  brought  up  to  speed,  as  with  any  reliable  motor 
the  speed  and  pressure  will  be  nearly  uniform.  If  it  is  inconvenient  to  attach 
a  continuous  reading  counter  to  the  pump,  the  speed  may  be  taken  for  one 
minute,  during  each  five-minute  interval,  using  a  speed  counter.  On  some 
makes'  of  pumps  it  is  feasible  to  take  the  pump  speed  directly  from  the  end 
of  the  pump  shaft,  by  removing  a  toot  board  or  bracket;  on  other  makes, 
speed  may  be  taken  at  the  engine,  on  the  end  of  a  circulating  pump  shaft, 
timing  shaft,  or  possibly  on  the  fan  drive-wheel  shaft;  if  pump  speed  is 
obtained,  the  engine  speed  may  be  computed  from  the  gear  ratio.  IMotes  should 
be  made  of  any  faults  of  construction,  such  as:  Clutch  slipping,  absence  of 
locks  or  stops  for  control  levers,  inadequate  gasoline  or  lubricating  oil  supply, 
inaccessibility  of  parts,  magneto  and  sparking  circuit  not  waterproof,  etc.  The 
feed  of  lubricating  oil  is  especially  important  in  an  automobile  pump,  where 
many  parts  are  enclosed  or  not  quickly  accessible,  and  should  be  carefully 
looked  into  by  the  supervisor. 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


A.  L.  A.  M.  FORMULA  FOR  HORSE-POWER  OF  GASOLENE  MOTORS. 


Horse-Power  = 


Bore  X  Bore  x  No.  of  Cylinders 

2-5 
Example. — Six-cylinder  motor,  4^-inch  bore. 


REASONABLE   CAPACITIES   OF    MODERN   FIRE   ENGINES. 


Bore  of  Pumps, 

Capacity, 

Inches. 

Stroke,  Inches. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

6 

9 

1,100 

5% 

8  or  9 

1,000 

M 

8 

900 

5M 

8  or  9 

850 

5 

8 

750 

\K 

8 

700 

4% 

7  or  8 

600 

4H 

7  or  8 

550      • 

4 

7 

500 

RATED 

CAPACITY  OF  SILSBY 

ENGINES. 

Nominal  Displacement 

Maker's 

per  Revolution, 

Rated  Capacity, 

Size. 

Gallons. 

'  Gallons  per  Minute. 

Extra  First 

1.261 

1,000 

First 

1.141 

900 

Second 

0.952 

700 

Third 

0.804 

600 

Fourth 

0.675 

500 

Fifth 

o-5*3 

400 

688 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


LOG   OF    FIRE    ENGINE    TEST 


ENGINE:   Size. 
DIMENSIONS:   Cylinder 
ER:     T>jPe_ 


Pomp  Bore  ...„• 


Height-....*?.^-.''  ......... 


tttk 


2C 


43 


34 


/IS. 


<!'/ 


Jfl 


£2 


is 


£.2 


2235. 


I4.i> 


14$.. 


7K/f± 


.V* 


DISPLACEMENT  TEST 


CAPACITY    TEST 


H  OH     PRESSURE     TEST 


MECOIWTgP    R.PM       STEAM 


VALVET    TEST 


t£2 


jQllans  per  min 


...Corrp.crfirl  prp<i. 


.Gallon-i  per  min 


.Revaper  min 


SUCTION  CAGE 


Disptor.gmpnt 


_3^L 


Slippftrrffnt 


Figured 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


689 


CALCULATIONS  FOR  ENGINE  TESTS. 

(FOR  TEST  ON  OPPOSITE  PAGE.) 


DISPLACEMENT  TEST. 

AVERAGE  DISCHARGE. 
To  obtain  Average  Nozzle  Pressure; 
Sum  Column  "Min."  ..........  1,870 

Subtract  14  sum  of  first  and 
last  figures  ..................       85 

1,785 
Sum  Column  "J£"  ............  1,791 

"H"  ............  1,795 

"  "        "%"  ............  1,802 


Divide  by80  ..............  )  7,173 

Average  Nozzle  Reading.  .    89.7 
Correction  from   Gage   Test 
Sheet  ................  ........  +2.0 

Average  Nozzle  Pressure.    91.7 
From     Discharge    Tables    for    1%" 

Nozzle: 
92  Ibs.  gives  ............  751  gallons. 

90    •*        "  ...743        " 


1.7 Ibs.  gives.. 
Then  91. 7  Ibs.  = 


8 

6.8 

749.8  gallons. 


2.311 


AVERAGE  R.  P.  M. 

Counter  at  3.59 4,858 

"          "  3.39 7,870 

Divide  by  20 )  6,488 

Average  R.  P.  M.  =  324.4 
ACTUAL  DISPLACEMENT. 
Average  Discharge  _  749.8 
Average  R.  P.  M.    ~  324.4 

NOMINAL  DISPLACEMENT. 
From  Engine  Displacement  Table: 

W  Bore,  8"  Stroke 2.455 

!J4"PumpRod 085 

Nominal  Displacement  =  2.370 

SLIP,  IN  PER  CENT. 

Nom.  Displacem't  —  Act.  Displacem't 
Nominal  Displacement 
2.370  -  2.811  _ 

2.370          =     " 


CAPACITY    TEST. 
AVERAGE  R.  P.  M. 

Same  as  for  Displacement  Test  in 
this  case. 

GALLONS  PER  MINUTE. 
Same  as  for  Displacement  Test  in 
this  case. 

AVERAGES  OF  PRESSURES. 
Steam: 

Sum  of  Column 2,787 

H  of  first  and  last  figures 133 

Divide  by  20 )  2,654 

Average  Steam  Reading. .  132.7 
Water: 

Sum  of  Column 8,065 

^  of  first  and  last  figures. . .      142 . 5 

Divided  by20 )  2,922.5 

Average  Reading 146.1 

Correction  from  Test  of 
Gage  and  Test  Sheet,  for 
Gage  No.  119 —1.0 

Average  Water  Pressure     145. 1 
Suction: 

Sum  of  Column 746 

J^  of  first  and  last  figures 35 

Divide  by20 )  711 

Average  Reading 85.6 

Correction  from  Test  of  Gage  4-  1 .0 

Average  Suction  Pressure    36 . 6 
Net  Pressure: 

Average  water  pressure 145 . 1 

Average  suction  pressure. .        36.6 

Average  net  pressure. .       108.5 
PERCENTAGE  OF  CAPACITY  OBTAINED. 
Reasonable    capacity  of 
Pumps  based  on  400  Ft. 
Piston  Travel  per  Min.  =  700  gals. 

Obtained  at  Test 750  gals. 

or  107.V  of  Rating. 


690 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


ENGINE   DISPLACEMENT  TABLE. 


DOUBLE    PUMPS. 


PLUNGER  DISPLACEMENT. 
GALLONS  PER  REVOLUTION. 


PUMP  ROD  CORRECTION. 
GALLONS  PER  REVOLUTION. 


Bore 
of  Pump 
Inches. 

Stroke  in  Inches. 

789 

Diameter 
of 
Pump  Rods. 

Stroke  in  Inches. 

789 

3  1/2 

.166      1.333      1.500 

" 

0.047       0.054       0.061 

3  6/8 

.251      1.430      1.609 

1/16 

0.053       O.OGl        0.069 

3  3/4 

.339      1.530      1.721 

1/8 

0.060       0.069       0.078 

3  7/8 

.430      1.634      1.838 

3/16 

0.067       0.077       0.087 

4 

.523      1.740      1.958 

1/4 

0.074       0.085       0.096 

4  1/8 

.620      1.851      2.082 

5/16 

0.081       0.093       0.105 

4  1/4 

1.719      1.965      2.211 

3/8 

0.089       0.102       0.115 

4  3/8 

1.822      2.083      2.343 

7/16 

C.098       0.112       0.126 

4  1/2 

1.928      2.203      2.478 

1/2 

0.107       0.122       0.138 

'  4  5/8 

2.036      2.327      2.618 

9/16 

0.116       0.133       0.150 

4  3/4 

2.148      2.455      2.762 

5/8 

0.126       0.143       0.162 

4  7/8 

2.263      2.586      2.909 

11/16 

0.136       0.155       0.174 

5 

2.380     2.720      3.060 

1  3/4 

0.146       0.167       0.188 

5  1/8 

2.500      2.858      8.215 

5  1/4 

2.624      2.999      3.374 

5  3/8 

2.750      3.143      3.536 

Subtract  pump  rod  correction  from 

5  1/2 
6  5/8 
6  3/4 

2.880     3.291      3.702 
3.012     8.442      3.872 
3.147      3.597      4.047 

plunger  displacement  to  obtain  cor- 
rect displacement  of  engine. 
For  single-pump  engines,  use  one- 
half  of  result  obtained. 

5  7/8 

3.286      8.755     4.225 

For   single-acting   pumps,    do   not 

6 

8.427     3.917     4.407 

subtract  pump  rod  correction. 

Example:    Engine  with  5^-inch  pump,  9-inch  stroke  and  l^-inch  pump 
rod. 


From  Table  above  : 


Displacement  of  Plunger 
Correction  for  Rod 


3.374  gallons. 
0.138  gallons. 


Nominal  Displacement  =  3.236  gallons 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


691 


Below  is  given  a  table  for  use  when  engines  are  worked  at 
draft,  either  in  actual  service  or  in  testing.  A  study  of  it  will 
show  that  where  a  high  lift  is  necessary,  small  suctions  will 
restrict  the  capacity  of  an  engine ;  the  table  indicates  clearly  what 
sizes  are  necessary  under  different  conditions.  The  figures  are 
based  on  the  ability  of  the  pumps  to  maintain  a  vacuum  of  23 
inches. 


TABLE  SHOWING  MAXIMUM  LIFT,  IN  FEET,  WHEN 
DRAFTING  VARIOUS  QUANTITIES  OF  WATER 
WITH  A  FIRE  ENGINE  IN  GOOD  CONDITION. 


Quantity  of 
Water, 
Gallons  per 
Minute. 

MAXIMUM  LIFT  IN  FEET,  ENGINE  DRAFTING. 

3"  Suction. 

3V  Suction,    4"  Suction. 

4!"  Suction. 

5"  Suction. 

300 
400 
500 
600 

800 
000 
1,000 
1,100 
1,200 
1,30° 
1,300 

16 
8| 

20 
17 

7 

41 
length 

22* 

20 

24 
22* 
20* 

24*      | 

o 
24 

23         J 
21           g> 

19*       i 

iSi 

15 

1        6£ 

6 

of     sue 

17 
H| 

8 

IO           C 

.2 
17        1 

12         ^ 

el    ? 

7* 
4 

lion. 

95 

FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


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FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


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694  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 

These  tables  are  arranged  to  show  the  pressures  required  at  the  hydrant 
or  fire  engine,  while  stream  is  flowing,  to  maintain  nozzle  pressures  given 
in  the  first  columns,  through  various  lengths  of  2^-,  3-  and  3%-inch  rubber 
lined  hose  in  single  lines  and  two  lines  of  2%-inch  hose  siamesed. 

Nozzle  pressures  of  40  to  60  pounds  from  i%-  and  i%-inch  nozzles  will 
give  streams  which  may  be  classed  as  good  and  which  can  be  handled  without 
special  appliances;  for  deluge  sets,  turret  pipes,  etc.,  with  i%-inch  and  larger 
nozzles,  60  to  90  pounds  nozzle  pressure  is  desirable  for  effective  fire  fighting; 
the  height,  area  and  general  character  of  the  building  are  factors  in  deter- 
mining at  what  pressure  a  stream  may  be  considered  good,  as  well  as  in 
determining  whether  a  nozzle  is  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  an  effective 
stream,  nothing  less  than  i%-inch  being  considered  as  effective  for  outside 
work,  except  for  fires  in  small  buildings.  In  this  connection  it  should  be 
noted  that  a  i-  or  i%-inch  ring  tip  delivers  a  stream  about  %  inch  smaller 
than  the  diameter  of  the  tip. 

The  pressure  at  the  hydrant  or  fire  engine  is  that  indicated  by  a  gage 
attached  to  the  hydrant  or  fire  engine  while  the  stream  is  flowing.  The 
pressure  at  the  nozzle  is  that  indicated  by  a  Pitot  gage  held  in  the  stream. 

The  hydrant  (or  engine)  pressures  are  obtained  by  adding  to  the  nozzle 
pressure  the  friction  loss  in  the  hose,  and  also  the  small  additional  loss  in 
the  hydrant  outlet  or  engine  discharge. 

Friction  losses  in  hose  are  based  on  tests  of  best  quality  rubber-lined  fire 
hose  and  are  for  loo-foot  lengths  measured  without  pressure  applied.  Diam- 
eters of  hose,  as  measured  under  75  pounds  pressure,  assumed  as  the  average 
working  condition,  were  as  follows:  For  nominal  2^-inch,  2.575  or  about 
2  9/16  inches;  for  nominal  3-inch,  3.125  or  3%  inches;  for  nominal  31/£-inch, 
3.685  or  about  3  11/16  inches. 

The  smoothness  of  the  lining  has  a  very  considerable  effect  on  the  friction 
loss,  some  samples  tested  showing  losses  50  per  cent  in  excess  of  those  given. 
A  slight  variation  in  diameter  also  produces  a  marked  difference  in  friction 
loss;  in  the  case  of  2%-inch  hose,  a  variation  of  1/16  inch  in  diameter  will 
result  in  10  per  cent  difference  in  loss.  If  properly  beveled  2%-inch  couplings 
are  used  on  3-inch  hose,  the  loss  of  pressure  due  to  them  will  be  less  than 
5  per  cent  of  that  gained  by  the  use  of  the  larger  hose.  For  instance,  for 
a  flow  of  300  gallons  per  minute,  the  loss  in  2i^-inch  hose  will  be  about 
21  pounds,  in  3-inch  hose  with  3-inch  couplings  about  8  pounds,  and  in 
3-inch  with  2%-inch  couplings  about  8%  pounds. 

For  siamesed  lines,  an  allowance  was  made  for  the  loss  in  the  Siamese 
connection  and  for  20  feet  of  3%-inch  lead  hose. 

The  pressures  given  are  for  the  nozzle  at  the  same  elevation  as  the 
hydrant  or  engine  discharge  outlet.  Add  or  subtract  i  pound  to  the  pressure 
given  for  each  2  1^3  feet  difference  in  elevation.  The  arrangement  of  the 
table  allows  a  comparison  to  be  readily  made  of  the  results  obtainable  with 
3-inch  hose  and  siamesed  lines  against  single  lines  of  2%-inch  hose. 

An  approximate  formula  for  the  friction  loss  in  2^-inch  hose  is  as  follows: 

Pressure  loss  in  each  hundred  feet,  in  pounds  =  2  Q2  -j-  Q,  where  Q  is  tne 
quantity  in  gallons  divided  by  100. 

The  approximate  figure  for  the  friction  loss  in  other  sizes  for  the  same  quan- 
tity flowing  can  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  friction  loss  in  2^-inch  hose  by 
the  following  factors,  shown  in  bold  face  type: 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 

SINGLE  LINES 


695 


1.66 


3" 
2.6 


5.8 


4" 
11.0 


19.5 


5" 
32.0 


1-2%' 

6.1 


SIAMESED  LINES  OF  EQUAL  LENGTH 
2-2%"  3-3%"  2-3"  3-3" 

3.6  7.75  9.35  20.4 

t-2%"  6-2%"  4-3"  2-2%"  2-3" 

12.4  27.0  32.0  11.6  15.0 

RATING  OF  GASOLINE  MOTORS 

(Bore)*  X  Number  of  Cylinders 
=  H.  P. 


Horse  Power 


2Cyl. 

4Cyl. 

6Cyl. 

3 

7  2 

14  4 

21  6 

3J.  .. 

8.4 

16.9 

25.3 

3J.  .. 

9  8 

19  6 

29  4 

3J  

11.2 

22.5 

33.7 

4   

12  8 

25  6 

38  4 

4J 

14  5 

29  9 

43  4 

4i  

16  2 

32.4 

48.6 

4}.  .  . 

18  1 

36  1 

34  2 

5 

20  0 

40  0 

60  0 

5J.. 

22  1 

44  1 

66.2 

sf 

24  2 

48  4 

72  6 

5|  . 

26  5 

52.9 

79.4 

6               

28  8 

57  6 

85.4 

31.2 

62.5 

93.7 

gi 

33  8 

67  6 

101.4 

6} 

36  4 

72  9 

109.3 

7  ::::::::;  : 

39.2 

78.4 

117.6 

42  1 

84  1 

126.2 

7k.  . 

45.0 

90.0 

135.0 

7\. 

48.1 

96.1 

144.2 

8   

51.2 

102.4 

153.6 

696 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


TABLE  OF  NOZZLE  FACTORS 

For  use  in  obtaining  discharge  from  smooth  nozzle  larger 
than  those  given  in  tables  on  pages  704  and  705,  when  nozzle 
pressure  is  obtained  with  a  Pitot  gage. 

The  discharge  in  gallons  per  minute  is  equal  to  the  square 
root  of  the  pressure  multiplied  by  the  factor. 


FACTORS. 

Diameter  of  the 

nozzle  in  inches. 

For  Fresh 

Water. 

For  Salt  (sea)  Water. 

2 

118. 

96 

1*7  45 

2i 

150. 

56 

148.64 

2\ 

185. 

88 

183.50 

2f 

224 

9' 

222.05 

3 

267. 

66 

264  25 

3i 
3* 

364- 

13 
32 

310.13 
359  68 

3f 

418 

23 

412.90 

4 

475- 

85 

469  79 

4i 

537- 

19 

530.35 

4i 

602. 

25 

594.58 

4! 

671. 

02 

662.48 

5 

743- 

51 

734-03 

6 

i  ,070  . 

64 

1,057  oo 

For  any  size  nozzles,  the  discharge,  for  fresh   water,   can  be 
determined    by    the    following    formula: 
Gallons  per  minute  =  29.83  c  d2  Vp. 

Where  d  =:  diameter  of  nozzle  in  inches,  measured  to  i/iooo 
of  an  inch. 

p  =  pressure  recorded  on  Pitot  gage  in  pounds. 

c  =  a  constant,  varying  from  0.990  for  i-inch  nozzle  to  0.997 
for  6-inch  nozzle. 

For  ordinary  use,  the  formula  can  be  reduced  to: 
Gallons  per  minute  =  29.7  d2  Vp, 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


697 


FORMULA    FOR     OBTAINING    APPROXIMATE     NOZZLE 

OR    ENGINE    PRESSURES,   LENGTH    OF    LINE 

AND  SIZE  OF  NOZZLE  BEING  GIVEN. 

Engine  Pressure 

Nozzle  Pressure  in  pounds  =  — ^ ^ 

I.I  -|-  K  L 

Engine  Pressure  in  pounds  =  Nozzle  Pressure  (i.i  -f-  K  L). 
L  =  Number  of  5o-foot  lengths  of  hose. 

K  —  Constant,   varying  with  size  of  nozzle  and  hose.     See  Table 
following. 


Size  Nozzle,  1 
Inches. 

K  FOR 

Single   ' 
Line 
2^    Hose. 

Single 
Line 
3"  Hose. 

Single 
Line 
M'  Hose. 

Two 
2^"  Lines 
Siamesed. 

* 

Two 
3"  Lines 
Siamesed. 

* 

3  Lines 
W  Hose. 

I 

.105 

.038 

025 

.... 

I* 

.167 

.062 



•043 

.... 

.... 

4 

.248 

.092 

•°39 

066 

.023 

.028 

ij 

•341 

•137 

.059 

.006 

•034 

•043 

ij 

.505 

.I92 

.084 

•135 

.051 

.061 

i| 

.680 

.266 

•ii3 

.184 

.068 

.084 

it 

.907 

•351 

.152 

.242 

•093 

.115 

2 

1.550 

.605 

.250 

.418 

•157 

.190 

1 

*  Allowance  is  made  for  loss  in  deluge  set;  these  values  will 
also  give  approximately  correct  figures  for  turret  nozzles  and  water 
tower,  except  that  in  the  latter,  pressure  equal  to  0.434  times  the 
height  of  tower  must  be  subtracted  from  the  engine  pressure,  before 
solving  for  nozzle  pressure. 

[EDITOR'S  NOTE. — The  value  of  K  for  2I/2-'mch  hose  and  any  size 
nozzle  can  be  found  by  squaring  the  diameter  of  the  nozzle,  squaring 
the  answer  and  dividing  by  10.  For  any  other  size  of  hose  or  any 
siamesed  lines,  K  can  be  found  by  dividing  the  K  for  2j4-inch  hose 
by  the  Factor  for  the  other  hose  given  on  page  696.] 


698 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


EFFECTIVE  REACH  OF  FIRE  STREAMS. 

SHOWING  THE  DISTANCE  IN  FEET    FROM  THE  NOZZLE    AT 

WHICH  STREAMS   WILL  DO   EFFECTIVE  WORK  WITH   A 

MODERATE  WIND  BLOWING.    WITH  A  STRONG  WIND 

THE  REACH  is  GREATLY  REDUCED., 


»•» 

SIZE  OF  NOZZLE. 

i-Inch. 

ij-lnch 

ij-lnch. 

ij-Inch. 

i^-Inch. 

^H 

rt 

Si 

zi 

o£ 

t«       . 

ej 

gi 

ii 

$i 

li 

oi 

.2    . 
C| 

3 

,-t* 

X'~ 

-fa 

5 

*—  ^ 

"«* 

—fa 

rt  j- 

-£ 

"rtftt, 

£ 

Is 

t  2 

O    rt 

Is 

is 

J* 

II 

§  **" 

N    C 

t,  a 

|f 

II 

%S 

.So- 
li 

§8 

"is 

1* 

H 

orizoni 
tance, 

B 

»" 

a 

K 

K 

20 

35 

37 

36 

38 

36 

~39" 

~& 

40 

37 

~42~ 

25 

43 

42 

44 

44 

45 

46 

45 

47 

46 

49 

30 

5i 

47 

52 

50 

52 

52 

53 

54 

54 

56 

35 

58 

5i 

59 

54 

59 

58 

60 

59 

62 

62 

40 

64 

55 

65 

59 

65 

62 

66 

64 

69 

66 

45 

69 

58 

70 

63 

70 

66 

72 

68 

74 

7i 

50 

73 

61 

75 

66 

75 

69 

77 

72 

79 

75 

55 

76 

64 

79 

69 

80 

72 

81 

75 

83 

78 

60 

79 

67 

83 

72 

84 

75 

85 

77 

87 

80 

65 

82 

70 

86 

75 

87 

78 

88 

79 

90 

82 

:o 

85 

72 

88 

77 

90 

80 

9' 

82 

92 

84 

75 

87 

74 

90 

79 

92 

82 

93 

84 

94 

86 

80 

89 

76 

92 

81 

94 

84 

95 

86 

96 

88 

85 

9i 

78 

94 

83 

96 

87 

97 

88 

98 

90 

90 

92 

80 

96 

85 

98 

89 

99 

90 

00 

9i 

NOTE. — Nozzle  pressures  are  as  indicated  by  Pitot 
vertical  distances  are  based  on  experiments  by  Mr.  John 
Am.  boc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XXI. 


tube.     The  horizontal  and 
R.  Freeman,  Transactions, 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


699 


FRICTION  LOSS  IN  FIRE  HOSE. 

BASED  ON  TESTS  OF  BEST  QUALITY  RUBBER  LINED  FIRE  HOSE.* 


Flow,  Gallons  per 
Minute. 

PRESSURE  Loss  IN  EACH 
loo  FEET  OF  HOSE, 
POUNDS  PER  SQ.  INCH. 

Flow,  Gallons  per 
Minute. 

PRESSURE  Loss  IN 
EACH  loo  FEET  OF 
HOSE,  POUNDS  PER 
SQ.  INCH. 

2*- 
Hose. 

Hose. 

3*" 
Hose. 

2  Lines  of 

2|" 

Siamesed. 

Hose. 

3V 

Hose. 

2  Lines  of 

2£" 

Siamesed. 

140 

5-2 

2.0 

0.9 

1.4 

525 

23-2 

10.5 

16.6 

160 

6.6 

2.6 

I  .2 

1.9 

55o 

25.2 

11.4 

18.1 

1  80 

8-3 

3-2 

i-5 

2-3 

575 

27.5 

12.4 

19.0 

200 

10.  I 

3-9 

1.8 

2.8 

600 

29.9 

13-4 

21.2 

220 

12.0 

4.2 

2.  I 

3-3 

625 

32.0 

14.4 

23.0 

240 

T4.I 

5-4 

2.5 

3-9 

650 

34-5 

15  5 

24.8 

260 

I6.4 

6.3 

2.9 

4-5 

675 

37-0 

16.6 

26.5 

280 

I8.7 

7-2 

3-3 

5.2 

700 

39-5 

17.7 

28.3 

300 

21  .2 

8.2 

3-7 

5-9 

725 

42-3 

18.9 

30.2 

320 

23.8 

93 

4.2 

6.6 

750 

45.0 

20.1 

32-2 

340 

26.9 

10.5 

4-7 

7-4 

775 

47-8 

21.4 

34-2 

360 

30.0 

11.5 

5-2 

8.3 

800 

50.5 

22.7 

36.2 

380 

33-o 

12.8 

5-8 

9-2 

825 

53-5 

24.0 

38.4 

400 

36.2 

14.1 

6-3 

10.  I 

850 

56.5 

25.4 

40.7 

425 

40.8 

15-7 

7.0 

H-3 

875 

59-7 

26.8 

43-1 

450 

45.2 

17-5 

7-9 

12.5 

900 

63.0 

28.2 

45.2 

475 

50.0 

19-3 

8-7 

13.8 

1,000 

76.5 

34-3 

55-o 

300 

55.0 

21.2 

9-5 

15.2 

1,100 
s 

91-5 

41.0 

65.5 

*Rough  rubber  lining  is  liable  to  increase  the  losses  given  in  the  table  as 
much  as  so  per  cent. 


700 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


DISCHARGE  TABLE    FOR   SMOOTH   NOZZLES. 


NOZZLE  PRESSURE  MEASURED  BY  PITOT  GAGE. 


Nozzle 
Pressure 
in  Ibs.  per 
sq.  inch. 

NOZZLE  DIAM  IN  INCHES. 

i   iya  1*4  1%  iy2 

Nozzle 
Pressure 
in  Ibs.  per 
sq.  inch. 

NOZZLE  DIAM.  IN 
1    1*6   1*4 

INCHES. 

1** 

Gallons 

per  minute. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

6 

66 

84 

103 

125 

149 

60 

229 

290 

357 

434 

51? 

6 

72 

92 

113 

137 

163 

62 

233 

295 

363 

441 

525 

7 

78 

99 

122 

148 

176 

64 

237 

299 

369 

448 

531} 

8 

84 

106 

131 

158 

188 

66 

240 

804 

375 

455 

54^ 

9 

89 

112 

139 

168 

200 

68 

244 

808 

881 

462 

550 

10 

93 

118 

146 

177 

211 

70 

247 

313 

886 

469 

558 

12 

102 

130 

160 

194 

231 

72 

251 

318 

391 

475 

566 

14 

110 

140 

173 

210 

£49 

74 

254 

322 

897 

482 

571 

16 

118 

150 

185 

224 

267 

76 

258 

326 

402 

488 

5S2 

18 

125 

159 

196 

237 

283 

78 

261 

330 

407 

494 

589 

20 

132 

167 

206 

250 

298 

80 

264 

335 

413 

500 

596 

22 

139 

li'5 

216 

263 

313 

82 

268 

339 

418 

507 

G04 

24 

145 

183 

226 

275 

327 

84 

271 

348 

423 

513 

611 

26 

151 

191 

235 

286 

840 

86 

274 

347 

428 

519 

616 

28 

157 

198 

244 

297 

853 

88 

277 

351 

433 

525 

626 

80 

162 

205 

253 

307 

3C5 

90 

280 

355 

438 

531 

633 

82 

167 

212 

261 

317 

377 

92 

283 

359 

443 

537 

G40 

84 

172 

218 

269 

827 

889 

94 

286 

363 

447 

543 

647 

86 

177 

224 

277 

336 

400 

96 

289 

367 

452 

549 

054 

88 

182 

231 

285 

345 

411 

98 

292 

870 

456 

554 

660 

40 

187 

237 

292 

854 

422 

100 

295 

374 

461 

560 

607 

42 

192 

243 

299 

863 

432 

105 

303 

383 

473 

574 

683 

44 

196 

248 

806 

872 

442 

110 

810 

892 

484 

588 

699 

46 

200 

254 

813 

380 

452 

115 

317 

401 

495 

600 

715 

48 

205 

259 

320 

388 

462 

120 

824 

410 

505 

613 

730 

50 

209 

265 

326 

896 

472 

125 

381 

418 

516 

626 

745 

62 

213 

270 

333 

404 

481 

130 

337 

427 

526 

638 

760 

64 

217 

275 

839 

412 

490 

135 

843 

485 

536 

650 

775 

56 

221 

280 

345 

419 

499 

140 

850 

443 

546 

662 

789 

68 

225 

285 

351 

426 

508 

145 

356 

450 

556 

674 

803 

60 

229 

290 

357 

484 

517 

150 

362 

458 

565 

686 

817 

Assumed  coefficient  of  discharge  =    .99       .99      .99  .99%    -99  V2 

NOTE. — Coefficients    of    discharge    are    based    on    experiments    by    Mr.    John'  R. 
Freeman,  Transactions  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.f  Vols.  XXI  and  XXIV, 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


701 


DISCHARGE  TABLE   FOR   SMOOTH  NOZZLES. 


NOZZLE  PRESSURE  MEASURED  BY  PITOT  GAGE. 


NOZZLE  DIAM.  IN  INCHES. 

NOZZLE  DIASI.  IN 

INCHES. 

Nozzle 

l*Wa 

iJl^ 

1^6 

2 

Ol/j 

Nozzle 

iJtX 

1^/6 

2 

O|Z 

Pressure 

Pressure 

in  Ibs.  per 
sq.  inch. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

in  libs,  per 
sq.  inch. 

Gallons  per  Minute. 

5 

175 

203 

234 

263 

337 

60 

607 

704 

810 

920 

1167 

6 

192 

223 

256 

292 

369 

62 

617 

716 

823 

936 

1187 

7 

207 

241 

277 

315 

899 

64 

627 

727 

836 

951 

1206 

8 

222 

257 

296 

336 

427 

66 

636 

788 

850 

965 

1224 

9 

235 

273 

314 

857 

452 

68 

646 

750 

862 

980 

1242 

10 

248 

288 

330 

876 

477 

70 

655 

761 

875 

994 

1260 

12 

271 

315 

362 

412 

522 

72 

665 

771 

887 

1008 

1278 

14 

293 

340 

891 

445 

564 

74 

674 

782 

900 

1028 

1296 

16 

313 

364 

418 

475 

603 

76 

683 

792 

911 

1036 

1813 

18 

332 

386 

444 

504 

640 

78 

692 

803 

924 

1050 

1330 

20 

850 

407 

468 

532 

674 

80 

700 

813 

935 

1068 

1347 

22 

867 

427 

490 

557 

707 

82 

709 

823 

946 

1076 

1864 

24 

884 

446 

512 

582 

789 

84 

718 

833 

959 

1089 

1380 

26 

400 

464 

533 

606 

769 

86 

726 

848 

970 

1102 

1396 

28 

415 

481 

554 

629 

799 

88 

735 

853 

981 

1115 

1412 

80 

429 

498 

572 

651 

826 

90 

743 

862 

992 

1128 

1429 

82 

443 

514 

591 

673 

854 

92 

751 

872 

1002 

1140 

1445 

84 

457 

530 

610 

693 

880 

94 

759 

881 

1012 

1152 

1460 

36 

470 

546 

627 

713 

905 

96 

767 

890 

1022 

1164 

1476 

38 

483 

561 

645 

733 

930 

98 

775 

900 

1032 

1176 

1491 

40 

496 

575 

661 

752 

954 

100 

788 

909 

1043 

1189 

1506 

42 

508 

589 

678 

770 

978 

105 

803 

932 

1070 

1218 

1542 

44 

520 

603 

694 

788 

1000 

110 

822 

954 

1095 

1247 

1570 

46 

531 

617 

710 

806 

1021 

115 

840 

975 

1120 

1275 

i6r. 

48 

543 

630 

725 

824 

1048 

120 

858 

996 

1144 

1303 

1649 

60 

554 

643 

740 

841 

1065 

125 

876 

1016 

1168 

1329 

1683 

52 

565 

656 

754 

857 

1087 

130 

893 

1036 

1191 

1356 

171? 

64 

576 

668 

769 

to 

1108 

135 

910 

1056 

1213 

1382 

1750 

66 

586 

680 

782 

889 

1129 

110 

927 

1076 

1235 

1407 

1780 

58 

590 

692 

796 

905 

1149 

145 

944 

1095 

1257 

1432 

1812 

CO 

C07 

704 

810 

920 

1168 

150 

960 

1114 

1279 

1456 

1843 

Assumed  coefficient  of  discharge 


=    .995    .995    .996    .997    .997 


702 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


i-lNCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 


Nozzle  Pressure 
Indicated  by 
Pitot  Gage. 

en 

C 

^o 

y 

s 

PRESSURES  REQUIRED  AT  HYDRANT  OR 
MAINTAIN  NOZZLE  PRESSURES  GIVEN 
LENGTHS  OF  BEST  QUALITY 

Single  2^-inch  Lines. 

100 

Feet. 

200 

Feet. 

300 

Feet. 

400 
Feet. 

500 
Feet. 

600 
Feet. 

700 

Feet 

800 

Feet, 

20 

132 

25 

30 

35 

39 

44 

49 

53 

58 

25 

148 

31 

37 

43 

49 

55 

60 

66 

72 

30 

162 

38 

44 

5i 

58 

65 

72 

78 

85 

35 

175 

44 

52 

59 

67 

75 

83 

9i 

98 

40 

187 

50 

59 

68 

77 

86 

94 

103 

1  12 

45 

198 

56 

66 

76 

86 

96 

106 

H5 

125 

50 

209 

62 

73 

84 

95 

1  06 

117 

128 

139 

55 

219 

68 

80 

92 

104 

116 

128 

140 

152 

60 

229 

75 

88 

101 

114 

127 

140 

153 

1  66 

65 

238 

81 

95 

109 

123 

137 

151 

165 

179 

70 

247 

87 

102 

117 

132 

147 

162 

177 

192 

75 

256 

93 

109 

125 

141 

157 

173 

189 

205 

80 

264 

99 

116 

133 

150 

167 

183 

200 

217 

85 

272 

105 

123 

141 

159- 

177 

195 

212 

230 

90 

280 

in 

130 

149 

167 

1  86 

205 

224 

243 

95 

287 

117 

137 

157 

177 

196 

216 

236 

256 

100 

295 

123 

144 

165 

185 

206 

227 

247 

268 

FIKK  STREAM  TABLES 


703 


2  i  a-    AND  3-INCH    HOSE. 


FIRE  ENGINE,  WHILE  STREAM  is  FLOWING,  TO 
IN     FIRST    COLUMN,    THROUGH    VARIOUS 
2\-  AND  3-iNCH  RUBBER  LINED  HOSE. 

§  >» 

a;  T3   rt 
£  -^  ^ 

Single  3-inch  Lines. 

Two  2|-inch 
Lines  Siamesed. 

1,000 

1,200 

800 

1,000 

1,200 

1,500 

1,000 

1,500 

2.000 

&~ 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

68 

77 

35 

39 

42 

48 

33 

'40 

46 

20 

84 

95 

43 

48 

52 

59 

4i 

49 

.57 

25 

99 

112 

52 

57 

62 

70 

49 

59 

68 

30 

114 

130 

60 

66 

72 

81 

57 

68 

79 

35 

130 

148 

68 

75 

82 

92 

65 

78 

90 

40 

145 

165 

77 

84 

92 

103 

72 

86 

99 

45 

160 

182 

85 

93 

102 

114 

80 

95 

no 

50 

* 

175 

199 

93 

102 

112 

125 

88 

105 

121 

55 

192 

218 

102 

112 

122 

137 

96 

114 

132 

60 

207 

235 

no 

121 

I3I 

148 

103 

122 

141 

65 

222 

252 

118 

130 

141 

159 

in 

132 

152 

70 

237 

269 

127 

139 

151 

170 

120 

142 

164 

75 

25I 

285 

135 

148 

161 

181 

128 

151 

175 

80 

266 

302 

143 

I56 

170 

191 

135 

159 

184 

85 

280 

I5i 

I65 

1  80 

202 

143 

I69 

195 

90 

295 

158 

173 

189 

211 

150 

177 

204 

95 

310 

167 

I83 

199 

223 

157 

186" 

215 

100 

704 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


I/8-INCH   SMOOTH  NOZZLE.- 


%  s 

NJ      O 

Discharge,  Gallons 
per  Minute. 

PRESSURES  REQUIRED  AT  HYDRANT  OR  FIRE 
NOZZLE  PRESSURES  GIVEN  IN  FIRST 
QUALITY  2|-  AND 

Single  2|-inch  Lines. 

. 

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42 

56 

71 

78 

107 

25 

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35 

44 

53 

62 

71 

79 

88 

97 

115 

'33 

30 

205 

42 

52 

63 

73 

84 

95 

105 

116 

137 

I58 

35 

221 

49 

61 

73 

85 

97 

IIO 

122 

134 

158 

I83 

40 

2J7 

55 

69 

83 

96 

no 

124 

I38 

i5i 

179 

206 

45 

251 

62 

77 

93 

1  08 

123 

139 

154 

169 

200 

230 

50 

265 

69 

86 

103 

120 

137 

154 

171 

1  88 

222 

256 

55 

277 

76 

94 

112 

131 

149 

1  68 

1  86 

204 

241 

278 

60 

290 

83 

103 

123 

143 

163 

183 

203 

223 

263 

304 

65 

V3oi 

89 

in 

132 

154 

175 

197 

218 

240 

283 

326 

70 

313 

96 

119 

142 

I65 

1  88 

211 

234 

257 

303 



75 

80 
85 
00 
05 
100 

324 

335 
'345 
355 
365 
374 

103 

IIO 

116 
123 

136 

128 
136 
144 
152 
160 
1  68 

'52 
162 
171 

181 
191 

201 

177 

1  88 
199 

210 

222 
233 

202 
2I5 

226 
240 
252 
265 

227 
241 

254 
269 
283 
297 

252 
267 
282 
298 

329 

276 
327 

325 



.. 



FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


705 


a    1/2=  AND   3-INCH   HOSE. 


ENGINE,  WHILE  STREAM  is  FLOWING,  TO  MAINTAIN 
COLUMN,  THROUGH  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  OF  BEST 
3-iNCH  RUBBER  LINED  HOSE. 

3  O 

t—  i  *O 
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A 

l| 
32 

&£ 

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53 

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67 

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87 

45 

50 

55 

63 

70 

25 

47 

55 

63 

7i 

79 

91 

103 

53 

59 

65 

74 

82 

30 

55 

65 

74 

83 

93 

107 

121 

62 

69 

76 

86 

1  96 

35 

63 

73 

84 

95 

105 

121 

137 

70 

78 

86 

97 

108 

40 

70 

82 

94 

106 

118 

135 

153 

79 

87 

95 

108 

121 

45 

78 

9i 

104 

H7 

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ISO 

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88 

98 

107 

121 

135 

50 

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142 

164 

I85 

96 

107 

117 

I32 

147 

55 

93 

109 

124 

139 

155 

I78 

201 

105 

116 

127 

H3 

160 

60 

101 

117 

134 

I5i 

167 

I92 

217 

114 

126 

138 

I56 

174 

65 

108 

126 

144 

162 

i  So 

206 

233 

122 

135 

148 

I67 

1  86 

70 

III 

135 

154 

173 

192 

221 

249 

I30 

144 

157 

I78 

198 

75 

124 

144 

165 

185 

206 

236 

267 

I38 

153 

167 

l89 

210 

80 

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153 

174 

195 

217 

249 

28l 

147 

163 

178 

201 

224 

85 

139 

161 

184 

207 

229 

263 

297 

I56 

172 

1  88 

212 

237 

90 

146 

170 

194 

218 

242 

277 

313 

I64 

181 

198 

224 

249 

95 

*54 

178 

203 

228 

253 

200 



172 

190 

208 

235 

26l 

100 

706 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


1/4-INCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 


Nozzle  Pressure  In- 
dicated by  Pitot 
Gage. 

V) 

jD 
O  | 

ffc 

•§  o, 

(/) 

5 

PRESSURES  REQUIRED  AT  HYDRANT  OR  FIRE 
PRESSURES  GIVEN  IN  FIRST  COLUMN, 

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. 

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85 

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149 

25 

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53 

66 

79 

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131 

I58 

184 

30 

253 

48 

63 

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126 

142 

157 

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220 

35 

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109 

127 

H5 

163 

181 

217 

253 

40 

292 

63 

83 

104 

124 

144 

I65 

185 

206 

246 

287 

45 

309 

70 

93 

116 

138 

161 

183 

206 

229 

274 

319 

50 

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357 
372 
386 

399 
4i3 
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438 
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152 

172 
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176 
188 

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248 

167 
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224 
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254 

269 

295 

194 

211 

244 

279 

295 
312 
327 

222 
241 
260 
278 
297 

249 
270 

312 
333 

276 

300 
323 

330 



FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


707 


a  i/a-  AND  3-INCH  HOSE. 


ENGINE,  WHILE  STREAM  is  FLOWING,  TO  MAINTAIN  NOZZLE 

THROUGH  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  OF  BEST  QUALITY 

RUBBER  LINED  HOSE. 

^  Nozzle  Pressure  In- 
0  dicated  by  Pitot  Gage.  | 

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37 

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102 

117 

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62 

70 

80 

91 

25 

56 

68 

81 

93 

105 

123 

142 

57 

66 

74 

83 

96 

109 

80 

65 

79 

92 

106 

120 

141 

161 

66 

76 

86 

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125 

35 

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I36 

159 

183 

75 

87 

99 

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127 

144 

40 

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117 

135 

152 

I78 

204 

84 

96 

109 

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140 

158 

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226 

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107 

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155 

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169 

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178 

201 

235 

270 

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128 

144 

160 

185 

2  IP 

60 

118 

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167 

192 

217 

254 

291 

120 

137 

155 

173 

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C5 

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180 

206 

233 

272 



I29 

147 

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185 

213 

241 

70 

136 

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192 

220 

248 

290 



137 

157 

177 

197 

227 

257 

75 

153 
162 

170 
179 

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195 
205 
215 

205 
216 
228 
240 
252 

235 

247 
26l 
275 

288 

265 
279 
295 

.... 

.... 

147 
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173 
182 

169 
179 
189 
198 
208 

190 

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213 

223 

235 

212 
224 

237 
248 
26l 

244 

258 

273 
286 
300 

276 
292 

323 

80 
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100 

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708 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


3/8-INCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 


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PRESSURES  REQUIRED  AT  HYDRANT  OR  FIRE 

£  of 

0 

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FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


709 


a  i/a-  AND  3-INCH  HOSE. 


ENGINE,  WHILE  STREAM  is  FLOWING,  TO  MAINTAIN 
COLUMN,  THROUGH  VARIOUS  LENGTHS  OF  BEST 

1S$ 

3-iNCH  RUBBER  LINED  HOSE. 

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153 
162 
170 
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250 
264 

277 
291 

236 
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298 
313 
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317 

70 
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FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


i  1/2-INCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 


1 

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c 
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as 

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PRESSURES    REQUIRED    AT    HYDRANT  OR   FIRE 
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214 
225 
237 

226 
240 
254 
267 
28l 

262 
278 
294 
3°9 

297 
316 



.... 

80 
85 
90 
95 
100 



722 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


I  3/4-INCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 3  1/2-INCH  HOSE. 


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PRESSURES  REQUIRED  AT  HYDRANT  OR 
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GIVEN    IN   FIRST  COLUMN,    THROUGH 
VARIOUS  LENGTHS   OF  BEST  QUALITY 
3J-INCH  RUBBER  LINED  HOSE. 

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59 

67 

75 

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107 

123 

25 

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498 

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538 

48 

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81 

92 

103 

124 

146 

1  68 

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40 

575 

55 

67 

80 

92 

105 

117 

142 

167 

191 

40 

45 

609 

62 

75 

89 

103 

117 

131 

158 

1  86 

213 

45 

60 

643 

68 

84 

99 

US 

130 

145 

176 

206 

237 

50 

65 

674 

75 

92 

109 

125 

142 

159 

192 

225 

259 

55 

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82 

100 

118 

136 

154 

172 

208 

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280 

60 

65 

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89 

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1  66 

1  86 

224 

263 

302 

65 

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761 

95 

116 

137 

158 

178 

199 

241 

282 

70 

75 

787 

102 

124 

146 

1  68 

190 

212 

257 

301 

75 

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156 

179 

203 

226 

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135 

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222 

251 

280 

100 

FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


723 


2-INCH  SMOOTH  NOZZLE.— 3  1/2-INCH  HOSE. 


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724 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


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FIRE  STREAM  TABLES  725 


METHODS  OF  DETERMINING  APPROXIMATE  NOZZLE 

OR   ENGINE   PRESSURES   WITH   HOSE   LINES 

MADE  UP  OF  TWO  DIFFERENT  SIZES  OF 

HOSE,  SIAMESED  LINES  OR  A  SINGLE 

LINE  BRANCHING  INTO  TWO 

A  fairly  common  form  of  example  in  hose  layouts  is  one  involv- 
ing siamesed  lines,  or  a  line  made  up  of  two  different  sizes  of 
hose.  These  can  be  worked  easiest  by  reducing  the  siamesed  lines, 
or  the  different  sizes  of  hose  all  to  an  equivalent  length  of  2^-inch 
hose  that  is,  to  a  length  of  2^-inch  hose  which  will  give  the  same 
total  friction  loss  as  the  siamesed  line  or  the  combined  lines.  To 
enable  this  to  be  done,  the  factors  on  page  695,  based  upon  the 
relative  friction  loss  of  the  different  sizes  and  combination  of  hose, 
can  be  used. 

For  an  example  indicating  the  use  of  the  factors :  From  a  high 
pressure  hydrant,  one  4OO-foot  line  of  2^-inch  hose  and  one  400- 
foot  line  of  3-inch  hose  is  siamesed  into  a  6oo-foot  line  of  3-inch 
hose,  which  connects  to  a  4OO-foot  line  of  2^-inch  hose  having  a 
1 54 -inch  tip;  what  pressure  will  be  necessary  at  the  hydrant  to  give 
50  pounds  nozzle  pressure? 

The  factor  for  siamesed  lines  of  3-inch  and  2^2-inch  is  6.1;  then 
the  length  of  2^-inch  hose  equivalent  to  the  400  feet  of  siamesed 

400 
lines  is  — ,  or  65  feet. 

6.1 
The  factor  for  3-inch  hose  is  2.6;  then  the  length  of  2^-inch  hose 

600 
equivalent  to  the  600  feet  of  3-inch  is   — ,  or  230  feet. 

2.6 

Therefore  the  total  equivalent  2j^-inch  line  is  65  plus  230  plus 
400  feet,  or  695  feet,  which  can  be  assumed  as  14  lengths. 

Using  the  constant  (K)  for  i%-inch  nozzle,  as  given  on  page  697, 
we  can  solve  the  problem  with  ease,  as  follows : 

Engine  Pressure  =  50  (i.i  +  .246  X  14) 
=  50(1.1+347) 
=  50  X  4-57 
=  228  pounds 

For  siamesed  lines  of  hose  of  same  diameter,  but  of  different 
length,  the  following  rules  may  be  used: 

Siamesed  line,  one  twice  as  long  as  the  other,  equal  one  line 
one-third  the  length  of  the  shortest. 

Example:     One  line  300  feet  and  one  line  600  feet  siamesed, 
are  equal  to  one  line  100  feet  long. 


726  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Siamesed  lines,  one  three  times  as  long  as  the  other,  equal 
one  line  0.4  the  length  of  the  shortest. 

Example:     One  line  500  feet  and  one  line  1,500  feet  siamesed 
are  equal  to  one  line  0.4  X  500,  or  200  feet  long. 
For  the  problem  involving  a  single  line  of  hose  branching  into 
two  lines,  each  with  a  separate  nozzle,  it  is  necessary  to  find  the 
length  of  a  single  line  having  the  same  friction  loss  as  the  two 
parallel  lines,  and  the  size  of  a  single  nozzle,  equivalent  to  the  two 
on  the  lines  in  question.    Equivalent  nozzle  sizes  may  be  taken  from 
the  table  on  page  727  and  the  equivalent  length  of  a  single  line  may 
be  found  by  the  use  of  the  factors  given  in  the  preceding  problem. 

It  is  'not  always  possible  to  find  a  nozzle  size,  for  use  in  the 
formula  on  page  697,  which  is  the  exact  equivalent  of  two  or  more 
smaller  nozzles,  but  a  close  approximation  can  usually  be  made  or 
a  value  of  K  for  an  odd  size  can  be  calculated  as  given  at  the 
bottom  of  page  697. 

For  an  example  indicating  the  method  of  working  out  this  prob- 
lem, consider  a  single .  5oo-foot  line  of  3-inch  hose  branching  into 
two  3oo-foot  lines  of  2  ^2-inch  hose,  each  with  a  i^-inch  nozzle. 
Assume  a  pressure  of  150  pounds  at  the  engine  and  determine  the 
nozzle  pressure. 

Two    i y$ -inch    nozzles    are   approximately   the   equivalent   of 
one  i^-inch  nozzle. 
The  factor  of  3-inch  hose  is  2.6,  and  the  length  of  2^-inch 

500 
hose  equivalent  to  500  feet  of  3-inch  is    —  or  192  feet. 

2.6 

The   factor  for  two  lines   of  2^-inch  hose  is  3.6,   and  the 
length    of    a    single    line    of    2^-inch   hose    equivalent   to    two 

300 
300-foot  lines  is  —   or  83  feet. 

3-6 

This  combination  of  hose  and  nozzles  is,  therefore,  the  equivalent, 
that  is,  will  deliver  about  the  same  amount  of  water,  as  one  i^-inch 
nozzle  on  the  end  of  a  line  of  2^2-inch  hose,  1924-83  feet  long  = 
275  feet.  Using  the  formula  on  page  700,  we  have  then: 

150 
Nozzle  Pressure  =  -  =  31  pounds 

1. 1 +5-5X0.68 

By  using  the  table  on  page  700  to  determine  the  discharge  at  31 
pounds  nozzle  pressure  through  a  i^-inch  nozzle,  and  table  on  page 
699  to  determine  the  friction  loss  in  500  feet  of  3-inch  hose  and  two 
3OO-foot  lines  of  2^-inch  hose,  we  find  that  the  solution  is  not 
exactly  correct,  since  the  31  pounds  nozzle  pressure  in  the  problem 
above  will  actually  require,  allowing  about  3  pounds  loss  at  the 
engine  outlet  and  the  same  at  the  Y  branch,  only  146  pounds 
engine  pressure.  The  error  in  this  case  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  two  i^-inch  nozzles  are  not  quite  the  equivalent  of  one  i-Hr 
inch.  The  solution  of  the  problem  given  above  is,  however,  suffi- 
ciently close  for  all  practical  purposes. 


FIRE  STREAM  TABLES 


727 


APPROXIMATE  COMPARISON  OF  NOZZLES 


Number  of  Nozzles  I 

1 

2 

5-8' 

3-4" 

7-8' 

1' 

1  1-8' 

1  1-4' 

1  3-8' 

1  1-2' 

1  5-8' 

1  3-4' 

1  7-8' 

2* 

2ii' 

Jj 

1ft'' 

H' 

If 

If 

If 

lit' 

2f 

2ft' 

2f 

2f 

3 

iiV 

ift' 

H' 

H' 

nr 

2iV 

28' 

2f 

2[i' 

3' 

3f 

3f 

4 

ir 

if 

ir 

2' 

2J' 

2f 

2f 

3' 

3f 

3f 

3f 

4' 

5 

ir 

Ui' 

2' 

2f 

2f 

2f 

3ft" 

3f 

3f 

sir 

4ft' 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

H' 

Hi' 

2f 

2/,' 

2f 

3A' 

31' 

3}f 

4' 

if 

2' 

2tV 

2f 

3' 

3t56' 

3f 

4' 

if 

2f 

2»' 

2}|' 

3A' 

3ft  ' 

3f 

if 

2f 

2f 

3* 

31' 

3f 

4f 

2' 

2f 

2}' 

3TV 

3r\r 

4' 





11 

2ft' 

24' 

2}' 

3T85" 

3f 

lii"'" 

12 

2ft' 

2f 

3' 

sr 

Method  of  Using. — To  find  which  size  nozzle  equals  two  i%-inch  nozzles:  On 
the  line  marked  2,  the  size  nozzle  (i%)  in  the  column  i%"  will  be  the 
corresponding  size. 


INSPECTION  REPORTS 

Below  is  presented  an  address  by  F.  C.  White,  Executive  Assist- 
ant of  the  New  York  Underwriters  Agency,  before  the  Fire  Un- 
derwriters Uniformity  Association,  which  deals  with  the  subject 
in  a  practical  manner,  with  particular  reference  to  what  the  Fire 
Insurance  Companies  expect  a  reoort  to  cover. 

A  Complex  Subject.— The  subject,  "What  the  Companies  Ex- 
pect from  Inspection  Reports,"  is  so  important,  and  in  a  sense 
so  complex,  that  while  I  was  glad  to  accept  the  invitation  of  your 
president  to  speak  on  it,  believing  that  by  so  doing  I  might  assist 
in  the  good  work  you  are  undertaking,  I  approached  the  task  with 
considerable  diffidence. 

In  preparing  the  subject  matter  for  this  paper  I  have  endeavored 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  all  companies'  needs  in  the  matter  of 
inspection  reports,  based  upon  such  data  as  I  have  been  able  to 
gather  in  the  limited  time  at  my  disposal,  rather  than  to  confine 
myself  to  an  expression  of  purely  personal  convictions. 

One  point  respecting  inspection  reports  upbn  which  all  com- 
panies are  agreed  is  the  urgent  need  of  uniformity.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  phase  of  the  subject  under  consideration  is  sufficient 
to  warrant  serious  thought,  and  leads  me  to  devote  some  time  to 
it  before  taking  up  other  details. 

Varying  Reports  Costly.— Lack  of  uniformity  in  inspection  re- 
ports is,  in  my  belief,  not  only  costly  to  the  companies  by  reason 
of  the  additional  length  of  time  required  to  pass  upon  them,  but 
is  also  the  direct  cause  of  loss'  of  business,  or  overlines,  from  quite 
natural  misconceptions  on  the  part  of  examiners.  To  illustrate  my 
meaning  let  me  give  you  some  statistics  from  our  own  office, 
statistics  whiich  are  duplicated,  or  approximated,  in  the  offices  of 
all  companies  doing  a  country-wide  business.  Through  our  Special 
Risk  Department  we  handle,  in  round  numbers,  60,000  inspection 
reports  per  annum.  Our  agency  departments  pass  nearly  20,000 
more.  All  of  these  reports  must  be  read.  They  come  to  us  from 
thirty  inspection  bureaus  and  rating'  organizations,  and  each  differs 
from  the  others  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Now  consider  for  a 
moment  the  mental  agility  required  of  the  men  whose  duty  it  is 
to  read  and  analyze  these  differing  reports.  First  comes  a  report 
with  a  summary  epitomized  to  the  last  safe  degree,  prominently 
set  forth  on  the  first  page.  An  ideal  condition.  Next,  one  with  the 
summary  on  the  last  page,  and  then  one  with  no  summary  at  all. 
One  report  covering  twenty  buildings  in  a  plant,  and  then  twelve 
reports  covering  twelve  buildings  in  another  plant,  including  sep- 
arate reports  for  the  dry  kiln  and  oil  house.  One  report  giving 
the  grading  as  a  sprinklered  risk  "97.8  per  cent,"  the  next  "  7-ioths 
of  the  standard,"  and  the  next  "good  to  fair."  I. had  before  me 
a  few  days  ago  two  reports  from  different  bureaus  covering  the 
same  risk.  One  gave  the  sprinkler  equipment  a  grading  of  95  per 

728 


INSPECTION  REPORTS  729 

cent,  the  other  credited  it  with  44.4  per  cent.  Compiled  as  they 
were  in  acordance  with  the  system  in  vogue  in  each  bureau,  both 
gradings  were  probably  correct.  To  continue,  one  bureau  gives  a 
loss  estimate  in  plain  figures,  substantiated  by  a  statement  of  values. 
A  report  from  another  bureau  gives  no  statement  of  values  but 
does  contain  the  opinion,  if  we  may  call  it  an  opinion,  "  Prefer 
to  believe  that  the  fire  department  would  effect  a  saving  of  15 
per  cent."  The  examiner  works  his  way  through  the  reports  as 
best  he  can,  at  times  using  his  knowledge  of  the  men  responsible 
for  them  in  attempting  to  estimate  what  effect  the  weather  condi- 
tions may  have  had  upon  the  expressed  opinions,  and  in  other 
cases  heartened  by  the  knowledge  that  he  is  dealing  with  facts, 
set  down  in  the  order  of  greatest  importance,  and  in  the  plainest 
language.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  mistakes  would  be 
obviated  if  all  information  reached  the  companies  in  uniform  re- 
ports. Your  association  has  done  much  toward  bringing  about 
this  result.  The  service  of  those  bureaus  which  have  adopted  the 
uniform  report  blank  is  most  valuable  to  their  subscribers,  and  the 
value  of  that  service  will  increase  as  the  scope  of  the  reports  is 
broadened  (always  uniformly,  I  hope),  to  cover  all  details  that 
may  be  reasonably  desired. 

Proper  Reports. — Now  passing  on  to  the  question  of  the  proper 
substance  and  extent  of  inspection  reports,  we  may  say,  speaking 
broadly,  that  the  companies  (want  in  each  original  report  every  f  att 
that  has  any  bearing  on  the  intelligent  underwriting  of  the  risk 
reported  on ;  and  in  each  succeeding  report  they  want  a  condensed 
statement  of  such  facts  brought  down  to  date.  There  is  without 
doubt  a  difference  of  opinion  among  companies  on  the  question 
of  what  constitutes  a  proper  report,  but  I  am  sure  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  difference  would  show  that  it  lies  more  in  the 
form  in  which  the  facts  should  be  set  forth,  than  in  the  extent 
of  the  information  needed.  In  my  judgment  the  form  of  an  ideal 
report  blank  would  vary  little,  if  any,  from  the  blank  adopted 
as  the  standard  of  this  association.  I  am  sure  all  companies 
would  be  well  satisfied  if  every  report  contained  just  the  informa- 
tion required  to  make  a  complete  story  under  all  heads  provided 
in  that  blank,  with  perhaps  a  very  slight  amplification  of  which 
I  shall  speak  later.  To  illustrate  my  conclusions  as  regards  the 
difference  of  opinion  among  companies  in  respect  to  inspection 
reports,  we  will  divide  the  companies  into  two  general  classes. 

Conservative  Special  Hazard  Writers. — In  the  first  class  we 
will  put  the  companies  that  accept  lines  on  special  hazards  and 
sprinklered  risks  conservatively,  and  maintain  no  special  depart- 
ments to  handle  those  classes.  I  find  that  in  their  offices  inspection 
reports  are  usually  passed  by  the  regular  examiners,  who  also  pass 
daily  reports  for  all  classes.  These  men  have  a  great  many  details 
to  handle  and  usually  read  inspection  reports  for  only  such  risks 
as  their  companies  have  lines  upon.  The  liability  assumed  on  each 
risk  is  comparatively  light,  so  a  careful  analysis  of  distribution 
of  values  and  other  details  is  not  deemed  a  vital  necessity.  In  fact, 
I  find  that  in  some  offices  it  is  the  practice  to  "  make  assurance 
doubly  sure "  by  discounting  inspection  bureau  loss  estimates  as 
much  as  50  per  cent  in  fixing  lines.  Now  these  companies  value 
inspection  service,  but  you  will  readily  understand  that  to  be  obliged 


73°  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

to  read  a  multitude  of  details  in  reports  would,  under  their  system 
of  handling  the  business,  be  burdensome.  For  them,  the  summary 
that  prefaces  the  standard  uniform  report  would  seem  to  be  ideal. 
Companies  Writing  Special  Hazards  Freely. — The  second  class 
comprises  those  companies  that  specialize  on  sprinklered  risks, 
traction  properties,  and  other  large  line  special  hazards.  This 
business  they  handle  through  special  departments,  and  they  desire 
that  inspection  reports  be  complete  in  all  details  of  construction, 
fire  protection,  hazards,  distribution  of  values,  etc.  The  reason 
for  this  I  think  you  all  understand  very  well.  The  lines  written 
are  usually  large,  and  the  acceptance  of  them  involves  great  respon- 
sibility, which  can  be  safely  assumed  only  with  a  full  knowledge  of 
all  conditions.  No  inspection  bureau  or  rating  organization  can 
properly  perform  the  underwriting  functions  of  these  companies, 
nor  would  it  be  fair  to  expect  such  service  from  them. 

Uniform  Blank  Meets  All  Requirements. — So  we  have  the  two 
classes  of  companies  that  must  be  served  through  the  same  form 
of  report :  one  desiring  a  sort  of  arctic  explorer's  tabloid  meal, 
the  other  with  members  whose  appetites  can- be  appeased  only  by 
a  complete  collection  of  details.  Both  classes  can  be  satisfied  by 
a  faithful  observance  of  all  requirements  of  the  uniform  report 
blank.  The  information  provided  in  the  condensed  summary  can 
be  set  forth  only  after  collecting  the  details  necessary  for  the  com- 
plete report,  and  then  boiling  them  down.  The  details  once  ob- 
tained may  be  incorporated  in  the  report  without  serious  expense, 
for  the  use  of  those  who  claim  to  need  them. 

Extent  of  Information  Desired. — First  repeating  my  belief  that 
the  standard  uniform  report  blank,  with  a  few  minor  additions, 
will  furnish  all  information  that  any  company  needs,  provided  that 
all  of  its  requirements  are  observed,  I  will  refer  as  briefly  as  pos- 
sible, to  the  extent  of  the  information,  required  under 'some  of  the 
principal  heads  of  that  blank,  giving  you  such  thoughts  as  have 
occurred  to  me,  or  have  been  suggested  by  those  gentlemen  with 
whom  I  have  taken  occasion  to  confer  on  the  subject.  The  first 
head  to  which  reference  need  be  made  is 

Name  of  Broker. — Not  all  reports  give  information  on  this 
point,  which  by  the  companies  is  considered  an  important  one.  It 
is  usually  not  difficult  to  obtain  the  name  of  broker  or  agent  who 
carries  the  most  of  the  insurance  or  places  the  line. 

Map  or  Plan. — The  companies  which  make  a  specialty  of  the 
classes  of  risks  reported  on  by  inspection  bureaus  value  the  plans 
which  some  bureaus  furnish  with  reports  on  sprinklered  risks, 
and  would  like  to  see  the  practice  of  sending  out  such  plans  made 
universal.  The  plans  should  be  complete  and  uniform. 

Raw  Stock. — A  complete  list  of  materials  should  appear  in  each 
report.  It  requires  trained  inspectors  to  know  what  to  look  for 
in  each  risk.  The  importance  of  the  information  can  hardly  be 
overestimated. 

Processes. — This  is  also  a  very  important  subject,  and  the  re- 
marks just  made  apply  equally  to  it. 

Machinery. — Under  this  head  should  be  brought  out  any  condi- 
tions that  would  have  a  bearing  in  classifying  the  risk.  For  ex- 
ample, cards  in  a  woolen  mill  using  some  cotton  stock  should  be 


INSPECTION  REPORTS  731 

described  so  that  it  may  be  known  whether  cotton  is  being  worked 
on  open  wool  cards  or  otherwise.  On  the  other  hand,  full  lists 
of  machinery  in  such  risks  as  machine  shops,  sash,  door  and  blind 
factories,  etc.,  are  of  minor  importance.  The  presence  of  any 
special  machinery  should  always  be  noted. 

Location  of  Values. — Fully  appreciating  that  it  is  very  often 
difficult  to  gather  information  under  this  head,  I  cannot  state 
too  emphatically  that  it  is  highly  important  that  every  report 
contain  a  statement  of  values,  even  though  it  be  obtained  at  the 
expense  of  much  effort. 

Prominently  Desirable  Features  and  Prominently  Undesirable 
Features. — Full  information  under  these  heads  affords  the  quick- 
est means  of  analyzing  a  risk,  and  is  one  of  the  first  things  looked 
for  in  making  an  estimate.  In  some  cases  the  undesirable  features 
are  so  serious  that  a  decision  to  decline  the  risk  may  be  arrived 
at  without  reading  further. 

Construction. — Information  should  be  full  and  complete,  as 
provided  for  in  the  uniform  report  blank.  Reports  should  give 
the  percentage  of  each  type  of  construction,  and  any  unusual  con- 
ditions should  be  brought  out. 

Common  Hazards  and  Special  Hazards. — Here  again  the 
trained  inspector  has  opportunity  to  point  out  any  unusual  hazards, 
chemical  combinations,  etc.  The  description  of  all  hazards  should 
be  made  complete  in  all  essential  details. 

Administration. — The  imp«rtance  of  the  information  under  this 
head  is  appreciated  by  all  who  examine  inspection  reports.  It  is 
one  of  the  subjects  turned  to  first  in  reports  which  contain  the 
information.  A  succession  of  reports  showing  lax  administration 
is  usually  sufficient  warrant  for  declining  the  risk. 

Exposure. — Information  should  be  full  and  complete  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  uniform  report  blank.  Lines 
cannot  be  fixed  intelligently  without  a  full  knowledge  of  the  ex- 
posures and  the  protection  against  same.  Here  again  I  would 
emphasize  the  necessity  for  facts,  rather  than  opinions  unsub- 
stantiated by  details. 

Protection. — All  details  provided  for  in  the  uniform  report  blank 
are  essential.  The  size  of  the  street  main  and  the  static  water 
pressure  may  mean  very  little  without  a  statement  of  what  is  back 
of  them.  A  full  knowledge  of  public  fire  defenses  cannot  be  had 
without  making  working  tests.  Some  of  our  bureaus  include  an 
analysis  of  the  town  fire  protection  in  their  reports,  and  the  facts 
brought  out  through  their  work  are  highly  important.  The  value 
of  street  main  connections  to  yard  hydrants  and  sprinkler  equip- 
ments cannot  be  determined  accurately  without  such  analysis. 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Equipment. — Nothing  short  of  a  full  state- 
ment in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  uniform  report 
blank  would  be  sufficient  under  this  important  head.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  most  companies  desire  all  details  regarding 
sprinkler  equipments,  even  though  some  of  them  may  impress  the 
compiler  of  the  reports  as  being  immaterial.  Reference  to  sprink- 
ler alarms  or  other  devices  may  not  properly  be  omitted  from  re- 
ports because  in  the  opinion  of  the  author  of  the  reports  they  are 
so  fallible  as  to  merit  no  mention.  The  reports  in  this  respect, 


732  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

as  well  as  all  others,  should  consist  'of  statements  of  facts,  and 
should  not  contain  opinions  which  find  expression  in  the  omission 
of  what  may  by  some  be  considered  important  details.  By  this  is 
not  meant  to  suggest  the  omission  of  definitely  expressed  opinions, 
so  long  as  they  are  not  substituted  for  facts.  The  last  of  the  sub- 
heads for  this  subject  in  the  uniform  report  blank  reads: 

Equipment  in  General. — Here  the  inspector  has  opportunity  to 
cover  much  information  of  importance.  Every  inspection  'of  a 
sprinkler  equipment  should  include  a  careful  examination  of  the 
tanks  and  their  supports,  including  bearing  walls.  The  hoops 
should  be  examined  for  deterioration,  and  any  rotting  of  supports, 
or  settling  or  cracking  of  walls,  should  be  noticed  in  reports,  and 
the  attention  of--the  insured  should  be  drawn  to  same  before  the 
inspector  leaves  the  premises.  The  companies  encourage  the  in- 
stallation of  sprinklers,  and  they  owe  it  to  the  insured  to  advise 
them  on  such  points  even  though  the  companies  might  not  suffer 
directly  through  a  failure  to  do  so.  For  the  same  reason  the 
inspector  should  also  report  on  any  improperly  heated  sections  of 
buildings,  improperly  insulated  piping,  or  dry  valve  closets.  He 
should  report  on  any  poorly  supported  piping,  or  sections  of  equip- 
ment subject  to  injury  by  settling  of  buildings,  or  dangerous  proxim- 
ity of  belts  to  sprinklers,  or  any  arrangement  of  stock  piles  that 
might  endanger  sprinkler  risers  or  piping.  In  fact,  every  defect 
in  the  sprinkler  equipment  should  be  reported,  and  pointed  out  to 
the  insured,  even  though  such  defects  might  not,  in  the  inspector's 
opinion,  seriously  threaten  the  integrity  of  the  sprinkler  protection. 

Record  of  Fires. — This  is  important  information,  and  should  be 
brought  down  to  date  in  each  succeeding  report. 

Improvements  Recommended. — Recommendations  covering  vital 
improvements  should  be  separated  in  reports  from  suggestions  for 
improvements  to  make  risks  standard.  I  believe  it  is  the  general 
opinion  that  a  proper  function  of  all  inspection  bureaus  is  to  bring 
'about  improvements  in  risks  they  inspect.  It  is  important  that 
vital  defects  be  corrected  whenever  possible  before  the  inspector 
leaves  the  risk.  When  this  cannot  be  accomplished,  the  com- 
panies should  be  furnished  reports  of  progress  at  short'  intervals, 
until  improvements  have  been  completed,  or  abandoned.  The  fore- 
going is  the  practice  of  some  of  our  bureaus,  and  I  believe  the 
companies  would  willingly  assume  such  additional  expense  as  might 
be  occasioned  through  the  extension  of  the  practice  to  all  of  them. 

Reinspection  Reports. — And  now  for  the  reinspection  report. 
I  will  take  up  but  a  moment  on  this  subject.  The  information  re- 
quired under  the  uniform  reinspection  blank  with  slight  additions, 
should,  I  believe,  satisfy  all  companies,  but  nothing  short  of  that 
would  suffice.  At  first  glance  it  might  seem  unnecessary  to  repeat 
in  the  reinspection  reports  the  information  given  in  the  original 
reports,  but  doing  so  would  result  in  a  saving  of  time  to  the  com- 
panies more  than  sufficient  to  balance  the  additional  expense  of 
the  longer  reports.  I  know  of  nothing  more  irritating  than  to  be 
obliged  to  run  through  a  number  of  partial  reports  back  to  the 
last  original  in  order  to  make  a  proper  estimate  of  a  risk. 

In  the  commencement  I  stated  my  belief  that  the  uniform  report 
blank  with  slight  amplifications  would  satisfy  all  companies.  My 
thought  was  that  three  heads  should  be  added  to  the  blanks  to 


INSPECTION  REPORTS  733 

make  them  complete.  I  would  suggest  "  REMARKS,"  "  USE  AND 
OCCUPANCY,"  and  "GRADING,"  as  those  heads.  Each  of  them 
is  being  used  by  some  of  the  bureaus,  and  I  think  that  the  adoption 
of  them  as  a  part  of  the  uniform  report  blank  would  be  welcomed. 
Under 

Remarks  might  be  'included  such  information  as  the  inspector 
can  gather  regarding  the  prosperity  of  the  risk,  including  state- 
ment of  whether  or  not  the  plant  is  running  full,  and  the  reasons 
for  any  partial  shut-down.  Of  course,  if  the  plant  is  idle,  the 
fact  should  be  stated  and  reasops  given.  Press  notices  from  local 
papers  indicating  financial  troubles  are  sometimes  valuable.  In 
fact,  any  information  on  this  subject  would  be  appreciated.  There 
will  be  opposition  in  many  minds  to  this  suggestion.  Think  it  over 
and  see  if  a  definite  scope  cannot  be  worked  out  that  all  may  safely 
observe.  Under  this  head,  too,  the  inspector  might  properly  be 
permitted  to  express  his  personal  opinions.  The  opinions  of  quali- 
fied inspectors  would  be  welcomed  so  long  as  they  did  not  take 
the  place  of  facts. 

Use  and  Occupancy. — Your  association  has  adopted  a  uniform 
Use  and  Occupancy  Report  blank,  which  provides  for  all  needed 
information  on  that  subject.  The  companies  who  write  the  class 
(and  their  number  is  increasing),  would  value  a  summary  of  that 
information  in  each  general  inspection  report. 

Uniform  Grading  of  Sprinkler  Equipments. — The  question  of 
a  uniform  schedule  for  grading  sprinkler  equipments,  1  believe  is 
still  in  the  hands  of  your  committee.  That  this  is  one  of  the  most 
perplexing  subjects  with  which  you  have  to  contend  is  readily 
understandable.  The  question  I  have  in  mind  is  whether  any  grad- 
ing schedule  that  may  be  worked  out  will  be  of  material  help  to 
the  companies  as  a  whole.  I  am  quite  certain  that  a  schedule  pro- 
viding charges  for  deficiencies  in  the  sprinkler  systems  based  wholly 
on  the  rules  for  sprinkler  installation  and  arrangement  of  build- 
ings, and  giving  the  results  in  percentages,  would  be  misleading 
to  a  great  many  men  who  pass  upon  business  for  the  companies. 
I  have  often  heard  some  such  remark  as  this  made,  "  That  is  a  fine 
risk,  the  bureau  gives  it  a  grading  of  95  per  cent."  Perhaps  the 
risk  was  a  wholesale  dry-goods  store,  and  the  statement  quoted 
was  sound.  On  the  other  hand,  it  might  have  been  a  risk  so  filled 
with  combustible  stock,  or  so  constructed,  as  to  make  sprinkler 
control  extremely  doubtful,  but  provided  the  sprinkler  equipment 
were  properly  installed  and  had  approved  water  supplies,  it  too 
might  grade  95  per  cent.  Personally  I  incline  to  a  system  that  will 
admit  of  grading  a  risk  in  plain  language,  as,  Excellent,  Good, 
Fair,  Indifferent,  Poor.  This  plan  is  now  in  use  in  some  bureaus, 
and  seems  to  have  general  approval.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
any  system  should  have  as  a  basis  some  fixed  and  uniform  method 
of  arriving  at  a  grading,  but  all  that  need  appear  in  the  reports 
is,  for  example,  "  Grading  as  a  sprinklered  risk,  excellent,"  this 
grading  to  be  arrived  at  with  due  consideration  given  to  all  favor- 
able and  unfavorable  condition. 

Inspectors. — No  discussion  of  the  subject  of  this  paper  would 
be  complete  without  giving  some  time  to  the  question  of  inspectors. 
That  the  companies  cannot  expect  to  receive  through  inspection 
reports  the  information  they  need,  unless  the  men  on  the  firing 


734  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

line  who  gather  the  data  are  thoroughly  qualified  for  the  work 
they  have  to  do,  goes  without  saying.  What  constitutes  proper 
qualifications  is  a  question  not  so  easily  disposed  of,  for  my  in- 
vestigations indicate  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  of  opinion, 
among  managers,  of  inspection  bureaus  at  least,  on  that  point. 
Using  the  uniform  inspection  blank  as  a  standard,  it  would  seem 
that  there  should  be  no  quarrel  with  the  statement  that  a  properly 
qualified  inspector  is  one  who  possesses  the  ability  to  gather  and 
present,  in  the  prescribed  manner,  all  the  information  provided  for 
under  each  head  of  that  blank.  I  .shall  not  attempt  to  touch  upon 
questions  of  temperament  and  industry  here,  for  I  believe  there 
is  little  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the  necessities  under  those 
heads.  The  point  I  feel  most  strongly  about  has  been  stated,  and 
I  cannot  but  believe  that  there  is  as  mucfy  necessity  for  a  uniform 
standard  of  qualifications  for  inspectors  as  there  is  for  the  other 
standards  being  worked  out  by  your  association.  It  has  been  my 
good  fortune  to  be  associated  with  many  inspectors  during  the 
time  I  have  been  in  this  business,  and  I  want  to  say  here  that  as 
a  class  they  measure  high.  I  wonder  at  times  if  we  realize  fully 
just  how  important  to  the  companies  and  the  insured  is  the  work 
being  done  by  this  little  army  of  bright  men.  I  wonder  if  we 
realize,  to  the  full,  the  necessity  for  very  high  qualifications  in 
these  men  upon  whose  statements,  to  a  large  extent,  the  com- 
panies are  risking  immense  sums.  In  the  old  days  we  hewed  our 
inspectors  from  the  raw  material,  and  they  made  good  inspectors. 
But  the  hewing  took  time,  and  directly  or  indirectly  cost  money. 
In  some  cases  the  result  was  not  highly  finished.  The  technical 
schools  now  furnish  good  material  for  our  work,  fully  equipped 
in  the  commencement,  and  needing  only  the  finish  that  experience 
alone  can  furnish.  Now  I  would  not  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  none 
but  college-bred  men  should  be  employed  as  inspectors,  but  it  is 
apparent  that  such  men  have  an  immense  advantage  over  those 
who  have  to  pick  up  the  technical  knowledge  after  they  take  up 
field  work,  even  though  the  latter  finally  become  wholly  qualified. 
As  between  the  college-bred  engineer,  and  the  inspector  who  has 
knowledge  of  only  a  part  of  the  subjects  which  must  be  covered 
in  his  reports,  there  can  be  no  comparison.  The  inspection  reports 
which  I  read  daily  give  evidence  of  the  point  I  am  endeavoring  to 
elucidate.  Some  reports  are  well  balanced,  furnishing  full  infor- 
mation under  each  head  in  a  manner  that  leaves  no  doubt  in  the 
reader's  mind  as  to  the  inspector's  complete  qualification  for  his 
work.  Others  give  very  full  and  intelligent  description  of  the  fire- 
defense  equipment,  but  are  lamentably  weak  in  other  particulars. 
My  belief  is  that  the  specialist  in  a  single  branch  of  insurance 
engineering  is  not  the  most  satisfactory  inspector,  which  leads  me 
to  repeat  that  there  is  need  for  a  standard  of  qualifications  for 
inspectors. 

FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'  UNIFORMITY  ASSOCIATION 
Standard  Uniform  Blank  for  Inspection  Report,  Adopted  1906 

1.  Standard  form  of  inspection  report. 

2.  Confidential. 

3.  Original  Sprinklered  Risk  Report  [when  such  is  the  case].    No. 

4.  Name  of  Association  or  Bureau.  5.  Address. 


INSPECTION  REPORTS  735 

6.  Inspected   [Date]  Name  Inspector. 

7.  Insurance.      [Inserted   here  are  the   columns   and   spaces   for 
information  as  to  policies,  lines,  dates,  etc."! 

8.  Name  of  Broker. 

9.  Survey  of  [if  tenant  plant  or]  Class  of  Risk  [as  Shoe  Factory] 
[Omnibus  occupancy,  give  name  of  owner  of  plant.]     [Exceptions: 
If  principal  tenant  leases  whole  plant  and  sublets  portions,  or  if  he 
occupies  most  of  plant,  give  his  name  instead  of  owner.] 

10.  Location. 

11.  Map  or  Plan.     Volume,  Name,  Date  or  Date  of  Correction, 
Sheet,  Block  No. 

12.  Buildings  owned  by,      [Give  ownership   of  individual   build- 
ings when  plant  comprises  a  group.] 

13.  Machinery  owned  by. 

14.  Occupied  by.     [Include  number  of  hands  employed,  how  many 
in  full   force,  hours.     In  omnibus   occupancy  group    13   to   18   for 
each  tenant.] 

15.  Goods  made  or  sold. 

16.  Raw  Stock.     [In  order  used,  and  any  important  information, 
such  as  proportions  of  wool,  cotton  or  shoddy,  whence  supply  of 
latter.] 

17.  Process.     [Describe  in  order  of  occurrence,  main  processes 
first;  then  processes  of  side  Products.] 

18.  Machinery.     [Described  in  order  of  processes.     Mention  ma- 
chinery unused  or  in  reserve.] 

19.  Location  of  values. 

20.  Summary. 

21.  A  complete  epitome  of  report  in  sequence  as  herein  given. 
Class   of   Risk.     Construction,    including    cut-offs    [per    centum   of 
values  subject  to  one  fire].     Exposure.     Common  hazards.     Special 
hazards.      Administration.      Protection    [accessibility].      Automatic 
Sprinkler    Equipment,    grading    of    sprinkler     equipment.      Fires. 
[Prosperity.]     Miscellaneous  items. 

22.  Prominent  Desirable  Features. 

23.  Prominent  Undesirable  Features. 

24.  Remarks. 
Construction. 

i.  Age  and  repair.  2.  Height  [including  any  blind  attics]. 

3.  Area.  4.  Walls.     Materials.     Thickness    (mention    but- 

tresses or  pilasters,  if  any).    Finish.    Parapet.     Coping.     Partitions. 

5.  Roofs    (and   supports).     Material.     Cornice.     Skylights. 

6.  Floors  and  supports.  7.  Ceilings. 

8.  Floor  openings.     Stairs.     Elevators    (and  hatchways).     Light 
Wells  (and  air  shafts).     Chutes.    Dumb  Waiters,  etc. 

9.  Fire  Divisions.     Kind,  number,  etc. 

10.  Occupancy  to  be  shown  by  floors  for  each  building   (lowest 
first). 

Note:  (a)  Where  there  is  a  general  group  or  where  there  are 
groups  of  buildings,  those  of  similar  construction  may  be  described 
together,  using  the  same  general  order  as  separate  buildings,  (b) 
Those  that  are  radically  different  in  construction  should  be  de- 
scribed separately. 


736  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Exposures. 

Distance.     Height.     Material.     Class  and  Protection  against  same 
for  North,  East,  South  and  West. 
Common  Hazards. 

1.  Power.     Steam.     Electric.     Water.     Gas  or  Gasolene  Engine. 

2.  Heating.      Steam.     Hot   Air.      Electric.      Stoves    or    Furnaces. 
Gas. 

3.  Lighting.     Electricity.     Gas.     Oil  Lamps  and  Torches.     Gaso- 
lene or  vapor  Lamps.     Candles. 

4.  Lubricating  Oils,  etc. 
Special  Hazards. 

Follow  order  of  processes,  including  drying.     Hazards  of  individ- 
ual tenants. 
Administration. 

Management,  order,  cleanliness;  disposition  of  refuse,  oily  waste, 
ashes;  smoking,  matches,  spittoons;  shafting;  elevator  drip  pans; 
master,  mechanic's  knowledge ;  Assured's  care  and  inspection  of  fire 
appliances. 

Values     And     Insurance 
•   Buildings  Buildings 

Machinery  Machinery 

Average  Stocks    Average  Stocks 

Use  and  Occupancy. 
Rents 
Protection. 

1.  Private  inside  protection  except  Automatic  Sprinklers.     Stand- 
pipe  Equipment  and  Water  Supplies;  Casks,  pails  and  hand  chem- 
icals.    Other  features. 

2.  Alarm    service    (including   watchman's    service,    and    light   he 
uses.     Thermostats,  auxiliary  fire  alarm  boxes).  "" '''.•" 

3.  Private    Outside    Protection.      Private    Hydrant    System    and 
Water  Supplies.     Private  Brigade.     Open  Sprinkler. 

4.  Public  Protection.     Water  Supply.     Public  Hydrants.     Public 
Fire  Department. 

5.  Outside  Protection  as  a  Whole. 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Equipment. 

1.  Name  of  sprinkler.    Type  or  form.    Upright  or  pendant  Heads. 

2.  Portions  Sprinklered.     By  whom  put  in  and  When.     Wet  or 
what   Dry    System   and   Where.      Water    Column.      Dry   all    year. 
What  Air  Pressure.     Type.     Location  of  Dry  Valve.     Enclosed. 

,3.  Portions  not  Sprinklered.     Portions  cut  off  during  winter. 
4.  Public  pressure.  5.  Gravity  Tank.  6.  Pressure  Tank. 

7.  Pump.  8.  Valves.  9.  Alarm  Valves  and  Apparatus. 

10.  Sprinkler  Supervisory  Equipment.     .-.     ...     n.  Size  of  Risers. 

12.  Hydrants,  Hose  or  Service  Connections  on  System  (including 
condition  of  heads;  obstruction  of  valves). 

13.  Equipment  in  general  (including  general  information  not  pro- 
vided for  in  above  paragraphs). 

Record  of  Fires. 
Improvements  recommended. 
Improvements  promised. 


INSPECTION  OF  BUILDINGS  737 

INSPECTION  OF  BUILDINGS  BY  FIRE  DEPARTMENTS 

At  the  1915  annual  convention,  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  of  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Firo  Engineers,  which  is  the  official  name 
of  the  organization  of  firt  chiefs,  there  was  an  able  report  by  a 
committee,  of  which  Chief  Kenlon  was  chairman,  outlining  the 
?cope  and  duties  of  a  fire  prevention  bureau  in  our  American  fire 
departments.  In  this  report  the  statement  is  made : 

A  careful  review  of  the  different  fire  prevention  movements,  or- 
ganizations and  bureaus  effected  to  carry  on  the  actual  work  of 
fire  prevention  indicates  that  only  a  very  few  of  these  have  been 
so  organized  and  empowered  that  the  number  of  fires  ordinarily 
originating  from  arson,  fraud  or  carelessness  was  materially  reduced. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  we  have,  in  our  effort  to  save 
property  from  loss  by  fire,  directed  our  efforts  mostty  towards  im- 
proving our  fire  fighting  facilities.  The  losses  can  be  kept  down  to 
a  certain  margin  by  increasing  the  efficiency  and  strength  of  our 
departments,  but  any  additional  strength  beyond  that  is  largely  as 
security  against  conflagrations.  Some  of  our  fire  departments  have 
already  reached  or  are  approaching  that  stage  of  development. 
Therefore,  if  we  hope  to  reduce  our  losses  to  the  .figure  at  which 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  they  should  be  kept,  we'  must  turn  our 
attention  to  the  question  of  fire  prevention.  In  the  same  way  that 
the  State  and  municipality  have  directed  their  efforts  to  health  regu- 
lations, which  have  resulted  in  a  lower  death  rate  and  an  extension 
of  the  average  life  of  man,  so  will  the  State  and  municipality  have 
to  turn  attention  to  fire  prevention  regulations. 

So  far  as  the  municipality  is  concerned,  the  time  is  rapidly  ap- 
p'roaching  when  every  city  and  town  will  be  compelled  to  incor- 
porate in  its  fire  department,  not  only  the  work  of  fire  extinguish- 
ment but  the  work  of  fire  prevention  also,  particularly  if  it  expects 
to  keep  its  losses  low. 

It  is  seen  from  the  above  that  it  is  becoming  generally  recognized 
that  one  of  the  duties  of  a  fire  department  is  to  have  remedied 
hazardous  conditions  and  to  order  the  introduction  of  protective 
devices,  and  to  do  this  they  must  make  inspection,  judge  of  condi- 
tions and  issue  regulatory  specifications.  In  this  last  they  have 
wisely  adopted  many  of  the  very  excellent  regulations  and  suggested 
ordinances  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  every 
year  sees  more  and  more  cities  carrying  out  the  underwriters'  recom- 
mendations for  more  stringent  laws  on  common  hazards  and  proper 
construction. 

It  is  to  the  first  two  duties — inspection  and  judging  conditions — 
that  attention  has  to  be  called.  Not  every  one  can  make  an  inspec- 
tion ;  any  underwriters'  inspection  bureau  can  vouch  for  this,  as  it 
is  only  after  months  of  careful  coaching  and  through  the  use  of 
inspection  blanks  compiled  after  careful  study  that  a  real  good 
inspection  can  be  obtained  from  even  the  best  of  material.  Firemen 
have  not  in  the  past  had  the  training,  and  the  time  they  can  put  on 


738  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

it  is  so  limited  by  other  duties  that  it  will  take  even  longer  for  them 
to  become  proficient.  It  is  because  of  this  that  much  of  the  fire  pre- 
vention work  started  will  have  no  material  effect  for  some  years,  as 
it  will  take  this  long  to  have  the  firemen  well  qualified  in  their 
duties  as  inspectors. 

This  lack  of  previous  experience  in  inspection  work,  together 
with  the  fact  that  the  men  and  officers  have  been  so  occupied  in  fire 
fighting  that  they  have  not  had  time  to  master  the  intricacies  of  fire 
prevention,  also  lessens  their  ability  to  judge  of  the  seriousness  of 
hazards  and  the  best  method  of  eliminating  them,  or  the  proper  fire 
protection  features  to  be  provided. 

In  both  of  these  matters — inspection  and  judgment  of  conditions — 
the  underwriters  have  had  long  years  of  training  and  have  become 
most  expert.  Evidently,  considering  this,  and  that  all  prevention 
work  is  of  most  vital  importance  to  the  fire  underwriters,  it  is  their 
duty  to  assist  the  fire  departments  in  every  way  possible. 

There  have  been  numerous  cases  where  an  underwriters'  in- 
spector has  found  such  "  horrid  "  conditions  that  he  has  felt  it  his 
duty  to  call  the 'fire  chief's  attention  to  it,  but  this  is  not  sufficiently 
general.  After  the  Salem  fire,  the  fire  department  and  the  insur- 
ance interest  condemned  each  other  for  the  hazardous  storage  of 
film  scrap,  which  resulted  in  burning  up  millions  of  dollars  in 
property.  The  insurance  interests  blamed  the  fire  department  for 
allowing  this  storage,  in  this  poorly  protected  manner,  and  the  fire 
department  condemned  the  insurance  inspectors  for  not  notifying 
them  of  it  when  the  inspectors  had  found  such  poor  conditions. 

It  is  to  offset  this  that  there  is  a  real  duty  for  the  underwriters. 
With  every  inspection  of  importance,  if  possible,  have  a  fireman 
detailed  along,  to  see  first-hand  the  conditions  found.  In  many 
cases  this  will  not  be  feasible,  either  for  lack  of  firemen  or  for  dis- 
inclination on  the  part  of  the  fire  department  officials.  As  an  alter- 
native, almost  as  good,  file  with  the  fire  department  a  duplicate  of 
the  inspection  blank,  not  only  as  to  the  conditions  found,  which  in 
many  cases  will  be  more  completely  covered  than  any  inspection  by 
a  fireman,  but  also  as  to  the  changes  necessary. 

These  inspection  blanks  thus  filed  will  be  a  constant  reminder  to 
the  Chief  of  conditions  existing  md  will  also  enable  him  to  check  up 
the  thoroughness  of  any  individual  inspections  made  by  'members 
of  the  fire  force. 

With  the  advice  of  the  underwriters'  inspector  on  file  as  to  the 
changes  and  improvements  judged  necessary,  the  fire  chief  will  be 
enabled  to  furnish  information  at  any  time  to  an  owner  wishing  to 
make  changes  in  a  plant,  and  even  where  conditions  are  somewhat 


TABLES  739 

different,   the   precedent   offered   by   some   other   report  may  be   of 
sufficient  value  to  result  in  material  changes. 

In  all  large  cities  there  are  well  organized  underwriters'  inspection 
bureaus,  and  these  should  by  all  means  co-operate  to  the  fullest 
extent  with  the  fire  department  to  remedy  conditions.  It  might  even 
be  possible,  by  ordinance  or  legislative  enactment,  to  make  the  un- 
derwriters' inspector  a  deputy  inspector  of  the  fire  department,  as 
has  been  done  in  some  cases  with  electrical  inspectors,  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  with  the  city  Fire  Marshal,  who  is  an  insurance  bureau 
employee.  .  * 

METRIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
Metric  Weights 

Milligram  (1/1000  gram)  equals  0.0154  grain 

Centigram  (1/100  gram)  equals  0.1543  grain 

Decigram  (1/10  gram)  equals  1.5432  grains 

Gram  equals  15.432  grains 

Decagram  (10  grams)  equals  0.3527  ounce 

Hectogram  (100  grams)  equals  3.5274  ounces 

Kilogram  (1000  grams)  equals  2.2046  pounds 

Myriagram  (10,000  grams)  equals  22.046  pounds 

Quintal  (100,000  grams)  equals  220.46  pounds 

Millier  or  tonnea— ton  (1,000,000  grams)  equals  2,204.6  pounds 

Metric  Dry  Measures 

Milliliter  (1/1000  liter)  equals  0.061  cubic  inch 
Centiliter  (1/100  liter)  equals  0.6102  cubic  inch. 
Deciliter  (1/10  liter)  equals  6.1022  cubic  inches 
Liter  equals  0.908  quart 
Decaliter  (10  liters)  equals  9.08  quarts 
Hectoliter  (100  liters)  equals  2.838  bushels 
Kiloliter  (1000  liters)  equals  1,308  cubic  yards 

Metric  Liquid  Measures 

Milliliter  (IjylOOO  liter)  equals  0.0338  fluid  ounce 

Centiliter  (1^100  liter)  equals  0.338  fluid  ounce 

Deciliter  (l;ylO  liter)  equals  0.845  gill 

Liter  equals  1.0567  quarts 

Decaliter  (10  liters)  equals  2.6418  gallons 

Hectoliter  (100  liters>equals  26.417  gallons 

KiloHter  (1000  liters)  equals  264.18  gallons 

Metric  Measures  of  Length 

Millimeter  (1/1000  meter)  equals  0.0394  inch 

Centimeter  (1/100  meter)  equals  0.3937  inch 

Decimeter  (1/10  meter)  equals  3.937  inches 

Meter  equals  39.37  inches 

Decameter  (10  meters)  equals  393.7  inches 

Hectometer  (100  meters)  equals  328  feet  1  inch 

Kilometer  (1000  meters)  equals  0.62137  mile  (3,280  feet  10  inches) 

Myriameter  (10,000  meters)  equals  6.2137  miles 

Metric  Surface  Measures 

Centare  (1  square  meter)  equals  1,550  square  inches 
Are  (100  square  meters)  equals  119.6  square  yards 
Hectare  (10,000  square  meters)  equals  2.471  acres 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
Troy  Weight 

24  grains  =  1  pwt.  12  ounces  =  1  pound 

20  pwts.  =  1  ounce 

Used  for  weighing  gold,  silver  and  jewels 

Apothecaries'  Weight 

20  grains  =  1  scruple  8  drams  =  1  ounce 

3  scruples  =  1  dram  12  ounces  =  1  pound 

The  ounce  and  pound  in  this  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight 


740  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Avoirdupois  Weight 

27  11/32  grains  =  1  dram  4  quarters  =  1  cwt. 

16  drams  =  1  ounce  2,000  Ibs.  ±=  1  short  ton 

16  ounces  =  1  pound  2,240  Ibs.  =  1  long  ton 

24  pounds  =  1  quarter 

Dry  Measure 

2  pints  =  1  quart  4  pecks  =  1  bushel 

8  quarts  =  1  peck  37  bushels  =  1  chaldron 

Liquid  Measure 

4  gills  =  1  pint  31  1/2  gallons  =  1  barrel 

2  pints  =  1  quart  2  barrels  =  1  hogshead 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon 

Long  Measure 
12  inches  =  1  foot  40  rods  =  1  furlong 

3  feet  =  1  yard     »  8  furlongs  =  1  sta.  mile 
5  1/2  yards  =  1  rod  3  miles  =  1  league 

Mariner's  Measure 

6  feet  =  1  fathom  5,280  feet  =  1  stat.  mile 
120  fathoms  —  1  cable  length                      6,085  feet  =  1  naut.  mile 

7  1/2  cable  lengths  =  1  mile 

Miscellaneous 

3  inches  =  1  palm  18  inches  =  1  cubit 

4  inches  =  1  hand  21.8  inches  =  1  Bible  cubit 
6  inches  =  1  span  2  1/2  feet  =  1  military  pace 

Square  Measure 

144  square  inches  =  1  square  foot  40  square  rods  =  1  rood 

9  square  feet  =  1  square  yard  4  roods  =  1  acre 

30  1/4  square  yards  =  1  square  rod         640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

Surveyors'  Measure 

7.92  inches  =  1  link  10  sq.  chains  or  160  sq.  rods  —  1  acre 

25  links  =  1  rod  640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

4  rods  =  1  chain  36  sq.  miles  (6  miles  sq.)  =  1  township 

Cubic  Measure 

1,728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot  1  cubic  foot  =  about  4/5  of  a  bushel 

27  cubic  feet  =  1  cubic  yard  128  cubic  feet  =  1  cord  (wood) 

2,150.42  cu.  in.  =  1  standard  bushel  40  cubic  feet  =  1  ton  (shipping) 

231  cu.  in.  =  1  standard  gallon 

HORSE  POWER 

A  horse  power  is  the  energy  required  to  raise  33,000«pounds  one  foot  in  a  minute. 

The  horse  power  of  a  boiler  is  its  capacity  to  evaporate  30  pounds  of  water 
per  hour  at  70  gauge  pressure  (temperature  318.4  deg.)  from  100  deg.  feed  water 
for  every  horse  power. 

The  indicated  horse  power  of  an  engine  is  the  power  developed  by  the  steam 
on  the  piston  without  any  deduction  for  friction. 

The  effective  horse  power  of  an  engine  is  the  actual  and  available  horse  power 
delivered  to  the  belt  or  gearing,  and  is  always  less  than  the  indicated. 

The  horse  power  of  an  engine  is 

a  x  p  x  v 


33,000 

a — Area  of  piston  in  square  inches. 

p — Means  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  piston  per  square  inch, 
v — Velocity  of  piston  per  minute. 

Rule  to  Ascertain  Horse  Power  of  Compound  Engine 

Multiply  stroke  of  piston  in  feet  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute; 
multiply  this  product  by  the  boiler  pressure  by  gauge  and  take  the  square  root 
of  this  result,  which  multiply  by  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  low  pressure 
cylinder.  This  product,  divided  by  8,500,  will  be  the  estimated  horse  power  of 
the  engine. 

An  indicated  horse  power  requires,  in  the  best  condensing  engines,  about  1 } 
gallons  of  water  evaporated  per  hour. 

An  indicated  horse  power,  in  large  non-condensing  engines,  requires  about  2$ 
gallons  of  water  evaporated  per  hour. 

An  indicated  horse  power,  in  small  non-condensing  engines,  requires  from  3  to 
10  gallons  of  water  evaporated  per  hour. 


TABLES 


741 


BOILER  House  POWER  (BASED  ON  30  POUNDS  or  WATER  PER  HOUR) 

10  ZO  50  40  50  60  TO 80 9O WO 


—  31 

§  

1  
0  

• 
\ 

\ 

;^N 

--                       ~~"»\                        .     .  io 

\  \  \     \  \  \  \  ^  •  \ 

DUTY  IN  MIU.ION  FOOT  POUNDS 

^                             *  ^                  ~                          "    «0 

s.L.^-^^^-'7-  :^__e« 

OCR   100  POUNDS  COAL 

STEAM  BOILER  PROPORTIONS      . 

Proportion  of  grate  and  heating  surface  required  for  a  given  horse  power.     The 
-m  horse  power  here  means  capacity  to  evaporate  34.5  Ibs.  of  water  from  and 

Average  proportions  for  maximum  economy  for  land  boilers  fired  with  good 
anthracite  coal: 

Heating  surface  per  horse  power 10 . 0  sq.  ft. 

Grate  surface  per  horse  power 1/3  sq.  ft. 

Ratio  of  heating  to  grate  surface 30.0  sq.  ft. 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212  degs.  per  sq.  ft.  H.  S.  per  hour       3      Ibs. 

Combustible  burned  per  H.  P.  per  hour 3      Ibs. 

Coal  with  1/6  refuse  pounds  per  H.  P.  per  hour 3.6  Ibs. 

Combustible  burned  per  sq.  ft.  grate  per  hour 9      Ibs. 

Coal  with  1/6  refuse  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.  grate  per  hour 10.8  Ibs. 

Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212  degs.  per  Ib.  combustible ....  11.5  Ibs. 
Water  evaporated  from  and  at  212  degs.  per  Ibs.  coal  (i  refuse) . .        9.6  Ibs. 


HORSE  POWER  OF  CYLINDRICAL  FLUE  BOILER 

G  =  Fire  grate  surface  in  square  feet 

H  =  Nominal  horse  power 

S  =  Heating  surface  in  square  yards 

H'  H* 

— =S  — =G 

V  SG  =  H  G  S 

For  cylindrical  two-flued  boilers  an  approximate  rule  is: 
Length  x  diam. 

=  nominal  horse  power. 

6 

To  find  the  weight  of  the  rim  of  the  fly-wheel  for  an  engine: 
Nominal  H.  P.  x  2000 

=  Weight  in  cwts. 

The  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  circumfer- 
ence in  feet  per  second 


742 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


AVERAGE  EVAPORATIVE  POWER  OF  FUELS 


1  pound  of  pure  Carbon  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Hydrogen  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Sulphur  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Oak  wood  evaporates 

1  pound  of  White  Pine  wood  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Oak  charcoal  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Bituminous  coal  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Anthracite  coal  evaporates 

1  pound  of  Coke  evaporates 


12.4    pounds  of  water 

53.       pounds  of  water 

3 . 44  pounds  of  water 

6.47  pounds  of  water 

7 . 65  pounds  of  water 

11.7    pounds  of  water 

12.62  pounds  of  water 

10.9    pounds  of  water 

11.85  pounds  of  water 


THE  RELATIVE  VOLUME  OF  STEAM  AND  WATER  ARE 

At    15  pounds  to  square  inch 1669  to  1 

At    30  pounds  to  square  inch 881  to  1 

At    60  pounds  to  square  inch 467  to  1 

At  120  pounds  to  square  inch 249  to  1 


/  L      COMPARATIVE  TABLE— WEIGHT  AND  GRAVITY 
Liquids  Lighter  than  Water  at  60  degrees  F. 


Degrees 
Baume 

Specific 
Gravity 

Actual 
Weight 
per 
Gallon 

Billing 
Weight 
per 
Gallon 

Degrees 
Baume 

Specific 
Gravity 

Actual 
Weight 
per 
Gallon 

Billing 
Weight 
per 
Gallon 

10 

1.0000 

8.32 

43 

.8092 

6.74 

6 

11 

.9929 

8.27 

44 

.8045 

6.70 

6 

12 

.9859 

8.21 

45 

.8000 

6.66 

6 

13 

.9790 

8.16 

46 

.7951 

6.63 

6 

14 

.9722 

8.10 

• 

47 

.7909 

6.59 

6 

15 

.9655 

8.04 

48 

'    78.65 

6.55 

6J 

16 

.9589 

7.99 

49 

.7821 

6.52 

6 

17 

.9523 

7.93 

50 

.7777 

6.48 

6 

18 

.9459 

7.88 

51 

.7734 

6.44 

6 

19 

.9395 

7.83 

52 

.7692 

6.41 

6 

20 

.9333' 

7.78 

53 

.7650 

6.37 

61  1 

21 

.9271 

7.72 

54 

.7608 

6.34 

61 

22 

.9210 

7.67 

55 

.7567 

6.30 

61 

23 

.9150 

7.62 

7 

56 

.7526 

6.27 

6:' 

24 

.9090 

7.57 

7 

57 

.7486 

6.24 

6 

25 

.9032 

7.53 

7 

58 

.7446 

6.20 

6 

26 

.8974 

7.48 

.  7 

59 

.7407 

6.17 

6 

27 

.8917 

7.43 

7 

60 

.7368 

6.14 

6 

28 

.8860 

7.38 

7 

61 

73.29 

6.11 

6 

29 

.8805 

7.34 

7 

62 

.7290 

6.07 

6 

30 

.8750 

7.29 

7 

63 

.7253 

6.04 

6 

31 

.8695 

7.24 

7 

64 

.7216 

6.01 

6 

32 

.8641 

7.20 

7 

65 

.7179 

5.98 

6 

33 

.8588 

7.15 

7 

66 

.7142 

5.95 

53 

34 

.8536 

7.11 

7| 

67 

.7106 

5.92 

5 

35 

.8484 

7.07 

7 

68 

.7070 

5.89 

5 

36 

.8433 

7.03 

7 

69 

.7035 

5.86 

5 

37 

.8383 

6.98 

7 

70 

.7000 

5.83 

5 

38 

.8333 

6.94 

6 

75 

.6829 

5.69 

5 

39 

.8284 

6.90 

6 

80 

.6666 

5.55 

5i 

40 

.8235 

6.86 

6 

85 

.6511 

5.42 

5j 

41 

.8187 

6.82 

6 

90 

.6363 

5.30 

42 

.8139 

6.78 

6 

95 

.6222 

5.18 

NOTE. — This  table  of  Baume's  hydrometers  has  been  used  for  many  years  as 
the  basis  for  all  instruments  employed  in  the  petroleum  trade.     It  is  calculated 

140 
for  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.  and  is  based  on  the  formulae: =  Specific 


gravity  and 


140 


—  130  =  Bo. 


B°   +   130 
This  table  has  the  official  sanction 


Specific  gravit 


ity 
of  S 


of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C. 


TABLES 


743 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE— WEIGHT  AND  GRAVITY 
Liquids  Heavier  than  Water  at  60  Degrees  F. 


Baume 

Specific 
Gravity 

Pounds 
in  Gallon 

Baume 

Specific 
Gravity 

Pounds 
in  Gallon 

1 

1.0069 

8.38 

36 

1.3302 

11.09 

2 

1.0139 

8.46 

37 

1.3425 

11.18 

3 

1.0211 

8.51 

38 

1.3551 

11.29 

4 

1.0283 

8.56 

39 

1.3679 

11.39 

5 

1.0357 

8.63 

40 

1.3809 

11.51 

6 

1.0431 

8.69 

41 

1.3942 

11.61 

7 

1.0507 

8.75 

42 

1.4077 

11.72 

8 

1.0583 

8.81 

43 

1.4215 

11.34 

9 

1.0661 

8.88 

44 

1.4356 

11.96 

10 

1.0740 

.    8.94 

45 

1.4500 

12.08 

11 

1.0820 

9.01 

46 

1.4646 

12.21 

12 

1.0902 

9.09 

47 

1.4795 

12.33 

13 

1.0984 

9.15 

48 

1  .  4949 

12.46 

14 

1  .  1068 

9.21 

49 

1.5104 

12.58 

15 

1.1153 

9.29 

50 

1.5263 

12.72 

16 

1  .  1240 

9.36 

51 

1.5425 

12.85 

17 

1  .  1328 

9.43 

52 

1.5591 

12.99 

18 

1.1417 

9.51 

53 

1.5760 

13.13 

19 

1  .  1507 

9.59 

54 

1  .  5934 

13.27 

20 

1.1600 

9.67 

55 

1.6111 

13.42 

21 

1  .  1693 

9.74 

56 

1  .  6292 

13.57 

22 

1.1788 

9.81 

57 

1.6477 

13.72 

23 

1  .  1885 

9.90 

58 

1  .  6666 

13.87 

24 

1  .  1983 

9.99 

59 

1.6860 

14.04 

25 

1  .  2083 

10.07 

60 

1.7056 

14.20 

26 

1.2184 

10.16 

61 

1.7261 

14.38 

27 

1  .  2288 

10.24 

62 

1.7469 

14.55 

28 

1.2393 

10.32 

63 

1  .  7682 

14.72 

29 

1.2500 

10.41 

64 

1.7901 

14.91 

30 

1.2608 

10.51 

65 

1.8125 

15.10 

31 

1.2719 

10.59 

66 

1.8354 

15.29 

32 

1.2831 

10.69 

67 

1  .  8589 

15.48 

33 

1  .  2946 

10.78 

68 

1.8831 

15.68 

34 

1.3063 

10.84 

69 

1.9079 

15.89 

35 

1.3181 

10.98 

70 

1.9333 

16.10 

NOTE. — This  table  of  Baume's  hydrometer  was  adopted  in  1903  as  the  basis 
for  all  instruments  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  acids  and  alkalies  by  the 
Manufacturing  Chemists'  Association  of  the  United  States.  It  has  the  official 
sanction  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C. 

It  is  calculated  for  a  temperature  of  60  degrees  Fahr.  and  is  based  upon  the 

145                                                                             145 
formulae:    =  Specific  gravity  and  145 =  B°. 


B°  +  145 


Specific  gravity 


744 


FlRE    PREVENTI6N    AND    PROTECTION 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE— WIRE  AND  SHEET  METAL  GAUGES 


imber  of 
Sauge 

|!l 

h/l-   ro 

cjSO 
13  S 

erican  or 
3wn  and 
•pe  Gauge 

•§  & 

<a  c  3 

.»3(5 

bfl.O1-' 

Its 

"11 
»3 

i« 

British  Im'perial 
Standard 
Wire  Gauge 

(Legal  Standard 

llll 

"§WMIH_ 

imber  of 
jauge 

^j  •*•> 

z 

.fia5g 

CQ££ 

•«»J 

•§*! 

rS   ^ 

|g 

in  Great  Britain 
since 

rifftfl 

,-J  re  C  C 

;-»  ^" 

K  *$ 

March  1,  1884) 

i-JQ  re  re 

inch 

inch 

inch 

inch 

inch 

millim. 

inch 

0000000 

.49 

.500 

12.7 

.5 

7/0 

000000 

.46 

.464 

11.78 

.469 

6/0 

00000 

.43 

.432 

10.97 

.438 

5/0 

0000 

.454 

.46 

.393 

.4 

10.16 

.406 

4/0 

000 

.425 

.  40964 

.362 

.372 

9.45 

.375 

3/0 

00 

.38 

.3648 

.331 

.348 

8.84 

.344 

2/0 

0 

.34 

.32486 

.307 

.324 

8.23 

.313 

0 

1 

.3 

.2893 

.283 

.227 

.3 

7.62 

.281 

1 

2 

.284 

.25763 

.263 

.219 

.276 

7.01 

.266 

2 

3 

.259 

.  22942 

.244 

.212 

.252 

6.4 

.25 

3 

4 

,238 

.20431 

.225 

.207 

.232 

5.89 

.234 

4 

5 

22 

.  18194 

.207 

.204 

.212 

5.38 

.219 

5 

6 

^203 

.16202 

.192 

.201 

.192 

4.88 

.203 

6 

7 

.18 

.  14428 

.177 

.199 

.176 

4.47 

188 

7 

8 

.165 

.  12849 

.162 

.197 

.16 

4.06 

.172 

8 

9 

.148 

.11424 

.148 

.194 

.144 

3.66 

.156 

9 

10 

.134 

.  10189 

.135 

.191 

.128 

3.25 

.141 

10 

11 

.12 

.09074 

.12 

.188 

.116 

2.95 

.125 

11 

12 

.109 

.08081 

.105 

.185 

.104 

2.64 

.109 

12 

13 

.095 

.07196 

.092 

.182 

.092 

2.34 

.094 

13 

14 

.033 

.  06403 

.08 

.180 

.08 

2.03 

.078 

14 

15 

.072 

.05707 

.072 

.178 

.072 

1.83 

.07 

15 

16 

.053 

.  05082 

.063 

.175 

.064 

1.63 

.0625 

16 

17 

.058 

.04526 

.054 

.172 

.056 

1.42 

.0563 

17 

18 

.049 

.0403 

.047 

.168 

.048 

1.22 

.05 

18 

19 

.042 

.03589 

.041 

.164 

.04 

1.02 

.0438 

19 

20 

.035 

.03196 

.035 

.161 

.036 

.91 

.0375 

20 

21 

.032 

.02846 

.032 

.157 

.032 

.81 

.0344 

21 

22 

.028 

.02535 

.028 

.155 

.028 

.71 

.0313 

22 

23 

.025 

.02257 

.025 

.153 

.024 

.61 

.0281 

23 

24 

.022 

.0201 

.023 

.151 

.022 

.56 

.025 

24 

25 

.02 

.0179 

.02 

.148 

.02 

.51 

.0219 

25 

26 

.018 

.01594 

.018 

.146 

.018 

.46 

.0183 

26 

27 

.016 

.01419 

.017 

.143 

.0164 

.42 

.0172 

27 

28 

.014 

.01264 

.016 

.139 

.0148 

.38 

.0156 

28 

29 

.013 

.01126 

.015 

.134 

.0136 

-  .35 

.0141 

29 

30 

.012 

.01002 

.014 

.127 

.0124 

.31 

.0125 

30 

31 

.01 

,00893 

.013 

.120 

.0116 

.29 

.0109 

31 

32 

.009 

.  00795 

.013 

.115 

.0108 

.27 

.0101 

32 

33 

.008 

.  00708 

.011 

.112 

.01 

.25 

.  0094 

33 

34 

.007 

.0063 

.01 

.110 

.0092 

.23 

.0086 

34 

35 

.005 

.00561 

.00 

•  10§> 

.0084 

.21 

.0078 

35 

36 

.004 

.005 

.009 

.10$ 

.0076 

.19 

.007 

36 

37 

.  00445 

.0085 

.103 

.0068 

.17 

.0066 

37 

38 

.00396 

.008 

.101 

.006 

.15 

.0063 

38 

39 

.00353 

.0075 

.099 

.0052 

.13 

39 

40 

.00314 

.007 

.097 

.0048 

.12 

40 

TABLES 


745 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  PRESSURE  IN  FEET  HEAD  OF 
WATER  INTO  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH 


Feet 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

4.33 

4.76 

5.20 

5.63 

6.03 

6.50 

6.93 

7.36 

7.80 

8.23 

20 

8.66 

9.10 

9.53 

9.96 

10.39 

10.83 

11.26 

11.69 

12.13 

12.56 

30 

12.99 

13.43 

13.86 

14.29 

14.73 

15.16 

15.59 

16.02 

16.46 

16.  g9 

40 

17.32 

17.76 

18.19 

18.62 

19.06 

19.49 

19.92 

20.36 

20.79 

21.22 

50 

21.65 

22.09 

22.52 

22.95 

23.39 

23.82 

24.25 

24.69 

25.12 

25.55 

60 

25.99 

26.42 

26.85 

27.28 

27.72 

28.15  28.58 

29.02 

29.45 

29.88 

70 

30.32 

30.75 

31.18 

31.62 

32.05 

32.48 

32.91 

33.34 

33.78 

34.21 

80 

34.65 

35.08 

35.51 

35.95 

36.38 

36.81 

37.25 

37.68 

38.11 

38.58 

90 

38.98 

39.41 

39.84 

40.28 

40.71 

41.14 

41.58 

42.01 

42.44 

42.88 

100 

43.31 

43.74 

44.18 

44.61 

45.04 

45.47 

45.91 

46.34 

46.77 

47.21 

110 

47.64 

48.07 

48.51 

48.94 

49.37 

49.81 

50.24 

50.67 

51.10 

51.54 

120 

51.97 

52.40 

52.84 

53.27 

53.70 

54.14 

54.57 

55.00 

55.44 

55.87 

130 

56.30 

56.73 

57.17 

57.60 

58.03 

58.48 

58.90 

59.33 

59.77 

60.20 

140 

60.63 

61.07 

61.50 

61.93 

62.37 

62.80 

63.23 

63.661  64.10 

64.53 

150 

64.96 

65.40 

65.83 

66.26 

66.70 

67.13 

67.56 

68.00 

68.43 

68.86 

160 

69.29 

69.73 

70.16 

70.59 

71.03 

71.43 

71.89 

72.33 

72.76 

73.19 

170 

73.63 

74.06 

74.49 

74.92 

75.36 

75.79 

76.22 

76.66 

77.09 

77.52 

180 

77.96 

78.39 

78.82 

79.26 

79.69 

80.12 

80.55 

80.99 

81.42 

81.85 

190 

82.29 

82.72 

83.15 

83.59 

84.02 

84.45 

84.89 

85.32 

85.75 

86.19 

200 

86.62 

87.05 

87.48 

87.92 

88.35 

88.78 

89.22 

89.65 

90.08 

90.52 

210 

90.95 

91.38 

91.82 

92.25 

92.68 

93.11 

93.58 

93.98 

94.41 

94.85 

220 

95.28 

95.71 

96.15 

96.58 

97.01 

97.45 

97.88 

98.31 

98.74 

99.18 

230 

99.61 

100.04 

100.48 

100.91 

101.34 

101  .  78 

102.21 

102.64 

103.08 

103  .  51 

240 

103  .94 

104.38 

104.81 

105.25 

105.68 

106.11 

106.54 

106.97 

107.41 

107.84 

250 

108.27 

108.71 

109.14 

109.57 

110.01 

110.44 

110.87 

111.30 

111.74 

112.17 

260 

112.60 

113.04 

113.47 

113.90 

114.34 

114.77 

115.20 

115.64 

116.07 

116.50 

270 

116.93 

117.37 

117.80 

118.23 

118.67 

119.10 

119.53 

119.97 

120.40 

120.83 

280 

121.27 

121.70 

122.13 

122.56 

123.00 

123.43 

123.86 

124.30 

124.73 

125.16 

290 

125.60 

126.03 

126.46 

126.90 

127.33 

127.76 

128.19 

128.63 

129.06 

129.49 

300 

129.93 

130.36 

130.79 

131.23 

131.66 

132.09 

132.53 

132.96 

133.39 

133.82 

310 

134.26 

134.69 

135.13 

135.57 

136.00 

136.44 

136.87 

137.31 

137.74 

138.08 

320 

138.51 

138.95 

139.38 

139.85 

140.39 

140.75 

141.19 

141.62 

142.05 

142.48 

330 

142.89 

143.32 

143.75 

144.19 

144.62 

145.05 

145.49 

146.92 

146.35 

146.78 

340 

147.22 

147.65 

148.08 

148  .  52 

148.95 

149.38 

149.81 

150.24 

150.67 

151.12 

350 

151.58 

152.01 

152.44 

152.88 

153.31 

153  .  75 

154.18 

154.62 

155.05 

155.49 

TABLE  OF  HORSE  POWERS  REQUIRED  TO  PUMP  ONE  MILLION 
GALLONS  OF  WATER  FROM  10  TO  209  POUNDS 


Pounds 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10- 

4.05 

4.46 

4.86 

5.27 

5.67 

6.08 

6.48 

6.89 

7.30 

7.70 

20 

8.1 

8.5 

8.9 

9.3 

9.7 

10.1 

10.5 

10.9 

11.3 

11.7 

30 

12.1 

12.5 

13.0 

13.4 

13.8 

14.2 

14.6 

15.0 

15.4 

15.8 

40 

16.2 

16.6 

17.0 

17.4 

17.8 

18.2 

18.6 

19.0 

19.4 

19.8 

50 

20.3 

20.7 

21.1 

21.5 

21.9 

22.3 

22.7 

23.1 

23.5 

23.9 

60 

24.3 

24.7 

25.1 

25.5 

25.9 

26.3 

26.7 

27.1 

27.6 

28.0 

70 

28.4 

28.8 

29.2 

29.6 

30.0 

30.4 

30.8 

31.2 

31.6 

32.0 

80 

32.4 

32.8 

33.2 

33.6 

34.0 

34.4 

34.8 

35.3 

35.7 

36.1 

90 

36.5 

36.9 

37.3 

37.7 

38.1 

38.5 

38.9 

39.3 

39.7 

40.1 

100 

40.5 

40.9 

41.3 

41.7 

42.1 

42.6 

43.0 

43.4 

43.8 

44.2 

110 

44.6 

45.0 

45.4 

45.8 

46.2 

46.6 

47.0 

47.4 

47.8 

48.2 

120 

48.6 

49.0 

49.4 

49.8 

50.3 

50.7 

51.1 

51.5 

51.9 

52.3 

130 

52.7 

53.1 

53.5 

53.9 

54.3 

54.7 

55.1 

55.5 

55.9 

56.3 

140 

56.7 

57.1 

57.5 

58.0 

58.4 

58.8 

59.2 

59.6 

60.0 

60.4 

150 

60.8 

61.2 

61.6 

62.0 

62.4 

62.8 

63.2 

63.6 

64.0 

64.4 

160 

64.8 

65.3 

65.7 

66.1 

66.5 

66.8 

67.3 

67.7 

68.1 

68.5 

170 

68.9 

69.3 

69.7 

70.1 

70.5 

70.9 

71.3 

71.7 

72.1 

72.6 

180 

73.0 

73.4 

73.8 

74.2 

74.6 

75.0 

75.4 

75.8 

76.2 

76.6 

190 

77.0 

77J4 

77.8 

78.2 

78.6 

79.0 

79.4 

79.8 

80.3 

80.7 

200 

81.1 

81.5 

81.9 

82.3 

82.7 

83.1 

83.5 

83.9 

84.3 

84.7 

APPENDIX 

ACETYLENE  APPARATUS 

At  the  meeting  of  the  National  Fire  Prevention  Association  in 
May,  1916,  a  revision  of  the  regulations  covering  the  above  was 
submitted ;  to  a  large  extent  it  was  a  rewording  of  the  rules  given 
herein  on  pages  187  to  190  inclusive.  The  principal  changes  were 
a  recommendation  that  the  carbide  be  kept  in  the  generator  house 
and  that  rating  of  generators  be  on  capacity  of  carbide  and  rate 
of  generation  in  cubic  feet  of  gas,  rather  than  on  the  basis  of  num- 
ber of  lights,  as  heretofore,  and  a  g-hour  lighting  period  is  called  for. 

The    following   introductory   is    inserted : 

General  Precautions 

Failure    to    observe    the    following    precautions    and    specifications    will    en- 
danger  life   as   well   as  property. 
i.  CHARACTERISTICS    OF    ACETYLENE 

(a)  Acetylene    becomes    an    explosive    compound    under    certain    conditions 
and    must    be    handled    with    care. 

(b)  Mixtures    of    acetylene    and    air    very    explosive    and    must    be    carefully 
guarded    against. 

(c)  Under    no    conditions    must    acetylene    be    subjected    to    more    than    15 
pounds   pressure    unless   it    is   dissolved   in    acetone   or    other   approved   solvent 
and   contained   in   a  cylinder   of   the   type   described  in   Classi  E. 

Self-compression  generators  which  develop  pressures  above  15  pounds  to 
the  square  inch  are  absolutely  prohibited. 

(d)  The   use   of   liquid   acetylene,   or   gas   generated   therefrom   is   absolutely 
prohibited. 

(e)  Tests    of    generators    or    piping    for    leaks    must    not    be    made    with    a 
flame,    and    a    flame    must    never    be    applied    to    an    outlet    from    which    the 
burner    has    been    removed.      Tests    for    leaks    should    be    made    with    soap    and 
water. 

(f)  Soldering    irons    should    not    be    used    on    acetylene    generators    until    it 
is    certain    that    all    gas    has    been    removed.  Soldering    irons    should    never    be 
used    on    acetylene    cylinders    under    any   conditions. 

In  determining  the  size  of  generators,  each  pound  of  carbide  in 
the  charge  is  assumed  as  capable  of  producing  4^  cubic  feet  of 
gas,  and  an  allowance  of  not  more  than  ^  cubic  foot  per  hour 
per  pound  of  carbide  in  the  charge  may  be  made.  The  suggested 
regulations  omit  the  requirements  on  pipe  sizes  for  the  house  piping, 
but  this  is  being  worked  up  in  conjunction  with  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Standards  as  Part  4  of  a  National  Safety  Code  and  will  be 
included  later. 

In  addition  to  the  regulations  for  Classes  A,  B  and  C,  regula- 
tions were  also  compiled  for  Classes  D  and  E;  these  are  as  follows: 

747 


748  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Class  D — Stationary  Automatic  Generators  Permitted  for  Out- 
side Installation 

1.  SIZE   AND    STYLE   OF    GENERATOR 

(a)  The    capacity    of    any    generator    of    the    automatic    type    shall    be    suf- 
ficient   to    furnish    acetylene    continuously    for    the    maximum    lighting    period 
to    all    lights    installed.      A    lighting    period    of    at    least    nine    hours    shall    be 
provided    for    in    every    case    and    for    conditions    of   service    requiring    lighting 
periods   of   more   than    nine    hours   shall   be    of   sufficient   capacity    to    avoid    re- 
charging   by    artificial    light.      In    determining    the    size    of    generator    required 
each    pound    of    carbide    in    the    charge    may    be    estimated    as    capable    of    pro- 
ducing   four    and    one-half    cubic    feet    of    gas. 

(b)  In     selecting    a    generator,     an     allowance    of    not    more     than     one-half 
cubic    foot    of    acetylene    per    hour    shall    be    made    for    each    pound    of   carbide 
in    the    rated    charge. 

(c)  A   small    generator    shall    never    be    installed    to    supply    a   large    number 
of   lights,  even   though   it  seems  probable   that  only  a   few   lights'  will  be   used 
at    a    time. 

(d)  Burners    are    usually    marked    to    indicate    the    cubic    feet    of    acetylene 
which    they    consume    per    hour. 

2.  MAKERS    INSTRUCTIONS    TO    BE    FOLLOWED 

(a)  When     installing    generators,     the     instruction     card     furnished     by     the 
maker    should    be    carefully    read    and    its    directions    followed    in    every    detail. 

(b)  Approved   warning  and  instruction   cards  provided   by   the   maker   should 
be   posted   in   a   well   lighted   position   near  the   generator   so   that   the   operator 
may  consult   them  conveniently   from   time   to  time. 

3.  LOCATION 

Generators  of  this  class  when  installed  in  accordance  with  Rule  2,  are 
to  be  installed  30  feet  from  buildings  where  possible  but  never  less  than 
10  feet  removed  and  so  as  not  to  expose  openings  into  buildings. 

4.  ACCESSIBILITY    TO    UNAUTHORIZED    PERSONS 
Generators    shall    be    kept    under    lock    and    key. 

5.  PROTECTION    AGAINST    FREEZING 

Generators  must  be  protected  against  freezing.  No  salt  or  other  corrosive 
chemical  is  permissible  as  a  protection  against  freezing. 

6.  WATER    SUPPLY    CONNECTION 

Water  must  not  be  supplied  through  a  continuous  connection  leading  into 
the  generator.  In  cases  where  generators  are  supplied  with  water  from 
city  water  mains  or  house  pipes,  no  direct  pipe  connection  with  the  gen- 
erator is  permitted.  The  supply  pipe  must  terminate  some  distance  above 
the  regularly  provided  opening  for  filling  so  that  the  water  can  be  observed 
as  it  enters  the  generator. 

7.  DRAIN  CONNECTION 

Machines  of  the  carbide-feed  type  must  not  be  fitted  with  continuous 
drain  connections  leading  to  sewers,  but  must  discharge  into  suitable  open 
receptacles  which  may  have  such  connections. 

8.  CARE    OF    GENERATORS 

(a)  In    the    care    of    generators,    always    clean    and    recharge    the    generating 
chambers    at    regular    intervals    regardless    of   the    number    of    burners   actually 
used.      This    work   should   be    done    at   a    regular    time,    during    daylight    hours 
only. 

(b)  Where    generators    are    not    used    throughout    the    entire    year,    always 


APPENDIX  749 

first    remove    all    carbide    and    then    drain    and    clean    thoroughly    at    the    end 
of  the   season   in   which  they   are  in  service. 

(c)  In    order    to    remove    all    gas    from    the    machine,    it    is    generally    neces- 
sary   to   take   out    the   bell   portion   and  invert    it   so   that   the    gas   can    readily 
escape.     This  should  never  be  done   in   the  presence  of  artificial  light   or  fire 
of    any    kind. 

(d)  Whenever    repairs   are   to    be    made    or   the    generator    is   to    be   charged 
or   carbide    is   to   be   removed,   the   water   chamber   should    be    full   during   this 
operation    to    avoid    the    danger    of    explosive    mixture    of    air    and    gas    within 
the    water    space    and    also    to    prevent    the    dropping    of    fresh    carbide    into 
sufficient    water. 

9.  RECHARGING    GENERATORS 

(a)  The    carbide    added    each    time    the    generator    is    recharged    should    be 
sufficient    to    completely    fill    the    space    provided    for    carbide    without    packing 
or  ramming  the   charge. 

(b)  When    recharging   carbide-feed    generators,    observe    the    following    order 
of    operations    strictly:     first,    clean    out    generating    chamber;    second,    imme- 
diately  fill   with  clean   water;   third,   fill   hopper   with   carbide.      Never   attempt 
to   introduce   carbide   until   after  generating   chamber   is   completely   filled   with 
water.      Be    careful    not   to   place    in    the    generators    less    than    one    gallon    of 
water    for    each    pound    of    the    carbide    capacity    and    not    to    bring   the    water 
above   the   point  marked   on   the   machine   as   the   proper   level. 

(c)  Whenever   any   fresh   carbide    is   added   to   the   supply   in   a   carbide-feed 
generator,    this    must    be    done    only    after    the    water    supply    has    been    com- 
pletely   replenished    in    accordance    with    paragraph    b    above.      This    precaution 
is    necessary    to    avoid    otherheating    during    generation    and    accumulation    of 
a  heavy  deposit  of  residuum  in  the  generating  chamber. 

(d)  In  the  type  of  generators  where  the  hopper  is  lifted  out  for  recharging, 
care    should    be    taken   that    the    hopper    is    set    in   a    dry   place,    not   on    damp 
ground    or    snow    which    would    cause    slacking    of    the    carbide    around    the 
feeding   mechanism. 

10.  MANIPULATION    BY    DAYLIGHT   REQUIRED 

All    charging    and    cleaning    of    apparatus    and    execution    of    repairs    shall 
be    done    during    daylight    hours    and    by    natural    light    only. 

Never   use   a   lighted   match,   lamp,   candle,   lantern   or   any   other   flame   near 
the    generator, 
u.  PIPING 

(a)  Rules    for    house    piping    are    to    be    the    same    as    those    for    Standard 
Automatic    Generators     for    Inside    Installation. 

(b)  Outside    piping    connecting    generator    with    buildings    shall    be    sharply 
graded    to    the    lowest   point    outside    of    buildings    and    where    condensation    is 
not    provided    for    by    the    piping    draining    into    the    generator,    a    drip    shall 
be    provided    at    such    lowest   point    to    take    care    of    condensation.      This    drip 
must   be   so   constructed  as  to   permit   draining  or  pumping  out   the   condensa- 
tion   at    necessary    intervals. 

(c)  All   underground   piping 'to   be   galvanized   and   exposed   threads  covered 
with    a    non-corrosive    covering. 

(d)  Underground   piping   shall    be   of   an   even   slope    from   any   direction   to 
the    low    point.      Substantial    block    supports    should    be    put    under    the    piping 
at    intervals   especially    at    the   joints. 

(e)  Gas    cock    should    be    provided    inside    of   all    buildings    where    it    can    be 
conveniently   reached   near  the  point  of  entrance  so  as  to  permit  shutting  of 
gas   supply    from   any    building. 


750  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Class  E — Dissolved  Acetylene  Under  Pressure  for  Use  in 
Lighting   Systems 

1.  CYLINDERS 

Cylinders  accepted  for  transportation  in  Interstate  Commerce  and  bearing 
labels  to  the  effect  that  they  comply  with  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
regulations  or  bearing  test  marks  as  prescribed  in  paragraph  14  of  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  .shipping  container  specifications  No.  8,  effective  Octo- 
ber ist,  1914,  shall  be  considered  suitable  for  employment  in  any  acetylene 
lighting  installation. 

2.  INSTALLATION 

a.  Cylinders    shall    be    installed    on     outside     of    any    building    or    in    well 
ventilated   compartments   of  vessels. 

b.  Where  installed   for  house  lighting  must  be   protected  against  mechanical 
injury  or  tampering  by  suitable  ventilated  box  of  durable  construction  arranged 
to  be  kept  locked. 

c.  Cylinders   should   be   connected  to   the   permanent   house    or   vessel   piping 
with   extra    heavy   steel   tubing  or  pipe. 

d.  Between    cylinders    and    low    pressure    piping    there    shall    be    installed    a 
pressure    gauge    to    serve    as    an    indicator    of    pressure    in    the    cylinder    or 
cylinders   provided    such    gauge   is   not   a   permanent   part   of   cylinder,    and   an 
automatic    pressure    regulator    designed    to    reduce    the    high    pressure    of    the 
cylinders   to    the    low   pressure   employed    in   the    lighting   systems. 

On  the  low  pressure  side  of  the  automatic  pressure  regulator  shall  be 
installed  an  approved  type  of  mechanical  or  mercury  pressure  relief  arranged 
to  release  pressure  from  cylinders  in  the  event  of  derangement  of  pressure 
reducing  mechanism  which  would  otherwise  allow  the  accumulation  of  high 
pressure  from  cylinders  to  enter  the  low  pressure  system. 

Such  pressure  release  is  of  mercury  to  be  of  self-restoring  type  releasing 
direct  to  outside  and  to  be  simple  in  design  and  construction. 

3.  PIPING 

Permanent  piping  in  houses  or  on  vessels  to  be  of  standard  iron  pipe  or 
of  seamless  brass  tubing,  such  tubing  to  be  of  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch 
outside  dimension,  having  sufficient  internal  diameter  to  insure  adequate 
supply  of  gas  within  the  working  range  of  the  low  pressure  of  5  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  maximum  in  the  system.  • 

Seamless  brass  tubing  to  withstand  a  test  pressure  of  500  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  and  to  be  installed  as  per  item  530  and  notes  to  same  (from  rules — 
nronosed — for  installation  and  use  of  Class  C,  semi-portable  automatic 
apparalus). 

Seamless  brass  tubing  to  be  made  up  with  connections  of  the  compression 
coupling  type  (these  being  in  our  opinion  far  superior  to  soldered  joints  or 
flared  union  couplings). 

1916    REPORT    OF    NATIONAL    FIRE   PROTECTION 

ASSOCIATION  COMMITTEE  ON  AUTOMATIC 

SPRINKLERS 

Dry  Pipe  Sprinkler  Systems  in  Refrigeration  Rooms 

Ice  formations  of  such  a  character  as  to  seriously  impair  the 
automatic  sprinkler  protection  have  been  reported  in  a  number  of 
cold  storage  warehouses,  following  detailed  examinations  of  the 
piping  by  several  inspection  departments. 

Your  committee  was  requested  to  consider  this  subject,  recom- 
mend a  uniform  method  for  conducting  further  tests,  and  solicit 


APPENDIX  751 

co-operation  of  the  various  inspection  departments,  with  a  view 
to  ascertaining  if  these  formations  may  be  expected  generally  in 
properties  of  the  class,  and  if  so,  if  adequate  preventive  meas- 
ures have  been  or  can  be  devised.  A  uniform  blank  has,  there- 
fore, been  distributed  by  the  committee  among  such  of  the  active 
members  as  it  should  interest  and  the  promise  of  co-operation  has 
been  very  satisfactory.  As,  however,  the  blank  was  not  issued 
until  after  the  first  of  the  year,  there  has  not  been  sufficient  time 
to  furnish  the  required  information  for  any  extended  committee 
report  at  this  time. 

Technically,  there  is  danger  of  such  ice  formation  from  the 
presence  alone  of  the  priming  water  of  the  dry  pipe  valve,  ignor- 
ing entirely  any  moisture  that  may  enter  the«  system  through  the 
air  compressor  or  by  other  means.  Until  there  is  opportunity, 
however,  to  secure  details  from  the  further  examinations,  and  to 
enquire  particularly  into  remedial  measures  which  have  already 
been  adopted  and  said  to  be  effective,  or  that  have  been  proposed, 
your  committee  would  prefer  not  to  recommend  any  action  through 
the  sprinkler  regulations.  Permission  is,  therefore,  requested  to 
continue  the  matter  further,  and  the  co-operation  of  anyone  inter- 
ested in  this  particular  subject  is  earnestly  solicited. 

Among  the  various  measures  that  have  already  been  adopted 
or  recommended  are:  Calcium  chloride  reservoir  in  the  discharge 
line  from  the  air  compressor,  ammonia  cooled  dessicator  or  freezer, 
oil  seal  on  priming  water  of  dry  pipe  valve,  calcium  chloride  reservoir 
in  the  main  riser  above  the  dry  pipe  valve,  separator  in  the  dis- 
charge line  from  the  air  compressor,  air  suction  from  freezer 
room,  by-passes  in  the  sprinkler  lines  in  which  the  ice  crystals 
may  build  up  leaving  the  sprinkler  pipes  free,  greater  pitch  to  the 
sprinkler  piping  and  use  of  a  greater  number  of  flanged  connec- 
tions, maintaining  at  least  one  foot  air  space  where  possible  between 
the  sprinkler  piping  and  the  refrigeration  coils  or  insulation  of 
piping  where  in  contact  with  or  in  close  proximity  to  such  coils, 
rearranging  present  methods  of  air  connections,  connection  of  anti- 
columning  pipe  where  used  to  be  within  the  warm  dry  pipe  valve 
enclosure,  where  feasible  sprinkler  piping  for  freezer  sections  to 
be  kept  entirely  separate  from  the  sprinkler  piping  in  the  rest 
of  the  property. 

In  this  connection,  your  committee  would  point  out  that  any 
pre-drying  arrangement  is  ineffective  if  the  air  connection  enters 
the  system  in  such  a  manner  that  the  air  will  pass  through  the 
priming  water,  or  any  drainage  that  may  lie  on  top  of  the  priming 
water,  as  is  extremely  likely  to  be  the  case  in  the  method  adopted 
for  air  connection  with  some  types  of  dry  pipe  valves.  Par- 
ticular attention  is  called  to  rule  54  of  the  sprinkler  regulations 
in  this  respect,  which  states  that  the  air  connection  should  enter 
the  system  in  the  main  riser  above  the  dry  pipe  valve. 

Method  of  Conducting  the  Tests 
First  to  remove  pipes  where  crossing,   closest  to,  or  in   contact 

with    refrigeration    coils,    or   where   pipes    are    encased    in    ice;    to 

remove   any  other  piping  deemed   necessary. 

To  lower  weight  down  riser  pipes  to  see  if  clear. 

Give   approximate   thickness   of    ice    formed   inside   pipe   as   well 

as   diameter  of   pipe.     State  whether  ice  appears   snowy  or  hard. 


752 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


On  ground  plans  mark  with  solid  lines  any  sprinkler  pipes  or 
heads  found  completely  out  of  service  from  frost;  and  mark  with 
broken  lines  any  partly  out  of  service  and  note  percentage  of 
system  out  of  commission. 

Take  photographs  of  any  interesting  conditions  where  possible, 
and  illustrate  by  drawings  such  conditions  where  photos  cannot 
be  taken.  Group  illustrations  with  the  subject  matter  they  depict, 
and  not  separately. 

Take   temperatures   of   water    supplies. 

Take  temperature  of  air  where  it  enters  the  system. 

Object  of  Tests 

To   ascertain  if   ring  ice   formation   is   a  necessary  result   from 
present    methods    of    installation. 
If  so,  the  cause : 

(a)  From  moisture  pumped  into  system. 

(b)  Evaporation   of   priming  water. 

If  system  has  been  properly  maintained,  the  precautions  taken; 
or  any  suggested  remedy. 

Cubical  Contents  of  a  Sprinkler  System 

To  ascertain  this  accurately,  it  will  be  necessary  to  measure  up 
each  system.  Capacities  of  pipes  in  one  foot  lengths  are  as 
follows : 


Diameter 
in 
inches 

Cubic  feet 

U.  S. 
gallons, 
231  cu.  ins. 

Diameter 
in 
inches 

Cubic  feet 

U.  S. 
gallons, 
231  cu.  ins. 

f. 

0031 

0230 

3^ 

0668 

4998 

1 

0055 

0408 

4 

0873 

6528 

U   . 

0085 

0638 

5 

1364 

1  020 

I!  :- 

.0123 
.0218 

.0918 
1632 

6  
8 

.1963 
3491 

1.469 
2  611 

I".  ::::::::: 

.0341 
.0491 

.2550 
3672 

10  
12 

.5454 
7854 

4.08 
5  875 

The  approximate  capacity  can  be  obtained  by  allowing  about  one 
gallon  per  sprinkler.  This  includes  riser  and  all  distribution  pipes 
within  the  risk,  but  does  not  include  any  long  runs  from  the 
dry  pipe  valve  to  the  system.  This  figure  (one  gallon  per  head) 
applies  specially  to  systems  piped  from  center  with  75  to  115  heads 
on  each  floor.  If  system  of  115  heads  is  fed  from  end  instead 
of  center,  contents  will  be  about  il/4  gallons  per  head.  For  large 
systems,  with  6  inch  riser  and  about  250  heads  per  floor,  contents, 
if  riser  in  center,  will  be  about  il/4  gallons  per  head,  and  if  riser 
is  at  one  end,  will  be  i^  gallons  per  head. 

Note. — If  the  run  of  pipe  from  the  dry  pipe  valve  to  the  system 
is  in  excess  of  12  feet,  add  the  capacity  of  this  excess  (by  above 
table)  to  the  figures  and  divide  the  total  by  7.48  (the  number  of 
gallons  in  one  cubic  foot),  which  will  give  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  in  the  system. 

Example. — 400  sprinklers  =  400  gallons ;  62  ft.  of  5-inch  pipe 
from  dry  pipe  valve  to  the  system  (50  ft.  in  excess  of  12  ft.) 
adds  50  gallons,  making  a  total  of  450  gallons,  which  divided  by 
7.48  gives  60.294  cubic  feet. 


APPENDIX 


753 


Amount  of  Moisture  Pumped  into  System 

This  will  depend  on  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  the  tight- 
ness of  the  system  (frequency  of  pumping),  if  there  is  any  drying 
arrangement — such  as  a  calcium  chloride  reservoir — and  the  pounds 
pressure  raised.  The  following  table  illustrates  the  amount  of 
moisture  at  different  temperatures : 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  IN  GRAINS  OF  THE  WATER  CONTAINED 
AS  VAPOUR  IN  i  CUBIC  FOOT  OF  AIR  AT  DIFFERENT  TEM- 
PERATURES   AND    PERCENTAGE    HUMIDITY 


PER  CENT  HUMIDITY 


Temp. 
°F 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100% 

—20 

.017 

.033 

.050 

.066 

.083 

.100 

.116 

.133 

.149 

.166 

—10 

.028 

.057 

.086 

.114 

.142 

.171 

.200 

.228 

.256 

.285 

0 

.048 

.096 

.144 

.192 

.240 

.289 

.337 

.385 

.433 

.481 

10 

.078 

.155 

.233 

.310 

.388 

.466 

.543 

.621 

.698 

.776 

20 

.124 

.247 

.370 

.494 

.618 

.741 

.864 

.988 

1.112 

1.235 

30 

.194 

.387 

.580 

.774 

.968 

1.161 

1.354 

1.548 

1.742 

1.935 

40 

.285 

.570 

.855 

1.140 

1.424 

1.709 

1.994 

2.279 

2.564 

2.849 

50 

.408 

.815 

1.223 

1.630 

2.038 

2.446 

2.853 

3.261 

3.668 

4.076 

60 

.574 

1.149 

1.724 

2.298 

2.872 

3.447 

4.022 

4.596 

5.170 

5.745 

70 

.798 

1.596 

2.394 

3.192 

3.990 

4.788 

5.586 

6.384 

7.182 

7.980 

80 

1.093 

2.187 

3.280 

4  .  374 

5.467 

6.560 

7.654 

8.747 

9.841 

10.934 

90 

1.479 

2.958 

4.437 

5.916 

7.395 

8.874 

10.353 

11.832 

13.311 

14.790 

100 

1.977 

3.953 

5.930 

7.9061  9.883 

11.860 

13.836 

15.813 

17.789 

19.766 

110 

2.611 

5.222 

7.834 

10.445 

13.056 

}5.667 

18.278 

20.890 

23  .  501 

26.112 

APPLICATION. — Capacity  of  a  sprinkler  system  is  say  60  cubic 
feet.  With  the  air  at  70°  Fahr.  and  100%  humidity  there  will  be 
7.980  grains  of  water  vapour  at  atmosphere  pressure  (14.7  Ibs.  per 
sq.  inch).  To  raise  the  pressure  to  40  Ibs.  from  zero  in  such  a 
system  will  require 
40 

x  60  =  163.3  cubic  feet  of  air, 

14-7 
which   will  introduce 

.  163.3  x  7.980 

-   =   .1861    Ib.   of  water   vapour, 
7000 

provided  no  change  of  temperature  results.  Most  of  this  water  will 
be  condensed  at  the  pump  since  the  air  is  already  saturated,  and 
only  that  amount  necessary  to  saturate  60  cubic  feet  will  be  in- 
troduced into  the  system. 

Second  Example. — Suppose  air  at  70°  and  50  %  humidity  is 
pumped  in,  practically  the  same  amount  of  moisture  will  be  intro- 
duced since  a  pressure  increase  to  30  Ibs.  will  cause  saturation.  Less 
moisture  will  be  condensed,  however,  at  the  pump. 

In  general,  it  may  be  safe  to  say  that  the  air  on  the  high 
pressure  side  beyond  the  heat  of  compression  will  be  saturated  at 
whatever  temperature  the  air  passes  into  the  cooling  rooms.  This, 
of  course,  may  not  hold  on  winter  days,  when  the  air  temperature 
is  low. 


754  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  moisture  will  be  introduced  into 
the  system  even  if  a  drying  tube  is  put  in  the  suction  pipe,  because 
of  the  presence  of  the  priming  water  in  the  dry  pipe  valve.  It 
may  be  asked  why  under  normal  working  conditions  this  does  not 
dry  up?  The  answer  is  obvious,  when  the  condensation  of  moisture, 
due  to  the  compression,  is  taken  into  account,  which  more  than 
offsets  any  evaporation  from  this  source  into  the  sprinkler  pipes. 

In  calculating  the  amount  of  moisture  introduced,  the  tempera- 
tures should  be  taken  in  the  air  pipe  where  it  enters  the  system, 
a  special  thermometer  to  be  installed  for  this  purpose.  The  com- 
pression pump  should  be  in  full  operation  and  the  compression  heat 
at  its  maximum.  When  a  system  requires  frequent  pumping  (daily 
or  every  few  days)  the  sum  total  of  the  moisture  introduced  may 
be  considerable. 

Estimate  of  Amount  of  Moisture  Pumped  in  and  Volume  of 
Snowy  Ice  Formed 

In  our  first  example  we  found  that  .186  Ib.  of  water  was  intro- 
duced by  the  compression.  Of  this  we  may  exclude  all  but  that 
required  to  saturate  the  air  at  70°  Fahr.  on  the  high  pressure  side 
(no  more  moisture  can  be  introduced  than  that  required  to  main- 
tain the  maximum  vapour  pressure  no  matter  what  the  air  pressure 
may  be).  Hence  we  have: 

7.980  x  60 
.0684  x  26  =   1.778  Ib. 

7000 
of   water    vapour   introduced '  in   one   pumping. 

If  the  system  is  pumped  up  once  a  week  for  say  six  months  (26 
weeks)  we  have 

.0684  x  26  =    1.788  Ib. 

of  water  introduced.     If  this  were  all  condensed  we  would  have 
1.7  pints   of   water  or  49.1   cubic  inches. 

Various  estimates  are  given  for  the  volume  of  snowy  ice,  com- 
pared with  an  equal  weight  of  water,  which  range  from  4  to  40 
times  in  bulk. 

Suppose  we  take  the  most  conservative  estimate  and  make  the 
increase  only  four  times,  then  the  volume  of  snowy  ice  or  hoar 
frost  deposited  in  the  pipes  passing  through  a  room  kept  at  say— 
20°  F.  would  be  practically 

49.1  x  4  =   196.4  cubic  inches. 

Referring  to  the  next  table  it  will  be  seen  that  this  is  more  than 
enough  to  completely  block  a  foot  of  4  inch  pipe,  or  three  and 
one-half  feet  of  2j/2-inch  pipe. 

Now,  in  reality,  the  increase  in  volume  when  water  is  converted 
into  snowy  ice  is  generally  taken  as  10  times,  hence  it  will  be 
appreciated  how  easily  a  sprinkler  system  may  become  blocked  or 
the  pipes  in  the  coldest  rooms  become  seriously  reduced  in  volume. 

It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  if  a  sprinkler  system  is 
once  filled  with  water,  it  is  never  completely  drained  of  moisture, 
since  even  when  pipes  are  properly  pitched,  small  amounts  of 
moisture  are  retained  at  the  fittings  when  system  is  set.  With 
poorly  drained  systems,  the  amount  of  moisture  is  of  course 
greater. 


APPENDIX 


755 


TABLE    SHOWING    CUBICAL    CONTENTS    OF    PIPES    IN    RELATION    OF 
ACCUMULATION  OF  SNOWY  ICE 


Diameter 

Capacity 

Amount  of  water,  when  converted  into  snowy  ice 

in 

in 

which  would  fill  one  foot  length  of  pipe 

inches 

cubic  inches 

taking  increase  of  vol.  =  10  times 

*•  - 

5.357 

.0742  gill 

1    

9.504 

.132    gill 

li 

14  69 

203    gill 

if 

21.25 

294    gill 

2 

37  67 

523    giil 

2i.. 

58.93 

815    gill 

3    

84.85 

1.172    gills 

3J 

115  42 

1  594    gills 

4-  

150.83 

2.083    gills 

5 

235  70 

3  26      gills 

6  

339.20 

4.70      gills     1.18  pints 

8   . 

603  25 

8  35      gills     2  09  pints 

10.  .  . 

942.5 

13  02      gills     3  .  25  pints 

12  

1357.3 

18.8        gills     4.  70  pints 

Under  a  law  of  physics,  all  moisture,  either  liquid  or  solid,  will 
seek  the  places  of  lower  vapour  pressure  from  those  of  higher 
vapour  pressure.  In  a  dry  pipe  sprinkler  system,  the^place  of  highest 
vapour  pressure  under  normal  conditions  is  in  the  dry  pipe  valve 
enclosure,  and  the  places  of  lowest  vapour  pressure  in  a  cold  stor- 
age warehouse  are  the  rooms  with  the  lowest  temperature  (sharp 
freezers).  Look  first,  therefore,  for  ice  formation  in  the  rooms 
with  the  lowest  tempe/ature,  or  where  the  sprinkler  pipes  are  in 
contact  with  or  in  close  proximity  to  the  refrigeration  coils.  In 
an  unheated  building  of  even  temperature,  the  ice  formation  is 
more  likely  to  be  spread  uniformly  throughout  the  entire  sprinkler 
piping  outside  of  the  warm  dry  pipe  valve  enclosure.  In  a  build- 
ing heated  on  some  floors,  look  for  ice  formation  in  the  unheated 
sections.  Same  applies  to  unheated  blind  attics  or  roof  spaces. 
If  a  system  is  tight  and  it  can  be  ascertained  by  tests  that  very 
little  moisture  is  being  pumped  in  and  the  dry  pipe  valve  has  not 
tripped,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  if  ice  is  found  it  is  prin- 
cipally from  the  evaporation  of  the  priming  water  with  a  small 
percentage  from  the  moisture  left  in  the  system  when  drained  to 
set  dry  pipe. 
Formation  of  Hard  or  Black  Ice  and  the  Bursting  of  Pipes 

When  water  collects  in  a  pipe  due  to  insufficient  draining  and 
freezes,  it  forms  ordinary  solid  or  black  ice  distinguished  by 
its  non-uniform  distribution  over  the  walls  of  the  pipe,  and  more 
or  less  clear  consistency.  Such  ice  increases  only  slightly  in 
volume  when  compared  to  water  approximately  10%).  Should 
the  pipe  be  full  of  water  before  freezing  takes  places,  bursting 
almost  inevitably  results.  • 

Where  a  pipe  is  filled  by  the  deposition  of  snowy  ice  from  the 
freezing  of  the  vapour,  the  crystals  are  deposited  uniformly  over 
the  walls  of  the  pipe,  gradually  closing  it  until  only  a  small  hole 
is  left.  When  a  pipe  so  filled  becomes  completely  closed  no  extra 
pressure  is  brought  into  play,  and  no  bursting  should  result. 
Snowy  ice  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  hard  or  black  ice 


756  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

(i)    by  the  general  appearance,  the   former  being  white,  and    (2) 
by  the  manner  of  distribution  in  the  pipe  itself. 

CONVERSION  TABLE  WEIGHT  AND  MEASURES 

1  gill  =0.261  pound  =    7.29  cubic  inches. 

4  gills         =  1  pint  =1.042  pounds          =  28.875  cubic  inches. 

2  pints       =  1  quart  =  2.084  pounds          =  57.75  cubic  inches. 

4  quarts    =  1  gallon  =  8.336  pounds          =  231  cube  inches,  U.  S.  measure. 

1  cubic  foot  =  1728  cubic  inches  =  7.4805  U.  S.  gallons. 

1  British  imperial  gallon  =  10  pounds  =  1 . 20  U.  S.  gallons. 

Rules  for  the  Installation  of  Automatic  Sprinklers  in  Railway 

Car  House 

To  appear  as  section  "  N "  in  the  sprinkler  regulations,  with 
consecutive  numbers  following  section  "  M." 

SECTION  "  N."  RAILWAY  CAR  HOUSES.  Foregoing  rules  are  ^  to 
be  observed  in  protecting  this  class  of  property,  and  in  addition 
thereto  the  special  features  as  herein  recommended  are  to  apply. 

In  car  houses  of  fire  resistive  construction,  with  all  steel  work 
protected  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  N.  B.  F.  U., 
of  a  height  not  in  excess  of  25  feet,  and  with  areas  not  in  excess 
of  20,000  square  feet,  aisle  line  sprinklers  or  ceiling  sprinklers, 
but  not  both,  may  be  modified  or  eliminated  by  the  inspection 
department  having  jurisdiction. 

loo.-  CEILING  CURTAINS.  Permanent  ceiling  curtains  are  recom- 
mended in  buildings  having  a  height  of  over  25  feet  from  floor 
to  ceiling.  These  curtains  may  be  constructed  of  rigidly  sup- 
ported noncombustible  material,  or  of  not  less  than  i-inch  tongue 
and  grooved  boards,  coated  on  both  sides  with  standard  fire  re- 
tarding paint ;  curtains  to  sub-divide  ceiling  into  pocket  areas 
not  exceeding  5,000  square  feet  each,  and  to  be  of  a  depth  from 
ceiling  to  trolley  wire.  Inspection  department  having  jurisdiction 
should  be  consulted  as  regards  the  specific  location  of  these  curtains. 

101.  AISLE  SPRINKLERS,  (a)  In  addition  to  the  regular  ceiling 
installation,  sprinklers  shall  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  each  track, 
in  an  upright  position,  on  horizontal  pipe  lines  parallel  with  tracks, 
and  shall  be  so  located  that  water  will  spray  directly  into  cars 
through  side  windows  of  car  bodies;  the  sprinklers  must  be  at 
such  a  height  that  their  deflectors  will  be  from  two  to  four  inches 
below  the  upper  sash  rail  of  car  windows. 

(b)  When  the  distance  between  sides  of  cars  on  adjacent  tracks 
does  not  exceed  4  feet,  one  line  of  sprinklers  shall  be  placed  in 
the   center  of   each   aisle  between  tracks. 

(c)  When  the  distance  between  sides  of  cars  on  adjacent  tracks 
exqeeds  4  feet,  two  lines  of  sprinklers  must  be  installed.     Sprink- 
lers shall  not  be  placed  less  than  6  inches  nor  more  than  12  inches 
from  the  sides  of  cars  to  be  protected. 

(d)  When  the  distance  between  the  sides  of  cars  on  adjacent 
tracks  is  less  than   12  inches,  or  where  aisle  lines  in   accordance 
with  this   section  may  not  be  practicable,   as  at  curves,   switches, 
transfer  tables,   car  elevators,  repair  and  paint   shops,   special  in- 
structions   from   inspection    department   having  jurisdiction    should 
be  obtained  as  regards  installing  raised  or  altered  lines. 

(e)  Sprinklers    must    be    placed    between    cars    and    partitions, 
division  or  outer  walls,  not  less  than  6  inches  nor  more  than  12 
inches  from  the  sides  of  cars  to  be  protected. 


APPENDIX  757 

(f)  Distance  between  sprinklers  on  aisle  lines  shall  not  exceed 
8  feet. 

(g)  The    standard    pipe    schedule    shall    govern    installations   of 
aisle   lines,    except    that   no   pipe    smaller   than   one   inch   may   be 
used. 

(h)  Sprinklers  on  all   aisle  lines  shall  be  staggered  spaced. 

102.  SUPPLY    MAINS  TO   AISLE   SPRINKLERS,      (a)    Ceiling   and 
aisle    sprinklers    shall    be    installed    upon    separate    dry    valves    or 
alarm  valves. 

(b)  In  small  car  houses  or  sections  of  an  area  not  great  enough 
to  require  at  least  two  dry  valves,  ceiling  and  aisle  lines  may  be 
installed,   supplied  by  one  dry  valve,   in  which   case  separate  con- 
nections  are  to  be  taken   from  above  and  close  to  the  dry  pipe 
valve,   and  shut-off  valves  shall  be  provided  for  ceiling  and  aisle 
systems,  so  arranged  that  either  may  be  controlled  independently. 

(c)  Aisle  lines  must  not  be  supported  by  nor  connected  to  ceiling 
sprinkler   piping.      Special   hangers   or   supports   must  be   provided 
that  aisle  lines  may  be  rigidly  secure. 

(d)  Troughing  shall  be  installed  over  trolley  wires  in  such  a 
manner    as    to    preclude    the    possibility    of    a    short    circuit    being 
caused,   between   grounded   metal   work   and   trolley  wire,   by   the 
trolley  pole. 

103.  PITS   AND   UNDER   FLOOR   SPACE.     Where   the   under   floor 
space  does  not  communicate  with  the  pits,  is  tightly  enclosed,  and 
is   not  used   for  any  purpose,   sprinklers  may  be   omitted  in   such 
under    floor    space    by    special    consent,    in    each    instance,    of    the 
inspection    department   having   jurisdiction. 

Suggested  Amendments  to  Present  Regulations 
(See   edition  of   1915) 

SECTION  "  C."  RULE  16.  Partitions — to  add  a  second  paragraph 
reading  as  follows: 

"  Where  no  inflammable  material  is  stored  close  to  the  ceiling, 
the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction  may  waive  the  re- 
quirement for  providing  extra  sprinklers  in  narrow  pockets  formed 
by  beams  and  partitions  where  the  construction  is  entirely  fire- 
proof, including  the  partitions." 

SECTION  "  E."  RULE  25.  Supporting  of  Risers — to  add  to  the 
present  third  paragraph  at  foot  of  page  15  a  new  paragraph  as 
follows : 

"  In  lieu  of  floor  plates  and  couplings  as  called  for  above,  extra 
hangers  near  the  risers  and  so  arranged  as  to  properly  support 
the  weight,  may  be  accepted." 

SECTION  "  H."  DRY  PIPE  SYSTEM  AND  FITTINGS.  Preceding 
present  rule  54,  to  insert  a  new  one  reading:  "Anti-Columning 
Pipes.  When  anti-columning  pipes  are  used,  they  shall  be  either 
lead  lined  or  of  brass." 

RULE  56.     Flanged  Dummy — to  change  same  to  read : 

"A  flanged  section  of  pipe  with  drain  outlet  same  size  as  dry 
pipe  valve,  to  take  the  place  of  dry  pipe  valve,  in  case  of  repairs, 
should  be  provided  for  each  type  and  size  installed,  and  kept 
at  the  valve  " 


758 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Your   Government's    Choice 
in  Fire  and  Theft  Protection 

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THE  SAFE-CABINET  to  safe-guard  important  documents,  file;,  jnd 
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Thousands  of  large  and  small  factories,  stores,  offices  and  homes  are  now 
installing  this  great  creation. 

It  is  the  utmost  attainment  of  Science  in  ending  fire  peril.  It  is  rated 
"light-weight  safe"  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories.  Yet  it's  unlike  any 
heavy  iron  safe;  size  for  size,  it  has  twice  the  capacity  of  that,  weighs  but  a 
third  as  much  and  costs  far  less.  Often  heated  white-hot,  yet  not  a  paper 
inside  of  it  scorched.  Has  laid  under  tons  of  burning  ruins  for  days,  ever 
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Originators  and  Sole  Manufacturers  of 
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Department  M 


MARIETTA,  OHIO 


INDEX 


NOTE. — On  pages  24  to  47  inclusive  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  substances, 
with  their  principal  hazards  mentioned,  as  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Ex- 
plosives of  the  American  Railway  Association;  likewise,  under  Manufacturing 
Hazards,  pages  48  to  96,  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  processes,  appliances  and 
materials;  reference  should  also  be  made  to  these,  as  the  index  below  does 
not  include  all  of  the  articles  mentioned. 


Acetylene    apparatus 


PAGE 

185,     747 


Acids: 

See  alphabetical  list  under  Defi- 
nitions, pages  24  to  47  inclusive, 
and  page  78. 

Alcohol 26,  132 

Ammonium     nitrate    mixtures .  .  22 

Areas — allowable   floor    303 

Arches 256,  257,  321 

Asbestos 279 

Brake    linings     283 

Cellular    insulations     283 

Ebonized    wood    286 

Filled    insulations    283 

Furnace   linings    286 

Lumber 285 

Plaster 287 

Roofing   material    284 

Shingles 285 

Use    in     filters 283 

Yarn    and   cloth 282 

Ash    cans     225 

Automatic     sprinklers: 

General   information    543 

Location    of    544 

Spacing    of     545 

Pipe    sizes    550 

Feed    mains    and    risers 551 

Valves    and    fittings 553 

Alarm    system     558 

Dry    pipe     560 

Report  on    (see   Appendix)  .  . .  750 

Water    supply     for 563 

Steamer    connection    565 

Miscellaneous    rules    566 

High    degree     567 

Tests 567 


Underground     pipes     and    fit- 
tings   57i 

Bake  ovens    97 

Bale    openers    79 

Banana    ripeners    79 

Bark    mills     79 

Basins,    catch    81 

Batch    warmers     79 

Beams: 

Built    up    231 

Wcoden 307,    442,  450 

Keinforced   concrete    331 

Binding 79 

Benzine 80 

Bleachers,    grain    105 

Bleaching 80 

Blower   systems    204 

Board    scrapings    80 

Boilers 51,  98 

Box1    cornices    230 

Brake     linings,     asbestos 283 

Branding 80 

Brass     furnaces     99 

Brick    arches     321 

Brickwork,    effect    of   heat   on..  241 

Buffing 80 

Buffing    wheels     ±02 

Buildings: 

Comparative    cost    and    value 

261,  267 

Cost    of    concrete 185 

Frame 295,   302,   347,   348,  349 

Non   fireproof    295,  319 

Building  blocks    304 

Defined 304 

Test    requirements 305 

Built    up    beams 231 

Bunsen    burners     .  80 


759 


76o 


INDEX 


Bureau  of  Explosives  of  the 
American  Railway  Association 
— general  information  issued 

by 19 

Calciners. 53 

Candles 80 

Candling    eggs     83 

Candy    furnaces     102 

Carbon    disulphide     133 

Carbon  tetra  chloride  extin- 
guishers   522 

Carriers    of    oxygen 216 

Cast    iron    columns,     failure    of  255 

Cast  iron  pipe,  cost  of  laying.  .  576 

Catch    basins     81 

Cellular     insulation,     asbestos.  .  283 

Celluloid 31,  81 

See    also    Pyroxylin   plastic 

Chemical 81 

See      also      alphabetic?!      list, 
pages   25    to   47   inclusive 

Common    names    of 47 

Chemical  fire  and  explosion  risk  215 

Chemical     extinguishers     521 

In      connection      with     stand- 

pipes 523 

For      tanks      holding     inflam- 
mable    liquids     525 

Carbon  tetra  chloride  extin- 
guishers   522 

Chimneys:          .             )    •  j       ,  :    * 

Construction    of 340 

Lining    of    340 

Mortar    for    340 

Wooden        beams        separated 

from 312 

Chimneys    and    flues 229 

Chlorate    mixtures 22 

Cinder    concrete    construction..  339 

Classification   of   buildings: 

By    construction     295 

By    occupancy    296 

Clay   pipe,   national  standard...  668 

Cleaning    substitutes     130 

Coal    gas    producers 191 

Coffee    roasters     103 

Columns — construction    of    rein- 
forced  concrete    332 

Failure    of   cast    iron 255 

Combustion 238 

Comparative    cost    and   value    of 

buildings 261,  267 

Composite     construction     357 


Concrete    blocks,    effect    of    heat 

on 242 

Concrete    buildings,    cost    of...  267 

Concrete    construction    cinder..  339 

Concrete,  effect  of  fire  on 245 

Concrete    reservoirs     649 

Concrete    tanks     660 

Construction    of    chimneys 340 

Cinder    concrete     339 

Composite 357 

Converters,    Bessemer     50 

Cookers 74 

Core    ovens     104 

Cornices 313 

Box 230 

Corn   shellers    104 

Cost     and     value     of    buildings, 

comparative 261,  267 

Cost    of    concrete    buildings....  267 

Crematories 54 

Cupolas 53,  104 

Cyclone    dust   collectors 104 

Dangerous     combinations     217 

Defective    construction     228 

Foundations 228 

Definitions,    in    National    Board 

Building    Code     293 

Depreciation     of     Buildings....  258 

Digesters     75 

Dipping 83 

Dip    tanks    157 

Discharge   through   circular   out- 
lets   674 

Discharge    from    smooth    nozzles 

700,  70 i 

Doors,     elevator     401 

See   also   fire    doors 

Doors,    rolling   steel    fire 396 

Sheet    metal    sliding    fire....  395 

Solid    steel    fire 389 

Doors,    metal    clad 402,  404 

Drainage,    floor    361 

Driers : 

See     alphabetical     list,     pages 
62   to    74 

Drip   pans    104 

Dry    cleaning    155 

Dry   rooms : 

See     alphabetical     list,     pages 
62    to    74 

Dry     rot     231 

Dumbwaiters     and     other    small 

shafts 316 

Dust    collectors,     Cyclone 104 


INDEX 


76! 


PAGE 

Dust    hazard     83 

Dynamite -  20 

Ebonized    wood    286 

Egg    candling     83 

Egress: 

See    Fire    Protection   for   Peo- 
ple   in    Buildings 

Electrical    hazard     83 

Electricity no 

Electro  plating  and  typing 84 

Elevator    doors: 

Rolling    steel     . 401 

Counterbalanced 401 

Elevators,  grain    88 

Embossers 84 

Enclosures  to  vertical  communi- 
cations, protection  to  openings  398 

Enclosure: 

Stair,     elevator    and    belt     in 

mill    construction     352 

Enclosure    walls : 

Tor   shafts   in   fireproof   build- 
ings   315 

For    shafts    in    non    fireproof 

buildings 317 

For     stairway     and     elevator 

shafts    in    frame    buildings.  348 

Engines 84 

Gasoline 160 

Gas 159 

Oil,  kerosene  or  fuel..,, 161 

Erwin     foam     extinguisher 525 

Equivalent     value     of    pipe     ca- 
pacities   579 

Etching 85 

Ethereal   oils    134 

Ethers 133 

Explosives 85 

Explosives 19 

See  also  alphabetical  list  un- 
der Definitions,  pages  24 
to  47  .inclusive,  and  under 
Manufacturing  Hazards, 
pages  78  to  96. 
Explosives: 

Storage  and  handling 211 

Forbidden    explosives    211 

Exposed    structural    metal 231 

Extinguishers,     chemical     521, 

522,    523,  525 

Failure    of   cast    iron   columns.  .  255 

Felt,    paper 284 

Finishing.    .    .    85 


PAGE 

Fire  alarm  systems 483,     498 

See    also    Signalling    Systems 
Fire    doors: 

See  also  Tin  Clad  Fire 
Doors,  Solid  Steel  Fire 
Doors,  Sheet  Metal  Fire 
Doors,  Rolling  Steel  Fire 
Doors,  Hollow  Metal  Fire 
Doors,  Elevator  Doors, 
Metal  Clad  (Class  B) 
Doors 

Fire    Doors,    suitability    of    slid- 
ing       376 

Swinging 377 

Vertical 377 

Rolling    Steel    377 

Normally    closed     377 

Automatic 377 

Fire,    effects    of    on    concrete.  .      245 
Fire    escapes: 

See  Fire  Protection  for  Peo- 
ple in  Buildings 

Fire    extinguishing    agents 518 

Fire   flow  tests 672 

Fire    pails     519,     521 

Fireplaces,    construction    of....      343 

Fireproof   construction : 

Allowable    floor    areas    in....  303 

General    requirements    for....  320 

Limits   of   height   of 302 

When    required     296 

Fireproof    floors    between    steel 

beams.    .    .    358 

Firej. roofing: 

Miscellaneous    provisions     .  .  .  324 
Of    metal   structural   members 

in    fireproof    buildings 322 

Of   metal    structural    members 

in   non  fireproof  buildings..  325 

Reinforced    concrete    for 338 

Fireproofing    of    structural    steel  251 
Fire    Protection    for    People    in 

Buildings: 

Stairs 463 

Doors    and    passageways 464 

Existing     fire     escapes 464 

Means     of    egress 465 

National  Board  Building  Code 

requirements 465,  474 

Smoke    proof    towers 469 

Objection    to    outside    stairs.  473 

Rotary 598 

Steam    duplex     600 


762 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Fire    Pumps : 

Standard    sizes    of 600 

Centrifugal 60 1 

Installation   of    605 

Driving    connections     609 

Tests     for     acceptance.  .  .610,  676 

Electric   drive   and  control...  613 

Fire    service    mains 571,  572 

Fire    stopping: 

Around   chimneys    312 

For    furred    walls    and    parti- 
tions   318 

For    pipe    shafts,     ducts    and 

chases 319 

For    sliding    doors,    wainscot- 
ing and  stairs 318 

In     frame     buildings 348 

Fire    stream    tables 6.87 

Fire  systems,  high  pressure. 5 13,  517 

Fire   walls: 

In    fireproof    buildings 297 

In  non-fireproof  buildings   .  .  297 

Protection    of   openings    in...  297 
Protection     of     openings     in, 
when    used    for    emergency 

exit 299 

Fire    windows,    general 411 

Construction 412 

Types 412 

Inspection    of     417 

Flash    point     136 

Floor     and     roof     construction,, 

fireproofing 321 

Floor    drainage     361 

Floors,    loads    allowable 317 

Floors,    mill    construction 353 

Flow    tests    on    water    systems.  .  671 

Forges 50,   53,  6<> 

Forge,    oil      burning     rivet     or 

portable.    .    .     172 

Foundations,    defective     228 

Frame    buildings     347 

Cellar    ceilings    in 349 

Defined 295 

Fire     stopping    in 348 

Foundations    for    347 

Height 302 

Walls    and    partitions    in 348 

Friction  loss  in  hose    699,  724 

Fuel     oil     systems 86 

Furnaces : 

See      alphabetical     list     pages 
A.8    to    61 


PAGE 

Furnaces 230 

Brass 99 

Candy 102 

Converter    type     102 

Soft  metal    104 

Furnace     linings,     asbestos...  286 

Garages 146 

Gas    engines    159 

Gas     producers     54 

Gas    purifiers     87 

Gas  stoves 87 

Gas    shut-off    valves 193 

Gas    stack,     retorts 54 

Gases  and  vapors 181 

Gases : 

Compressed 23 

See     alphabetical     list     under 
Definitions,    24-47 

Gases: 

Explosive    temperatures    181 

Limits    of    explosibility 181 

Ventilation     for     182 

Containers 183 

Gasoline 130 

Gasoline    engines    160 

Gasometers 87 

Glory    holes     56 

Grain     bleachers     105 

Grain    dust,    explosibility    of...  198 

Grain     elevators     88 

Gravity    and    pressure    tanks...  618 

Care    of    636 

Steel     towers     for 636 

Wooden    tanks    .' 618 

Steel    tanks     631 

Pressure    tanks     643 

On    buildings    648 

Concrete    tanks     660 

Gravity     of     liquids     table 740, 

/                                      741,  743 

Gypsum 270 

Effect    of    fire    on 271 

Hand    pumps     521 

Hazard  of  electric  lamps 192 

Hazardous     materials     and     pro- 
cesses        24-47,    48-96 

Hearths.    .    .    . 56 

Heat 236 

Heaters 50,    60,  63 

Heaters,    soldering   iron 109 

Heating,     furnaces    and    boilers  343 

Heating    systems,    with    blowers,  204 


INDEX 


763 


Height    of    buildings,    affecting 

construction 396 

High   pressure   fire   systems: 

Desirability    of     513 

Requirements   of    517 

Hints    to    the    insured 13 

Holes,    glory     56 

Hollow   metal   fire  doors 397 

Class     B     400 

Class    C    404 

Hollow    spaces    230 

Hose    houses: 

Construction 661 

Equipment 665 

Rack    for    washing    hose 668 

Hot  air  pipes  and  registers....  344 

Hot     water     pipes 346 

Houses,    hose    66 1 

Inflammable    liquids: 

Classification  of  inflammable 

liquids 136 

Storage  of  Class  I  and  II 
near  exits,  etc 137 

Two  exits  required  in  stores 
and  jobber's  plants 137 

Handling  limited  in  buildings 
occupied  by  families 137 

Storage  limited  in  frame  and 
other  buildings  137 

Requirements  for  special 

storage  rooms  138 

Restrictions  to  storage  of 

Class  II  liquids 138 

Exposed  window  must  have 

wired  glass  138 

Restriction  as  to  new  manu- 
facturing plants  138 

Restriction  as  to  existing 
manufacturing  plants  ....  138 

Manufacturing  plants  pro- 
hibited in  buildings  occu- 
pied as  dwelling 138 

Restrictions  as  to  kettles, 
vats,  etc 138 

Ventilation    required     138 

Extinguishers     required     ....      139 

Storage  of  barrels  and  drums 

limited 139 

Drums  and  barrels  must  be 
kept  closed  139 

Smoking    prohibited     139 

Lighting  shall  be  by  elec- 
tricity   139 

Requirements  for  wheel-tanks.      139 


Drawing        prohibited        near 

open  light,  etc 139 

Storage  must  be  outside 

buildings 139 

Underground  storage  limited  139 
Above  ground  outside  tanks 

limited 141 

Requirements  for  above 

ground  tanks  142 

Above  ground  tanks  labeled.  142 

Thickness  of  tanks 142 

Special  material  permitted  for 

tanks 143 

Construction  of  tanks 143 

Foundation  of  tanks 143 

Stationary  tanks  in  buildings  144 
Xo  connections  to  drains...  144 

Vent  pipe  144 

Valves  in  drawing-off  pipes.  144 
Valve  near  tank  if  above 

ground 144 

Valve  required  at  pump....  144 
Piping  must  drain  to  tank 

where  underground  144 

Requirements  for  piping.  .  .  .  144 

Leaky  piping  145 

Pipes  for  Class  I  and  II  in 

rooms        containing        open 

lights 145 

Filling  pipe  145 

Deliveries  to  storage  tanks.  145 

Pumps  required  145 

No  gravity  feed  permitted..  145 
Pumps  for  engines  and  fuel 

equipments 145 

Containers  painted  distinctive 

colors 145 

Inflammable  liquids  23 

See  also  under  Definitions, 

pages    24    to    47    inclusive, 

arranged   alphabetically 

Inflammable  liquids: 

General 129 

Properties  of,  as  classified  by 
the  Underwriters  Labora- 
tories   129 

Storage,  hazard  of  as  viewed 
from  insurance  stand- 
point   135 

Storage    from     the     insurance 

viewpoint 135 

Classification    of     136 

Storage    tanks     139 

Storage    in    buildings 137 


;64 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Storage    and    handling    rooms  138 

Manufacturing    plants    138 

Underground    storage     140 

Above    ground    tanks 141 

Thickness    of   tank   material..  142 
Piping     and     other     appurten- 
ances   144 

Inspections    by    fire    departments  737 

Inspection    reports     728 

Standard     form     734 

Insulation,    cellular    asbestos...  283 

Magnesia 283 

Interior    columns,    protection    of  323 

Interior  fire  alarm  service 483 

Iron  and  steel,  effect  of  heat  on  243 

Japan    ovens    66,  105 

Kettles: 

See  alphabetical  list,  74  to  78. 
Kettles: 

Rendering 108 

Kilns 57 

Also    alphabetical    list,    pages 
62   to   74. 

Lacquering  stoves    135 

Lamps,    hazard    of   electric 192 

Laundries.    .    .    195 

Leers 57 

Light    and    vent    shafts 317 

Lightning,   protection  against...  112 

Linings,     asbestos    brake 283 

Lining    of    chimneys 340 

Linings,    asbestos    furnace 286 

Lintels.    373 

Liquids: 

See   Inflammable   Liquids: 

Loads,     live,     defined 304 

Lockers    for    oily    clothing 92 

Lumber,  asbestos    285 

Magazines    for    explosives 212 

Magnesia    insulation     283 

Mains    for    fire    service: 

Size    required     571 

Rules     for    laying 572 

See    also    Water    Pipe 

Manufacturing    hazards    48-96 

Matches 38,  39,  90 

Metal    clad    doors : 

Swing  type 402 

Class   C   for  partitions 404 

Metal    shutters     408 

Mills,     bark     79 

Mill   or   slow    burning  construc- 
tion   350 

Foundations    and    walls 350 

Limits  of  height  and  area. .  .  302 


Mill  construction: 

Floors 

Timbers    and    columns 

Caps 

Fire    walls     

Window  and  door  arches... 

Mortar  for  chimneys 

Motion  piqture  theatres,  booths 

and  machines 

National  Building  Code  defini- 


tions. 


PAGS 

353 

354 

355 
352 
352 
340 

124 
293 


National   Board   of   Fire   Under- 
writers: 

Functions 

Regulations,     list     of 

Suggested     ordinances     issued 

by.    .    .     

National    Fire    Protection    Asso- 
ciation  

National    standard,    clay    pipe.  . 


4 
668 


Nitro-cellulose: 

See    Pyroxylin    Plastic 
Nitro-cellulose     and     nitro-starch 

explosives 21 

Nitroglycerine 20 

Non-fireproof   buildings: 

Classified '. 295 

.When   used    for   business   and 

residence 319 

Nozzles,   discharge   from  smooth 

700,     701 
Nozzle    or    engine    pressure.  .  .702-724 

With   hose   lines    698-723 

Method    of    calculating.  .  .696,     697 

Oil: 

See  Inflammable  Liquids 

Oils.    91 

Oil  burning  equipments 162 

Compressed    air    delivery.  .  .163-174 

For    household    use 175 

Railway  Fire  Protection  As- 
sociation report  164-174 

Oil    conveyors    or    carriers 175 

Oil    equipments: 

Receivers,  accumulators, 
standpipes  and  auxiliary- 
tanks 161,  164 

Oil    engines,    kerosene    or    fuel.  161 

Oils,    ethereal     134 

Oil   lighting  systems 179 

Oil    separator    147 

Open    air    or    light   shafts 433 

Openers,    bale     79 


INDEX 


765 


Openings    for   belts 377 

Openings     for    shafting 377 

Ordinary    lumber    construction.      309 

Ovens: 

See     alphabetical     list,     pages 
48    to    61 

Ovens,     bake     

Ovens,    core     

Ovens,    Japan     

Ovens,    patent    leather   enamel.  . 

Oxygen,     carriers     of 

Pails,    fire     519,. 

Painting 

Pans,    drip     

Vacuum 

Paper    felt     

Parapet    walls,    on    exterior    or 

party     walls     

Parker    building    fire 


Partitions: 

In    non-fireproof   buildings. .  .  . 

In    fireproof    buildings 

Protection  to  openings  in.. 
Patent  leather  enamel  ovens.  . 
Penetration  of  heat  in  earth .  . 

Pent    houses    

Picric  acid  and  picrates 22, 

Pickers 96, 

Pipe  capacities,  equivalent  value 

of 

Pipe,  cost  of  laying  cast  iron.  . 
Pipes: 

Hot    air    

Water. 

Steam 

Stove 

Pitching     apparatus     

Plaster,    asbestos    

Plaster    partitions: 

Effect    of    fire    on 

Plaster     of     Paris 

Pot  arches   

Powder : 

Black.    .    . '  

Smokeless 

Pressing  irons   and  heaters 

Pressure    tanks     

Diagram    of    pressure 

Table    of    height    of    water    in 

cylindrical    tanks    

Prism    glass   as    a    fire    retardant 

Producers,    gas     

Protection    of   belt   drives... 


97 
104 
105 

69 
216 
521 

9i 
104 

78 
284 

299 
253 

326 
325 
403 

69 
140 
432 

78 
1  06 

579 
576 

344 
346 
230 
229 
58 
287 


271 

270 

58 

19 

20 

107 
643 
645 

647 
422 

54 
433 


PAGE 

Protection,    of    metal    structural 

members    from   corrosion...  309 
Of  metal  structural  members, 

fireproofing 322 

Of    wall    openings 313 

Of    vertical    openings 315 

Protection    of    openings: 

In      enclosures      to      vertical 

communications. 

In    corridor    and    room    parti- 
tions  

In    exterior    walls,    severe    ex- 
posure  

In     exterior    walls,     moderate 

exposure 

Pumps,    fire,    see    fire    pumps... 

Pumps,    hand    

Purifiers,     gas     


Pyroxylin    plastic : 

General 

Storage    of    film.  . .  . 
Handling    of    films. 

Ranges 


•59- 


Ranges : 

Coal 

Gas 

Ranges  and  stoves 

Rer.ch  of  fire  streams 

Refiners,  banana  

Refuse  burners  

Registers,  hot  air 

Reinforced  concrete  288, 

Reinforced  concrete  327, 

Beams 

Columns    for   girderless   floors 

Design 

Floors,  systems  approved  on 
design 

For   fireproofing    

Forms  construction  and  re- 
moval of  

Materials.    .    .    

Reinforcement,  requirements 
for.  .  

Walls 

Workmanship  requirements 

for 

Rendering  kettles  

Retorts 

Retorts,  gas  stack 

Risks,  chemical  fire  and  ex- 
plosion  


398 
403 
404 

410 
598 
521 
87 

117 

121 
I23 

107 


107 
1 08 

344 
698 
79 
59 
344 
331 
338 
331 
334 
329 

339 
338 

337 
327 

335 
333 

336 

1 08 

59 

54 

215 


766 


INDEX 


Rivet    or    portable    forge: 

Oil    burning     

Roof    construction     

Roof    coverings: 

Underwriters   standards    

Roofing    material,    asbestos 

Roofs,     mill     construction 

Rolling    steel    fire    doors 

Rolling    steel    shutters 

Roofs   and   roof   structures 

Safety    cans: 

Construction    of     

Scrapings,    board     

Scuppers,    for   floor   drainage .  .  . 

Scuttles 

Semi-mill    construction     

Separator    oil    

Sheet    metal    sliding    fire    doors 

Shelters,    corn     

Shingles,     asbestos     

Shaving  vaults 

Shutters: 

Tin    clad    

Steel    or    sheet    metal 

Rolling    steel     

Signalling  systems   

Wiring,    all    systems 

Energy,  '  all    systems 

Central    stations 

Manual    fire    alarm 

Automatic     fire     alarm 

Thermostats 485, 

Journal    alarm     

Time    recording    

Sprinkler  alarm    .  .  .  .494,  .559, 

Supervisory    systems     

Supervision   details    

Local    systems     

Supplementary    to    fire    drills. 
Skylights 

Monitor 

Sawtooth 

Ventilating 

For     stairs,     elevators,     light, 
etc 

Theatre    stage     

Protection     of     

Slow   burning   or   mill    construc- 
tion  302, 

Smoke    houses  • 

Soldering    iron    heaters 

Solid   steel   fire    door: 
General.    . 


172 
321 

362 
284 
354 
396 
410 
312 

177 
80 
361 
433 
356 
I47 
395 
104 
285 
94 

405 
408 
410 
483 
487 
488 
489 
490 
490 
490 
492 
493 
563 
494 
495 
497 
498 
423 
425 
425 
426 

427 
427 
429 

350 

7i 

109 

389 


PAGE 

Sliding    type     390 

Swinging   type    394 

Spontaneous    combustion     219 

Sprinklers,  automatic 543 

Sprinklers: 

See    Automatic    Sprinklers 

Open 568 

Cornice,     side    wall    or    ridge 

pole.    .    .'    571 

Illustrations  of  old  types 582 

Illustrations        of        approved 

types 596 

Stacks : 

Iron.    103 

Stalls 60 

Standard    forms    of    inspections  734 

'Standpipes 530 

Water    supply     for 531 

For    private    protection 532 

For    fire    department    use....  533 

Special  standpipes    534 

Fire       connection       for      city 

mains 535 

Steam    boilers,    flues    for 341 

Steam    pipe    230,  346 

Steel 291 

Steel    shutters     408,  410 

Steel    tanks    on    trestles 631 

Dimensions    for  standard   size  635 

Care    of    636 

Steel    towers    for    tanks 636 

Stills 60 

Stock    conveyors,     blower 207 

Stone    work     229 

Effect    of    heat    on 240 

Storage     and     handling    of    ex- 
plosives   211 

Stoves 60,  61,  109 

Installation    in   laundries 196 

Gas 87 

Laquering 135 

Stoves,    busheling    53 

Stove    pipes     229 

See    Stacks,    Iron- 
Stoves    and    ranges,    regulations 

for.    344 

Smoke    pipes     for 340 

Structural    metal    exposed 231 

Structural  steel,  fireproofing  of.  231 
Stucco    on    metal    lath,    specifi- 
cations   for    274 

Tables,  fire  stream 687 

of    gravity    of    liquids 740, 

741,  743 


INDEX 


767 


PAGE 

Tanks,    concrete     660 

Dip iS7 

Pressure 643 

On     steel     trestles 631 

Gravity    and    pressure 618 

Taps    and    services: 

Loss   of   head   through 577 

Temperatures 237 

Terra  cotta,  effect  of  heat  on .  .  242 

Terra  cotta,   for  fireproofing 243 

Tests 672 

Fire    flow     677 

Of    fire     pumps 614 

Of  steam   fire  engines 6783 

Of  automobile  fire  engines...  685 
Test  of,  effect  of  fire  on  build- 
ing  material    247 

Theatres,    motion    picture 124 

Tin    clad   fire    doors: 

Class    B .  .  400 

General 3?8 

Sliding    type     379 

Swinging   type    385 

Vertical    type     388 

Tin    clad    fire    shutters 405 

Tenter     frames     73 

Torches,    welding     173 

Underwriters     Laboratories     ...  6 

Fire    appliances    listed    by.  ...  10 
Gas,       oil,       mechanical       and 
chemical     appliances     listed 

by ii 

Vacuum   pans    78 

Value     and    cost      of      building, 

comparative 261,  267 

Valves,     gas     shut-off 193 

Valve    pits     659 

Vapors,    gases    and 181 

Varnishes 134 

Varnishing 95 

Vaults: 

Class     A      458 

Class    B    460 

Class    C    461 

Vaults: 

For  refuse   209 

Shaving 94 

Ventilating     systems     204 

For    cooking   appliances 206 

Ventilation: 

For    gases    182 

Ventilators 432 


PAGE 

Vertical    communications: 

Protection  to  openings  in  en- 
closures   398 

Vertical    openings: 

Elevator,    stairway    and    belt.      232 

Walls : 

Curtain,  height  and  thickness 
of 

Fire 

Furred    construction    of 

Hollow 

Hollow    block    

Panel,  for  skeleton  construc- 
tion  

Parapet    or    party 

Protection  of  openings  in.  3 13, 

Recesses    and    chases    in ..... 

Reinforced   concrete    

.Thickness  for  brick  walls .  . 
298, 

Walls,  enclosure 3,  5,  317, 

Wall  frames  for  fire  doors.... 


Wall    openings: 

Protection     to     

Warmers,  Batch    

Waste    cans     

Watchman's    time    recording   ap- 
paratus  

Water    pipe: 

See    Mains    for    Fire    Service 

Friction  loss  in  pipe  and  fit- 
tings  575, 

Weights     of     

Cost  of  laying 

Water  pressure  in  feet  reduced 

to  pounds  

Weight  of  materials 

Welding    torches: 

Portable    oil    burning 

Wheels,     buffing     

Whitewash 

Windows,    fire     ......411,    412, 

Wire    gauges     

Wired    glass    windows 

Wire,     properties     of 

Wood,     fire    resisting 

Woodwork: 

Hazard    of    varnished 

Protection    with    sheet    metal. 
Wooden   beam's    309, 

Bearing    of    ends    of 

Safe  loads  for 


297 
297 
302 
302 
301 

297 
299 
.367 
302 
332 

302 
348 
373 

367 

79 

224 


577 
58o 
576 

745 
305 


173 

IO2 
240 
417 

744 
245 
503 
239 

232 
232 
441 
309 
307 


768 


INDEX 


Separated        from        masonry 

chimneys 312 

Separation    in    walls 309 

Tables    for    calculating 450 

Wooden   beams    307,    442,     45^0 

Wooden    tanks    618 

618 
618 
618 
618 
621 

621 
622 
623 
624 


Material 

Hoops.   . 

Lugs.    .    . 

Dimensions 
sizes.    .    . 

for        standard 

Roof  

Hatch.    .    .    . 

Supports.    .    . 

PACE. 

Discharge  pipe    624 

Filling    pipe    624 

Drain 625 

Expansion    joint     625 

Heating 626 

Frost-proofing    of    piping 627 

Gauge 628 

Ladders 629 

Care    of    636 

Working    stresses,    for    building 

blocks 304 

For  cast  iron  columns 307 

For    steel    columns 307 

For    structural    materials 306 

For    wooden    columns 307, 

442,  456 

Yarns    and    cloth,    asbestos 282 


INDEX   TO   ADVERTISEMENTS 


Agents'    and    Inspectors'    Pocket 

Book  of  Fire  Protection 775 

American  District  Telegraph  Co.  512 

Asbestos  Textile   Co 776 

Childs  Co.,   O.   J 773 

Cook,  A.  D 775 

Empire  Rubber  &  Tire  Co 776 

Fire  Appliances 771 

Gabler,  Inc.,  F.   M 771 

Gamewell    Fire    Alarm    &    Tele- 
graph Co 769 

Gutta  Percha  and  Rubber  Mfg. 

Co.,  The, 778 

Hersey  Mfg.  Co 772 

Kennedy    Valve    Manufacturing 

Co 778 


Miller  Chemical  Engine  Co....  771 

Mississippi  Wire  Glass  Co..opp.  410 

New  England  Tank  &  Tower  Co.  774 
Publications,  The  Spectator 

Company 777 

Quincy  Elevator  Gate  Co 771 

Ramcke  &  Son,  John 775 

Relc  Extinguisher  Corp.  of 

America  777 

Safe-Cabinet  Company,  The.  .  .  .  758 

Safety  Fire  Extinguisher  Co.  .  .  774 

Tippett  &  Wood 776 

Wood  &  Co.,  R.  D 773 

York  Manufacturing  Co....*...  770 


ADDENDUM 

ROOFINGS. — The  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  since  the  date  of 
printing  the  major  part  of  this  book,  have  reclassified  the  grading 
of  Roof  Coverings  as  given  herein  on  page  362.  As  now  classified 
there  are  three  classes,  A,  B  and  C;  roughly.  Class  A  includes  former 
Classes  A  and  B  ;  Class  B  includes  former  Classes  C  and  D,  and 
Class  C  includes  former  Classes  E  and  F. 


Page  v,   CONTENTS. 
of  149. 


. ERRATUM 
Dry   Cleaning   folio   should  be    155   instead 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION  769 

To    Utilize    Instantly   the    Fire    Fighting 
Facilities  of  Municipal  Fire  Departments 

THE   GAMEWELL 
AUXILIARY  FIRE  ALARM  SERVICE 


Extends  the  Public  Fire  Alarm  Service  into  Interiors 

of  Mercantile  and  Manufacturing  Premises,  and  into  Hotels, 
Theatres,  Hospitals,  Educational,  Charitable  and  Penal 
Institutions,  and  is  thereby  one  of  the  Most  Important 
Modern  Agencies  for  Saving  Life  and  Property  from  Loss 
by  Fire.  It  has  been  established  for  more  than  Fifteen 
Years,  and  is  now  installed  in  more  than  Six  Thousand 
Establishments,  in  many  important  cities. 

The  United  States  Government  has  adopted  this  Serv- 
ice for  many  of  its  buildings,  including  the  White  House 
at  Washington,  and  has  installations  at  Colon  for  the 
Panama  Canal. 

Insurance  Approval.  The  Gamewell  Auxiliary  was  ap- 
proved by  the  Chicago  Laboratories  for  the  "Western 
Union"  in  1901  and  rate  allowances  for  its  use  are  made 
by  the  New  York,  Philadelphia,  New  England,  Middle 
Department,  Pacific  and  other  Boards  of  Underwriters. 
It  is  installed  in  many  Factories  insured  by  the  Manu- 
facturers Mutuals,  and  in  hundreds  of  "Sprinklered  Risks,  " 
and  Modern  Fireproof  Office  Buildings. 

It  is  absolutely  the  Only  Interior  Fire  Alarm  Service 

which  connects  with  Public  Fire  Alarm  Systems,  directly, 
instantly  and  without  repetition,  and  calls  out  the  Full 
Department  Force  which  responds  to  Public  Box  Alarms. 

Its  short  and  easily  protected  circuits  and  its  simplicity 
of  mechanism  and  methods  of  operation  cause  it  to  be  in- 
comparably the  most  prompt,  positive,  accurate  and  re- 
liable Interior  Fire  Alarm  Service  now  in  use. 

FOR  FULL  INFORMATION   ADDRESS 

THE  GAMEWELL 
Auxiliary  Fire  Alarm   Company 

5708  GRAND  CENTRAL  TERMINAL,  NEW  YORK 


770  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


YORK  REFRIGERATING 
APPARATUS 

has  behind  it  years  of  practical  experience  in  this 
one  specialty. 

If  you  would  participate  in  the  benefits  of  this 
experience,  consult  us  freely  as  to  your  require- 
ments. There  is  no  charge  for  YORK  CON- 
SULTING SERVICE. 

Our  facilities  are  complete  in  every  detail.  Our 
Organization  is  such  that  we  can  successfully 
execute  any  order  for  Refrigerating  or  Ice  Making 
Machinery,  no  matter  how  large  or  how  small. 

If  you  want  QUALITY  and  SERVICE,  send 
your  inquiries  to 

YORK  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

(Ice-Making  aud  Refrigerating  Machinery  exclusively) 

YORK,  PA. 

BRANCHES  IN  ALL  PRINCIPAL  CITIES 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


771 


THE  MILLER 


FIRE   EXTINGUISHER 

Capacity  2S   Gallon. 


Can  be  tested  any  time 
without  the  loss  of  liquid,  the 
solution  being  discharged  back 
into  the  shell  through  the  filler. 


Sole  Manufacturers 

MILLER 
STANDARD 

SODA  AND  ACID 
FIRE  EXTINGUISHERS 

Approved  By  The 

National  Fire  Protective 

Association 

MILLER 

WAREHOUSE 

CHEMICAL  TRUCK 

18     and     25     Gallon     Capacity 

Easily  Wheeled  or  Carried 

MILLER 

CHEMICAL  ENGINES 

45  to  60  Gallon  Capacity 

Adapted  For  Use  In 

Warehouses,  Yards. 

Small  City  Departments,  Etc. 

MILLER  CHEMICAL 
ENGINE  CO. 

Builders  General  Fire  Appliances 
CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 


Quincy  Elevator 
Gate  Company 


SAFETY  GATES- 
STEEL  and  WOOD 
—full  and  semi- 
automatic— for 
freight  elevators  :: 

Fire  Doors— AH  Kinds 


Installations  made  to  meet 
requirements     of    state 

labor  laws  and 
underwriters'  specifications 


29  BROADWAY 
NEW  YORK 


TELEPHONE  SPRING  9340 

F.  M.  GABLER, 

INC. 

FIRE   PROTECTION  AND 
FIRE  INSURANCE  WORK 


MAUFACTURERS 
AND  ERECTORS  OP 
FIRE  PROOF  DOORS 


118-Leroy  Street 

NEW  YORK 


772  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

APPROVAL 

HERSEY 
DETECTOR  METER 


THE  Hersey  Detector  Meter  has 
been  accepted  for  eleven  years 
in  3",  4',  6",  8",  10"  and  12';  sizes 
without  any  restrictions  or  conditions 
of  any  kind  by  every  Insurance  Com- 
pany, Stock  and  Mutual,  doing  busi- 
ness in  the  United  States,  and  by 
the  Water  Departments  and  Water 
Companies  in  more  than  500  Cities 
and  Towns  for  use  on  over  3000 
Fire  Services  protecting  nearly 
$2,000,000,000  worth  of  Insured 
Property. 


HERSEY  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

BOSTON  COLUMBUS,  O.               SAN  FRANCISCO 

NEW  YORK  PHILADELPHIA                    LOS  ANGELES 

CHICAGO  •         ATLANTA                   PORTLAND,  ORE. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION  773 

CHEMICAL  APPARATUS 

"UTICA  HOLLOWAY"  and  "UTICA  CHAMPION" 
Copper  Tanks 

HOSE  REELS  OR  BASKETS  AND  FULL 
EQUIPMENT  FOR  FIRE  APPARATUS 

Hand  Extinguishers  for  Every  Purpose 


Village  Chemicals  with  Copper  Tanks  same  as 
used  on  City  Fire  Department  Apparatus 

WRITE  FOR  OUR  NEW  CATALOGUE  No.  10 

O.  J.  CHILDS  CO. 

Manufacturers  Fire  Apparatus 
UTICA,  N.  Y. 


R.  D.  WOOD  &  CO. 

ENGINEERS  IRON  FOUNDERS 

MACHINISTS 

400  Chestnut  Street  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


Mathews'   Single   and   Double  Valve 

Fire  Hydrants 

Gate   Valves,  Valve    Indicator   Posts 

Manufacturers  of  All  Kinds  and  Sizes  of 

CAST     IRON    PIPES 


774  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

SAFETY  FIRE   BUCKET   TANK 
SAFETY    FIRE   EXTINGUISHER 

UNDERWRITERS'  FIRE  HOSE 

Unlined  Linen,  Cotton  Rubber  Lined.     Hose  Racks,  Hose 

Carts,  Hose  Pipes,  Hose  Valves,  Chemical  Fire  Engines, 

Fire  Axes,  Fire  Hooks,  Packing  Bins,  Fire  Pails, 

Gasoline  Cans,   Skylight  Work,   Signs,    Exit, 

No   Smoking,    Etc.      Ash   and    Sweeping 

Cans,  Watchman's  Clocks,  Gongs. 


Estimates  on  all  Fire  Protection  Work  Made  by  Oar  Experts 

The  Safety  Fire  Extinguisher  Company 

291-293  Seventh  Ave.,  Between  26th  and  27th  Streets 
NEW  YORK 


WATER  TANKS     J 
STEEL  TANK  TOWERS 

Elevated  Tanks  for  fire  protection  in- 
stalled anywhere.  Also  pumping  and 
storage  plants  for  factory  and  domestic 
supply.  Ask  for  estimate. 

Mercury  Column  Water  Gauge 

may  be  located  at  any  point  in  the 
factory  or  pumping  station  and  shows 
correctly  the  depth  of  water  in  tank. 

New  England  Tank  &  Tower  Company 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


775 


Water  Supply 

From  Deep  Wells 

is  obtained  at  a  minimum 
cost  by  use  of  our  deep 
well  pumps. 

Write  for  Bulletin  26 
explaining  the  use  of 
Cook's  Patent  Brass  Tube 
Well  Strainer. 

A.  D.  COOK 

Lawrenceburg,  Indiana,  U.  S.  A. 

Manutacturers   of  a  complete 

line  of 
DEEP  WELL  SUPPLIES 

including  Steam,  Belt  and 

Motor  Driven 
DEEP  WELL  PUMPS 

Wind-Mill  and  Hand  Pumps, 

Working  Barrels  and  Valves, 

Pump   Rods   and  Pump   Rod 

Joints,   Drill    Rods   and   Drill 

Rod  Joints,  Drilling  and  Well 

Tools. 

Catalogue  Mailed  Upon  Request 


Telephone  Wabash  531 

JOHN  RAMCKE 
&SON 

BUILDERS 


Appraising  Fire  Losses 
a  Specialty 


1801   Insurance  Exchange 

175  W.  Jackson  Blvd. 
CHICAGO 


AGENTS'  AND   INSPECTORS* 

POCKET  BOOK  OF  FIRE  PROTECTION 

By  GEORGE  VELTEN   STEEB 
ASSOCIATE  MEMBER  NATIONAL  FIRE  PROTECTION  ASSOCIATION. 

MEMBER  PHILADELPHIA  ALUMNI,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY. 
Author  of  "Fire  Insurance  Agents'  and  Surveyors'  Pocketbook  of    Information" 

and  "Special  Agents'  and  Adjusters'  Handbook." 

An  up-to-date  and  comprehensive  work  which  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  Special 
Agent,  I  nspector  and  Local  Agent.  An  idea  of  the  broad  scope  of  this  work  may  be 
obtained  by  a  glance  at  the  chapter  titles  given  below,  although  this  list  gives  no  intimation  of 
the  numerous  details  presented  in  the  book. 

Other  Fire  Appliances. 

Oils,  Varnishes,  Benzine,  etc. 

Oily  Waste  and  Other  Spontaneously 

Combustible  Material. 
Waste  and  Rubbish. 
Special  Information. 


XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 


V. 

VI. 


I.    Construction. 

II.    Special  Construction  and  Notes. 
III.    Fire  Doors  and  Shutters 
IV.    Heating. 

Lighting.  XIV. 

Electric  Light  and  Power  Installa-  XV. 

tion.  XVI. 

VII.    Sprinkler  Equipment. 

VIII.    Fire  Pumps.  XVII. 

IX.    Fire  Pumps  and  Notes. 
X.    Reservoirs  and   Other   Sources   of      XVIII. 

Water  Supply  for  Fire  Pumps. 

There  is  a  copious  Index  which  will  enable  the  reader  to  locate  quickly  any  particular  item 
of  information. 
Prices  of  the  AGENTS'  AND  INSPECTORS'  POCKET-BOOK  or  FIRE  PROTECTION  (Bound  in 

Red  Russia  Leather): 

Per  copy,          -      -  $2.50          25   Copies,       -----      $48.00 

12  Copies,       -----     $24.00          50  Copies,       -----      $90.00 

100   Copies,          -  $150.03 

TUB    SPECTATOR    OOIVIPAIVY 


Watchman  and  Watchman's   Time 

Recording  Apparatus. 
Miscellaneous     Information      and 

Tables. 
Hazards. 


Chicago  Office;   Insurance  Exchange 


135    William   Street,   New   York 


776  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 


Asbestos    Textile    Company 

EVERYTHING  IN  ASBESTOS 

Fibre  Packing                           Brake  Lining 

Yarn  Gaskets                          Gloves 

Cloth  Sheet                              Leggins 

Tape  Theatre  Curtains         Aprons 

Woolworth  Building  New  York  City 


Water  Towers,  Stand  Pipes  and  Tanks 

For  Fire  Protection  and  Domestic 
Service 

Send  for  Catalogue 
TIPPETT  &  WOOD,     Phillipsburg,  N.  J. 


Empire  Fire  Hose 

has  twice  stood  1000  Ibs.  pressure 
in  New  York  Fire  Department's 
tests  I  without  bursting— October 
19,  1913,  and  November  4,  1915. 

Last  test  length  picked  at  random 
from  delivery  of  30,000  feet 

Empire  Double  Jacket  Fire  Hose 

WRITE  US  ABOUT  IT 

Empire  Rubber  &  Tire  Co. 

TRENTON,  N.  J. 


FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION  777 


"RELC"  STATIONARY  CHEMICAL  ENGINE 

Chemical  Streams  from  Interior 
Standpipes 

The  "Relc"  Chemical  Engine  connected  to  interior  stand- 
pipe  and  hose  systems,  employing  small  piping,  with  the 
customary  number  of  outlets  on  each  floor  of  a  building 
furnishes  an  effective  defense  against  fires  that  cannot  be 
extinguished  with  portable  apparatus. 
It  has  been  used  successfully  to  supply  Automatic  Sprink- 
ler Systems  in  the  more  hazardous  parts  of  buildings, 
where  fires  cannot  ordinarily  be  controlled  by  water  alone. 
The  principle  of  the  "RELC"  Chemical  Engine  has  been 
endorsed  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories,  Inc.,  Chicago, 
111.,  and  reductions  have  been  made  in  fire  insurance  rates 
for  this  protection  where  application  for  credits  have  been 
made  to  the  proper  rating  organization. 

Relc  Extinguisher  Corporation  of  America 

120  Broadway,    -     -     NEW  YORK 
Empire  Building,  ATLANTA,  GA. 


THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  AND  IMPORTERS  OF 

INSURANCE  WORKS 


PUBLISHERS  OF  AND  SELLING  AGENTS  FOR  THE  FOLLOWING    IMPORTANT 
FIRE  AND   MARINE  PUBLICATIONS: 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  INSURANCE.—  In  four  volumes,  dealing 
with  all  branches  of  the  subjects  indicated  by  the  title,  including  fire  losses;  fireproof  con- 
struction; building  code;  combustion;  underwriters'  regulations;  fire  protection;  reports; 
inspection;  hazards;  underwriting;  ratings;  policy;  law;  and  adjusting.  Completely  indexed. 
Price,  for  the  set,  bound  in  half  morocco,  with  heavy  buckram  sides,  $17,  delivered. 

FIRE  INSURANCE  AND  HOW  TO  BUILD.—  By  the  late  F.  C.  Moore.    Price,  $5.00. 

GRINNELL'S  ESTIMATOR  AND  BUILDERS'  POCKET  COMPANION—  A  book  of 
especial  value  to  fire  insurance  adjusters.  Price,  per  copy,  81.00. 

HALL  ON  INSURANCE  ADJUSTMENTS.—  By  Thrasher  Hall.  Second  edition.  1916. 
Revised  and  enlarged.  A  practical  guide  for  ad  justers  of  fire  losses.  Price,  per  copy,  $3.50. 

INSURANCE  YEAR  BOOK',  THE.—  Issued  July  of  each  year.  Dealing  with  insurance 
companies  throughout  the  world.  Price  of  each  volume:  Life,  Casualty  and  Miscellaneous 
Insurance,  S7.00;  Fire  and  Marine  Insurance  (including  "Fire  Departments  and  Water  SUD- 
ply"),  $7.00;  both  volumes  when  ordered  together,  $12.00. 

SPECIAL  AGENTS'  AND  ADJUSTERS'  HANDBOOK.—  By  George  Velten  Steeb.  A 
standard  reference  work  for  fire  insurance  field  men,  containing  much  data  relating  to  special 
hazards,  adjustment  rules,  tables  of  weights  and  measurements,  depreciation,  costs,  etc. 
Price,  per  copy,  bound  in  flexible  leather,  §1.50. 

SPECTATOR,  THE—  An  American  Review  of  Insurance;  published  weekly.      Price,  $4.00 

POT  flrwUIDt 

ALSO  NUMEROUS  OTHER  STANDARD  INSURANCE  WORKS 
A  Catalogue  of  Insurance  Publications  will  be  forwarded  on  receipt  of  six  cents  in  postage  stamps. 


THE    SPECTATOR 

Chicago  Office:  Insurance  Exchange  135  William  Street,  New  York 


778  FIRE  PREVENTION  AND  PROTECTION 

Indicator,  Devices  and  Valves 

FOR 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Systems 

Indicator  shows  automatically  whether 
valve  is  open  or  shut 

"NEWTYPE"  HYDRANTS 
for  Mill  Yards 

All  Acceptable  to  Insurance  Inspection  Bureaus 

The  Kennedy  Valve  Manufacturing  Co. 

Works  and  Main  Office : 
ELMIRA,  N.  Y. 

81  John  Street  Western  Union  Building 

New  York  Chicago 


The  Gutta  Percha  &  Rubber  Mfg.  Co. 

Manufacturers  of 

FIRE  HOSE 

Sole  Proprietors  of 

The  Old  Reliable  Maltese  Cross  Brand 

(A  Four  Ply  RUBBER  Fire  Hose) 

The  BAKER  FABRIC  Brand 

(5,  4  and  3  Ply  Solid  Multiple  Woven  COTTON  Fire  Hose) 

and  Double  and  Single  Jacket  Fire  Hose  of  all  Kinds 

Obtain  our  prices  before  purchasing 
ESTABLISHED  1855 

Executive  Office:  126-128  Duane  Street,  New  York 

Branch  Offices : 

301  West  Randolph  St.,  Chicago,  111.          71  Pearl  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 
34  Fremont  St.,  San  Francisco,  Gal. 


HI 


THIS  BOOK  is  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  PINE  OP  25  CENTS 

™!i"  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 

SEVENTH     DAY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


